ELECTRONICS HAND OUT FOR ETO 19

Prepared by Sudha karan EMTI Bahir dar

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1. What do you understand by Electron current & Conventional Current ?
The electron current is the flow of negative charges or electrons through
a conductor. The conventional current is the flow of positive charges or
holes through a conductive medium. ... The conventional current flows
from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative terminal.

2. Differentiate semiconductors, conductors and insulators on the basis of

band gap?

The distinction between conductors, insulators and semiconductors is

largely concerned with the relative width of the forbidden energy gaps in
their energy band structures. There is a wide forbidden gap (more than
5eV) for insulators, narrow forbidden gap (about 1eV) in case of
semiconductors and no forbidden gap in case of conductors.

3. Differentiate between intrinsic semiconductors and intrinsic

semiconductors?

An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor

material in its extremely pure form.

When a small amount of impurity is added to a pure semiconductor

crystal during the crystal growth in order to increase its conductivity, the
resulting crystal is called extrinsic semiconductor.

4. Describe the difference between P-type and N-type semiconductor

materials.

When a small amount of trivalent impurity (such as boron, gallium,

indium or aluminium) is added to a pure semiconductor crystal during
crystal growth, the resulting crystal is called a P-type semiconductor.

When a small amount of pentavalent impurity (such as arsenic,

antimony, bismuth or phosphrous) is added to a pure semiconductor
crystal during crystal growth, the resulting crystal is called the N-type
semiconductor.

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 5. What is biasing of a diode ?
Biasing is the process of applying potential difference to the
semiconductor. Biasing is achieved by applying EMF across the P-N
junction diode.Biasing can be of two types –Forward biasing,Reverse
biasing

Forward Baising : When the N-Type material is negative w.r.t. the P-Type, the
diode is said to be forward-biased and electrons flows easily from N to P. A
fwd-biased diode conducts well as long as the voltage is at least equal to the
fwd break over (barrier) voltage,

Reverse Baising : When the polarity is changed , the diode is reverse-biased.

The electrons in the N-type material and the holes in the P-type practically
disappear in the vicinity of the junction. This impeded conduction and the
resulting depletion region behaves as a dielectric or electrical insulator. The P-
N junction in a reverse-biased diode prevents the flow of electricity.

6 .Draw the VI Characteristics of a diode ?

The supply voltage V is a regulated power supply, the diode is forward biased
in the circuit shown. The resistor R is a current limiting resistor. The voltage
across the diode is measured with the help of voltmeter and the current is
recorded using an ammeter.

By varying the supply voltage different Sets of voltage and currents are
obtained. By plotting these values on a graph, the forward characteristics can
be obtained. It can be noted from the graph the current remains zero till the
diode voltage attains the barrier potential.

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 For silicon diode, the barrier potential is 0.7 V and for Germanium diode, it is
0.3 V. The barrier potential is also called as knee voltage or cut-in voltage.

The reverse characteristics can be obtained by reverse biasing the diode. It can
be noted that at a particular reverse voltage, the reverse current increases
rapidly. This voltage is called breakdown Voltage.

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

Peak inverse voltage PIV is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to
the PN Junction with out damaging the junction.

7 . What is Diffusion current ?

When a p-n junction is being formed, holes diffuse from the p-side to the n-
side (p→n) while electrons diffuse from the n-side to the p-side (n→p). This
happens due to the concentration gradient across p and n sides. This gives rise
to a diffusion current across the junction.

8. What is Barrier Potential?

In the state of equilibrium, there is no current in a p-n junction. A difference of

potential develops across the junction of the two regions due to the loss of
electrons by the n-region and the subsequent gain by the p-region. The
polarity of the potential opposes the further flow of carriers to maintain the
state of equilibrium. This is the Barrier Potential.

9 . What is AVALANCHE EFFECT ?

If a diode is reverse-biased and the voltage is increased without limit, a point

will be reached at which the P-N junction will suddenly begin to conduct. It’s
insulating properties will be overcome and electrons will flow in large
quantities. This is known as Avalanche effect. The minimum voltage at which
this occurs is called the Avalanche point and varies among different kinds of
diodes. Avalanche point is considerably greater than and is of opposite polarity
from, the forward break over (barrier) voltage.

