Chapter 1

Techniques of
Proof I:
Direct Proof
 2
DIRECT PROOF Example 1
Let x and y are integers.
Given hypothesis, p. Show that if x is odd and y is odd, then x + y is even.
Let hypothesis, p.
use definition Proof :
use theorem Let x and y are integers.
use axiom Suppose x is odd and y is odd.
use corollary Let x = 2a + 1 and y = 2b + 1 where a, b  .
use properties Then x + y = 2a + 1 + 2b + 1
Get conclusion, q. = 2a + 2b + 2
= 2 ( a + b + 1)
= 2c where c = a + b + 1  .
Hence, x + y is even.
Therefore, if x is odd and y is odd, then x + y is even.
 3
Example 2
Let x and y are integers.
Show that if x is odd and y is odd, then x + 3 y is even.
Proof :
Let x and y are integers.
Suppose x is odd and y is odd.
Let x = 2a + 1 and y = 2b + 1 where a, b  .
Then x + 3 y = 2a + 1 + 3 ( 2b + 1)
= 2a + 6b + 4
= 2 ( a + 3b + 2 )
= 2c where c = a + 3b + 2  .
Hence, x + 3 y is even.
Therefore, if x is odd and y is odd, then x + 3 y is even.
 4
Example 3
Let x and y are integers.
Show that if x is even or y is even, then xy is even.
Proof :

Let x and y are integers.

Suppose x is even.
Let x = 2a where a  .
Then xy = 2ay
= 2c where c = ay  .
Hence, xy is even.
Therefore, if x is even or y is even, then xy is even.
 Chapter 1

Techniques of
Proof I:
Contrapositive
 6
PROOF BY CONTRAPOSITIVE
Example 1
Given p  q Show that
Proof: if 7 m is an odd number, then m is an odd number.
( p  q)  ( q p) Proof :
Let hypothesis, q.
( q  p ) : If m is an even number, then 7 m is an even number.
use definition
Suppose m is an even number.
use theorem
Let m = 2a where a  .
use axiom
Then,
use corollary
7 m = 7 ( 2a )
use properties
Get conclusion, p. = 2 ( 7a )
Therefore, p  q. = 2b where b = 7 a  .
Hence, 7 m is an even number.
Therefore, if 7 m is an odd number, then m is an odd number.
 7
Example 2

Let f be an integrable function. Show that

 f ( x ) dx  0, then there exists a point x in the interval 0, 1 such that f ( x )  0.

1
if
0

Proof :
( q  p ) : If for every x in  0, 1 , f ( x ) = 0, then  f ( x ) dx = 0.
1

Let x   0, 1 and f ( x ) = 0.
Then,

 f ( x ) dx = 0
1

 f ( x ) dx = 0, then there exists a point x in the interval 0, 1

1
Therefore, if
0

 f ( x ) dx = 0.
1
such that
0
 8
Example 3 Let x be an integer. Show that if x 2 − 2 x + 7 is even, then x is odd.

Proof :
( q  p ) : If x is even, then x 2 − 2 x + 7 is odd.

Suppose x is an even number.

Let x = 2a for some integer a.
Then,
x 2 − 2 x + 7 = ( 2a ) − 2 ( 2a ) + 7
2

= 2 ( 2a 2 − 2a + 3 ) + 1
= 2b + 1 where b = 2a 2 − 2a + 3  .
Hence, x 2 − 2 x + 7 is an odd number.
Therefore, if x 2 − 2 x + 7 is even, then x is odd.
 9
Example 3
Show that if x is irrational, then x is irrational.

Proof :
( q  p ) : If x is rational, then x is rational.

Suppose x is rational.
Then,
a
x= where a, b  and b  0.
b
a2 c
x = 2 = where c = a 2 and d = b 2  0.
b d
Hence, x is rational.
Therefore, if x is irrational, then x is irrational.
 10
Example 4 Show that if x + y is irrational, then x is irrational or y is irrational.

Proof :
( q  p ) : If x is rational and y is rational, then x + y is rational.

Suppose x and y are rational numbers.

a c
Let x = and y = where a, b, c, d  , b  0 and d  0.
b d
Then,
a c ad + bc m
x+ y = + = = where m = ad + bc and n = bd  0.
b d bd n
Hence, x + y is rational.
Therefore, if x + y is irrational, then x is irrational or y is irrational.
 11

Example 5 Let f be a function given by f ( x ) = 4 x + 7. Use the contrapositive implication

to prove the statement: If x1  x2 , then f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) .
Proof :
( q  p ) : If f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) , then x1 = x2 .

