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CAPE Unit 1 Lipids and Sugars Summary
CAPE Unit 1 Lipids and Sugars Summary
are esters of fatty acids and alcohols, formed by condensation their insolubil ity in water.
reactions.
Water-repellent properties: oily secretions of the ,.,b,1('['(II" 1'1,111<1, hrlp tn w.ucrproof the iur ,111d skin. TIlE' 1"('l'l1 gl,)I,d (If bird, prncilllC5 ,1s~'uelioll which performs ,1 ,ill,il,)I' fllll( liol1 <)11 iho iE',lIh'r5.
II HO/C-lB:y?~oQ~~@
o 0 I II H-C-O-C---t!vO~O~CH) H-C-O-C~
I I
~ .
-- - -
II
H GLVCEROL
0 3FATIVACIOS
3H,0
H-C-O-C~ I II
H 0 TRIGL VCERIOE
Since the hydrocarbon chains are long (19 C in arachidonic acid) most of the weight of the triglyceride is fatty acid.
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Cell membranes: I'hn<phnlipid5 (phosphatides) <lIT'found in .111 n'll memhranes. These molecules have ,1polar l,ho'l'h;1IP-h,I<(" woup substituted ior one of the fatty acids iu ,1trigkcrricil'. This part of the molecule
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Waterproofing: the waxy cuticle of insects and plants reduces water losses by evaporation since water cannot cross the insoluble lipid layer. Waxes are esters of higher fatty acids with long chain alcohols (i.e. 1101 with glycerol).
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ORGANIC' BASE
PHOSPH"T~-
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Storage: high energy yield per unit mass and insolubility in water make fats and oils ideal energy storage compounds, particularly where dispersal or locomotion requires mass to he kept to <Iminimum, <IS in some seeds and fruits.
~lectriCal insulation: mvolin is secreted by Sr hwann cells ,llld ill<lIl,II('< somo [)('UI'IlIlf'S ill S\I( h ;'I W;'Iy Ih;'ll impulse [ 11,1I1Smis5ion m,ld~' 1I1uch more rapid. i5
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,D
D-
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t>J\SIC STEROID NUCLEUS
Hormones: an important group of hormones, including cortisone, testosterone and oestrogen, Me steroids. Steroids are not true esters hut have the same solubility properties .15them .
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-PhYSiCal protection: the shock-abvorhing ahilitv of <uh, ul.1I11:'0u< <;Iorp<protects delicate (lrgan5 such .15thE' 1',11 k.idlle\'5 Irom mechanical damago.
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Thermal insulation: f;'lts conduct heat very poorly <uhcutaneous iat stores help heat retention in endothermic .mimal. lnrompressible blubber is <In important insulator in diving mammals.
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Nutrition: both bile acids and vitamin 0 (involved in fat digestion and Ca2+ absorption respectively) are manufactured from steroids.
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Glucose is the most common substrate for respiration (energy release). Fructose is a constituent of nectar and sweetens fruits to attract animals and aid seed dispersal.
disaccharides
monosaccharide
S,
Ul
0-
This most usually occurs between aldehyde or keto group (i.e, the reducing group) of one monosaccharide and an hydroxyl group of another monosaccharide, e.g. lactose
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OJ ....
0-
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o zr
QJ co
Ul
Glucose and fructose are both monosaccharides (single sugar units) with the typical formula CnH2"0,,. They each
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have six carbon atoms and are thus called hexoses tpentoses have S carbon atoms and trioses have ]). Glucose and fructose are isomers of C(,H 120r,'
CH,OH
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Oligosaccharides are short (often 6t ~ units) condensation products which combine with protein (glycoprotein) or lipid igivcolipid: and form the outer cnal I.g/Icocal\"\! of animal cells. They .ire important in cell-cell recognition .ind the imlllune response.
C~H'OH
CH,oH
H
aGLUCOSE H OH
H
(lFRUCTOSE
or, more rarely, between reducing groups of odiecent monosaccharides, e.g. sucrose
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Reducing groups are joined
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co,
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Ru8P CALVIN CYCLE 'FIXES' TRIOSE SUGAR
Other important roles are in the electron carriers NAD, FAD and NADP and as the 'energy currency'.
Sucrose (glucose-fructose) is the main transport compound in plants. Commonly extracted from sugar cane and sugar beet and used as a sweetener. Lactose (glucose-galactose) is the carbohydrate source for suckling mammals - milk is "bout S'X, lactose. Maltose igtucose-giucose; germinating seeds.
ATP
co,
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~"CHAINOF ~ NUCLEOTIDES
LJ-1~~~=o
ADENINE
DNA).
is a respiratory substrate in
Starch
1.4
~olVsacehaMdes
.u c: uolvm=rs
Starch i5 a mixture of two polymers of a-glucose: amylose tvpirallv contains about 300 glucose units joined hy a 1.4
Polysaccharides
formed by glycosidic subunits
glvcosidic bonds
Cellulose is a polymer of glucose linked by fJ 1.4 glycosidic bonds. The fJ-conformation inverts successive monosaccharide units so that a straight chain polymer is formed.
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o l hc hulk" -CH/)H ~idE' chains cause the molecule to adopt helical shape (excellent for packing many subunits into a limned space).
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by
hydrogen bonds.
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-, <, H
-,
\ \ I
/
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-, <,
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Amylose helix (6 glucose units in each lurn)
OH \ \ I I I
H I'H CH,OH O'H CH'i
I
I
\ \
\ \ I~ I /
/ /
I I \ \
\ "/l-GLUCOSE <,
Amylopectin is a branched chain, containing up to 1500 glucose subunits, in which a 1,4 chains are cross-linked by a 1,6 glycosidic bonds.
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<,
<,
OH
a-GLUCOSE
I-I I I
H
/
./
...... ---1---
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"0
V
,H ,
OH H H OH OH H
CH,o~H
I I I I I I
I I I I I
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This cross-linking prevents access by water, so that cellulose is very resistant to hydrolysis and is therefore an excellent structural molecule (cellulose cell walls): ideal in plants which can readily synthesize excess carbohydrate.
CH, CH,
I I
I I I I
CH,OH
<" (fJ
III
lJ
o
H OH H OH H OH
Glycogen is an a-glucose polymer, very similar to amylopectin but with very many more cross-links and shorter a 1.4 chains. This is appropriate to animal cells which may need to hydrolyse food reserves more rapidly than plant cells would do.
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O=C O=C
Chitin
is another fJ
o o
III
tr
..,
CO
(fJ
0.:
Because there are so few 'ends' within the starch molecule there <Ire iE'\\' points to begin hydrolysis by the enzyme smvlese. Starch is therefore an excellent long-term storage
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I
vCH'O~ H 0 OH H H H O=C NH H 0 ~H N:H OH H H 0 CH,OH 0"
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V
H OH H H H N-
CH'O~ ~H 0 H
N:H OH H H 0 CH,OH
I I
I I
C~
O=C
compound.
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