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10 . What are Applications of Diode ?

 Rectifiers

 Clipper Circuits

 Clamping Circuits

 Reverse Current Protection Circuits

 In Logic Gates

 Voltage Multipliers

11 Sketch and explain working of Half wave rectifier ?

 A rectifier is a circuit which converts the Alternating Current(AC)

input power into a Direct Current(DC) output power. The input
power supply may be either a singlephase or a multi-phase supply
with the simplest of all the rectifier circuits being that of the Half Wave
Rectifier. The power diode in a half wave rectifier circuit passes just one
half of each complete sine wave of the AC supply inorder to convert it
into a DC supply. Then this type of circuit is called a "half-wave" rectifier
because it passes only half of the incoming AC power supply.

12. Sketch and explain working of Full wave rectifier ?

This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes
connected ina closed loop "bridge" configuration to produce the desired

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output. The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a
special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost.

The four diodes labelled D1to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only
two diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half
cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4
are Reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below

13. List Various parameters of Rectifiers?

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14. Explain working of “PYE” FILTER ?

It consists of one inductor and two capacitor connected across its each end.
The three components are arranged in shape of Greek letter Pi. It is also called
capacitor input Pi filter. The input capacitor C1 is selected to offer very low
reactance to the repel frequency hence major parts of filtering is done by C1.
Most of the remaining repels are removed by the combining action of L and C2.
This circuit gives much better filter then LC filter. However C1 is still directly
connected across the supply and would need high pulse of current if load
current is large. This filter is used for the low current equipment’s.

15. Sketch and explain application of diode in brushless alternator ?

6 Rotating diodes are used for conversion. If one of the six should fail, either by
openor short-circuiting, harmonic currents flow in the main field circuit. These
harmonics are reflected into the field circuit of the main exciter and are
detected by a diode failure relay tuned to respond to the principal harmonic
frequency; the alarm (or trip) signal from this relay is time-delayed by 10 or 15
seconds to prevent false operation. A diode failure would have no detectable
effect, on the generator’s output voltage. The reduced d.c. output from the
diode bridge with one diode faulty would lower the main field’s d.c. current
slightly, and with it the main generator’s output voltage. This would be
immediately detected by the AVR, which would increase the excitation until
the voltage was restored, and the consumer would not be aware of it.
However, the remaining healthy diodes might then be somewhat overloaded,
and the situation should be corrected

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16.

17.

18. the diodes are assumed to be ideal. Find : (i) d.c. output voltage (ii) peak
inverse voltage (iii) output frequency. Assume primary to secondary turns to
be 4.

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  19. In this circuit, we use a LED with a voltage drop of about 2V. We
found that the resistor should have a value of 350 Ohm. The circuit is
powered by a 9V battery.

 How much power will dissipate in the resistor?

20 Draw and explain working diodes ( Brushless Generator)

How to Check the diode Good ?

What is the effect of Short circuit or Open circuit of Diode ?

21. Sketch and Explain working and Application of Zener Diodes ?

Zener diodes are used to stabilize or regulate the voltage source against

load or supply variations as it provides constant voltage in the reverse bias
even though input voltage is varying after the breakdown. A regulator is
used to provide constant output voltage to the load connected in parallel
with the regulator. Zener diode is used in regulators to produce regulated
DC voltage under varying load current conditions. By passing small current
through the zener diode from the input source, via current limiting resistor
Rs, zener allows sufficient current to maintain the voltage drop.

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A zener barrier is a simple device where the voltage & current (Power, Energy)
is limited into the hazardous area. The voltage is limited/clamped by a zener
diode and the current limited by an output resistor. The fuse is there to
protect the zener diode. The key to safety is the Intrinsically safe earth.

22. Draw the VI Characteristics of Zener diode ?

It is heavily doped. Its breakdown voltage is small compared to normal diode.