Suppose f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) .
Then
4 x1 + 7 = 4 x2 + 7
4 x1 = 4 x2
x1 = x2 .
Therefore, if x1 = x2 , then 4 x1 + 7 = 4 x2 + 7.
12
 Chapter 1

Techniques of
Proof I:
Contradiction
 14
PROOF BY CONTRADICTION
Example 1
1
Given p  q Let x be a real number. Show that if x  0, then  0.
x
Proof:
1
( p  q )  (( p  q)  c) Idea : ( p q )  c: x  0 and 0c
x
Let hypothesis, p  q.
use definition Proof : Suppose x  0 and 1  0.
x
use theorem
Then,
use axiom
1
use corollary ( )    ( x )( 0 )
x
x
use properties
1 0
Get false statement, c.
Contradicting to the fact that 1  0.
Therefore, p  q.
1
Therefore, if x  0, then  0.
x
 15
Example 2 Show that if x is rational and y is irrational, then x + y is irrational.

Idea : ( p  q )  c :
Proof : x is rational and y is irrational and x + y is rational  c
Suppose x is rational and y is irrational.
Suppose x + y is rational.
a c
Let x = and x + y = where a, b, c, d  , b  0 and d  0.
b d
c
Then x + y =
d Implies that y is rational.
a c
+y= Contradicts to our assumption that y is irrational.
b d
Therefore, if x is rational and y is irrational,
c a bc − ad m
y= − = = then x + y is irrational.
d b bd n
where m = bc − ad and n = bd  0.
 16

Example 3 Prove that log 2 7 is irrational.

Idea : ( p  q )  c: log 2 7 is rational  c

Proof : Suppose log 2 7 is rational.

Then
a
log 2 7 = where a, b  and b  0.
b
a
2 =7
b

2a = 7b
which is a contradiction since 2 a is even and 7b is odd.
Therefore, log 2 7 is irrational.
 17

Example 4 Prove the following statement using contradiction method

3x + 4
If g ( x ) = , then for every real number x, g ( x )  3.
x+3

Idea : Proof :
( p q)  c Let x  such that g ( x ) = 3.
3x + 4
x   g ( x ) = 3 and g ( x ) = Then
x+3 3x + 4
g ( x) = =3
x+3
3 x + 4 = 3 ( x + 3)
3x + 4 = 3x + 9
4 = 9 which is false.
 Chapter 1

Techniques of
Proof I:
Counterexample
 19
PROOF BY
COUNTEREXAMPLE Example 1

If n is a positive integer, then n 2 + n + 17 is a prime number.

is used to
falsify a Answer :
statement
Let n = 17 . Then
n 2 + n + 17 = 17 2 +17+17=17 (17 + 1 + 1) =17 19
which is not a prime number.

Therefore,
if n is a positive integer, then n 2 + n + 17 is a prime number
is a false statement.
 20

Example 2 Example 3

Provide a counterexample: Provide a counterexample:

For every real number x, if x  9, then x  −3.
2 For every integer n, we have n3  n.

Answer : Answer :
Let x = −3 . Then Let n = −2 . Then
x = ( −3) = 9 n = ( −2 ) = −8
2 2 3 3

where x = −3  3. where − 8  −2.

Hence the given statement is false. Hence the given statement is false.
 21

Example 3 Example 4

Provide a counterexample: Provide a counterexample:

For all real numbers x  0, we have x 2  x 3 . For every positive integer n, n 2 + n + 4 is prime.

Answer : Answer :
Let x = 0.8 . Then
Let n = 2 . Then
x = ( 0.8 ) = 0.64
2 2

n 2 + n + 4 = 22 + 2 + 4 = 10
x 3 = ( 0.8 ) = 0.512
3

which is not prime.

where x 2 = 0.64  0.512 = x 3 . Hence the given statement is false.
Hence the given statement is false.
Chapter 1

Proof with
quantifiers
 23

To illustrate the process of writing a proof with quantifiers, consider the following:

Example 1 For every   0 there exists a   0 such that

1 −   x  1 +  implies that 5 −   2 x + 3  5 +  .


Solution : Proof : Given any   0, let  =  0. Then,
2
5 −   2x + 3  5 +  1−   x  1+ 
5 −  − 3  2x  5 +  − 3  
1−  x  1+
2 −   2x  2 +  2 2
  2 −   2x  2 + 
1−  x  1+
2 2 5 −  − 3  2x  5 +  − 3
 5 −   2 x + 3  5 +  as required.
Take  = .
2
 24

Example 2 For every   0 there exists a   0 such that

2 −   x  2 +  implies that 11 −   3 x + 5  11 +  .