Zener operates in reverse bias and forward bias like diode. It reaches the
breakdown voltage the reverse bias current increased. The breakdown voltage
is called zener voltage and current is called zener current. Increasing the
reverse bias voltage the reverse current is increased but not zener voltage. This
operation can be used as voltage regulator circuits. Zener diode must be
connected in reverse bias in circuits.

23. For the circuit shown in Fig.1 (i), find : (i) the output voltage (ii) the
voltage drop across series resistance (iii) the current through zener diode.

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24. For the circuit shown in Fig. 2 (i),find the maximum and minimum values
of zener diode current.

25. Briefly explain various special diodes and application ?

Avalanche Diodes – conduct in reverse direction when the reverse bias exceeds
the breakdown voltage.

Constant current Diodes – Allow a current through them to rise to a certain

value and then level off at a specific value.

Gunn Diodes – similar to Tunnel Diodes, made of GaAs or InP that exhibit a
region of negative differential resistance. With appropriate biasing can build
High Frequency Oscillators

Laser Diodes – commonly used in optical storage devices and for high speed
optical communication. Peltier Diodes – used as heat sensors

PIN Diodes – have a central un-doped (intrinsic) layer – used as R.F. switches
and attenuators – can withstand high voltages

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26. What is ripple factor ? Explain

27. What is Constant current Diode ?

A constant-current diode, also known as a current-limiting diode, or

currentregulating diode, does exactly what its name implies: it regulates
current through it to some maximum level. The constant current diode is a two
terminal version of a JFET. If we try to force more current through a constant-
current diode than its current-regulation point, it simply “fights back” by
dropping more voltage. If we were to build the circuit in Figure below(a) and
plot diode current against diode voltage, we'd get a graph that rises at first and
then levels off at the current regulation point as in Figure below(b). Constant
current diode: (a) Test circuit, (b) current vs voltage characteristic.

28. A voltage of V = 141.4 sin 314.2t is applied across a 50Ω resistance.

Calculate: i) RMS value ii) Supply frequency

v = EmaxSinωt = 141.4sin314.2t

 i) Erms = Emax = 141 = 100V

√2 √2
 ii) f = ω = 314.2 = 50 Hz
2π 2π

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29. What is Negative Resistance Devices?
As forward voltage increases, the current increases rapidly and it increases
until a peak point, called as Peak Current, denoted by IP. The voltage at this
point is called as Peak Voltage, denoted by VP. This point is indicated by A in
the above graph. The point A is called Peak Point.
If the voltage is further increased beyond VP, then the current starts
decreasing. It decreases until a point, called as Valley Current, denoted by IV.
The voltage at this point is called as Valley Voltage, denoted by VV. This point is
indicated by B in the above graph. The point B is called Valley Point. Hence the
region between point A and point B indicates the Negative resistance region.
Once the valley point is reached and if the voltage is further increased, then
the current starts increasing.

30. What is Transferred Electron Devices ?

A Gunn diode is a semiconductor device formed by only N-type material. It is
also termed as a transferred electron device. As in n-type material, electrons
acts as majority carriers and these are transferred from one valley to another.
It is a two terminal device basically made up of semiconductor material
like GaAs, InP etc. As these materials exhibit the property of producing
microwave oscillations.

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31. What is GUN Effect ?
In semiconductor materials like GaAs, the electrons are present in high mass
low-velocity state and low mass but a high-velocity state. By the application of
sufficient electric field, these low mass high-velocity state electrons are forced
towards the high mass state.
At this particular state, electrons form a cluster and thus moves at a uniform
rate. Thus causing a flow of current in the form of a series of pulses.
This is termed as Gunn effect and is utilized by Gunn diodes.

32. Explain working of GUNN Diode?

In the case of Gunn diode, as the applied DC bias increases, the current begins
to increase at the initial stage, which continues till the threshold voltage. After
this, the current continues to fall as the voltage increases until the breakdown
voltage is reached. This region which spans from the peak to the valley point, is
called the negative resistance region .This property of the Gunn diode along
with its timing properties cause it to behave as an oscillator provided an
optimum value of current flows through it . This results in the generation of
sustained oscillations till the DC bias is present while preventing the growth of
oscillations.

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33. What is Electronic Tunneling ?
Electron tunnelling of quantum tunnelling is a quantum effect where charge
carriers or electrons easily move through a junction due to its very small
depletion region. An electron must acquire a certain potential higher than the
in-built potential of the barrier to pass through it. Since the depletion region in
the tunnel diode is largely reduced in nanometres thanks to heavy doping
concentration, the electrons can punch through the junction even if the
voltage is lower than the barrier potential. This effect is called electron
tunnelling & the diode is called the tunnel diode.

30 . Sketch and explain working Voltage controlled Oscillator using varactor

diode ?
In an electrical system, the resonant frequency is defined as the frequency at
which the transfer function reaches its maximum value. Thus for a given input,
the maximum output can be obtained. It has been proved that the resonance is
obtained when the capacitive impedance and the inductive impedance values are
equal

A varactor diode is used in a voltage-controlled oscillator. As the voltage across

the diode varies, so does its capacitance, thus affecting the resonant frequency
of the LC circuit, and therefore the frequency at which the oscillator produces

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a signal. The fixed capacitors, whose values are large, compared with that of
the varactor, prevent the coil from short-circuiting the control voltage across
the varactor.

31. What is a Light Emitting Diode (LED)? Explain working of Colour LED ?
A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n
junction diode that emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is
applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes
within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of
the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor. The
material used in LEDs is basically aluminum-gallium-arsenide (AlGaAs)

The color the LED emits depends on the wavelength of the photons emitted
from recombination. The type of semiconductor used in the device determines
the band gap energy which is used to create photons of different wavelengths.
Therefore, the color of the LED is directly material-related. the voltage across

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the LED corresponds to the value of the band gap energy. Energy of the
emitted photon is given by

32. What is a Photodiode?

Generally, when a light is made to illuminate the PN junction, covalent bonds

are ionized. This generates hole and electron pairs. Photocurrents are
produced due to generation of electron-hole pairs. Electron hole pairs are
formed when photons of energy more than 1.1eV hits the diode. When the
photon enters the depletion region of diode, it hits the atom with high energy.
This results in release of electron from atom structure. After the electron
release, free electrons and hole are produced.

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33.Sketch and explain working Opt coupler ?

when a high voltage appears across the input side of the Optocoupler, a
current start to flow through the LED.

Due to this current LED will emit light. This emitted light when falls on
a phototransistor cause a current to flow through the same.
The current flowing through the phototransistor is directly proportional to
the supplied input voltage. An input resistance placed at the beginning of
the circuit will decrease the amount of current flowing through the LED if its
value is increased. As the LED glows due to this current, hence, when current
will be low so as the light intensity of LED.

34. What are applications of Opto couplers ?

 Opt couplers can be used as a switching device 

 Microprocessor input/output switching

 DC and AC power control

 Communications equipment protection

 Power supply regulation

The optocoupler is used to transmit analog or digital information between

circuits while maintaining electrical isolation at potentials up to 5,000 volts. An
optoisolator is used to transmit analog or digital information between circuits
where the potential difference is above 5,000 volts.

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Optocouplers overcome the problem of output and input signals interacting
when they are electrically coupled. (as in PLCs) It gives the isolation between
input and output or power and control circuit.

35. Sketch and explain working of Three Phase full wave Rectifier ?

In 3-phase power rectifiers, conduction always occurs in the most positive diode
and the corresponding most negative diode. Thus as the three phases rotate
across the rectifier terminals, conduction is passed from diode to diode.Then
each diode conducts for 120o (one-third) in each supply cycle but as it takes two
diodes to conduct in pairs, each pair of diodes will conduct for only 60o (one-
sixth) of a cycle at any one time as shown above.If we start the pattern of
conduction at 30o, this gives us a conduction pattern for the load current of: D1-
4 D1-6 D3-6 D3-2 D5-2 D5-4 and return again to D1-4 and D1-6 for the next phase
sequence as shown.

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