Solution : Proof : Given any   0, let  =  0. Then,
3
2 −  x  2 +
11 −   3 x + 5  11 + 
 
11 −  − 5  3 x  11 +  − 5 2−  x  2+
3 3
6 −   3x  6 +  6 −   3x  6 + 
  6 −  + 5  3x + 5  6 +  + 5
2−  x  2+
3 3
11 −   3 x + 5  11 +  as required.

Take  = .
3
 Chapter 1

Techniques of
Proof II
 26

Example 1 Prove that if x is a real number, then x  x .

Idea : Proof :

Definition of absolute value: Let x be an arbitrary real number.

x , x  0 Then x  0 or x  0.
x =
− x , x  0 Case I: Let x  0
If x  0, then x = x .
Case II: Let x  0
If x  0, then − x  0.
So that x  0  − x = x .
Case I and case II, implies that x  x as required.
 27

Example 2 Prove that if the sum of a real number with itself is equal to its square,
then the number is 0 or 2.

Idea : Proof : Let x be an arbitrary real number.

Suppose that x + x = x 2 and x  0.
In symbols we have p  ( q  s )
Then
where
x2 = 2 x
p : x + x = x2
x2 − 2 x = 0
q:x =0
x ( x − 2) = 0
s:x = 2
x = 0 or x − 2 = 0
To do the proof, we show that ( p  )q  s x = 2.
since  p  ( q  s )   ( p  ) q  s  Since x  0, hence x = 2 as required.
 Chapter 1

The Principle of
Mathematical
Induction
 29
Recall that denotes the set of positive integers, also called the natural numbers.
= 1, 2, 3, 4, ...

There is one additional property of that we assume as an axiom.

It is based on the intuitive idea that each nonempty subset of must have a least member.

The Well-Ordering Property of

AXIOM If T is a nonempty subset of , then there exists an element m  T
such that m  k for all k  T .

In proving theorems about the natural numbers, we need a technique that does not
depend on verifying the validity one number at a time.

This is provided by the Principle of Mathematical Induction.

 30
THEOREM The Principle of Mathematical Induction

Let P ( n ) be a statement that is either true or false for each n  . Then P ( n ) is true
for all n  , provided that
(a) P (1) is true
(b) P ( k ) is true for each k 
(c) P ( k + 1) is true for each k 

In applying the Principle Verifying condition (a) is called the basis for induction.
of Mathematical
Verifying conditions (b, c) is called the induction step.
Induction, there are two
steps: The assumption that P (k) is true in verifying part (b) is known as the
induction hypothesis.
Let’s look at a couple of examples of using mathematical induction.
 31
1
Example 1 Prove that 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n ( n + 1) for every natural number n.
2
Proof :
1
Let P ( n ) : 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n ( n + 1) P ( k + 1) : 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k + ( k + 1)
2 1
= k ( k + 1) + ( k + 1)
1 2
P (1) : RHS  (1)(1 + 1) = 1
= ( k ( k + 1) + 2 ( k + 1) )
2 1
LHS  1 2
RHS = LHS 1
= ( k + 1)( k + 2 ) as required.
 P (1) is true for n = 1.
2
 P ( k + 1) is true.
1 1
P ( k ) : Assume that 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k = k ( k + 1) Therefore, 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n ( n + 1) is true
2 2
is true for every natural number k . for every natural number n.
 32
Example 2 Prove that 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + ( 2n − 1) = n 2 for every natural number n.

Proof :
Let P ( n ) : 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + ( 2n − 1) = n 2 P ( k + 1) : 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + ( 2k − 1) + ( 2 ( k + 1) − 1)
= k 2 + 2k + 1
P (1) : RHS  12 = 1 = ( k + 1) as required.
2

LHS  2 (1) − 1 = 1  P ( k + 1) is true.

RHS = LHS
Therefore, 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + ( 2n − 1) = n 2 is true
 P (1) is true for n = 1.
for every natural number n.

P ( k ) : Assume that 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + ( 2k − 1) = k 2

is true for every natural number k .
 33
n
Example 3 Prove that i =1
i 2i −1 = ( n − 1) 2n +1.

Proof :
P ( k + 1) : 1 + 4 + 12 + ... + k 2k −1 + ( k + 1) 2k +1−1
n

 i2 i −1
= 1 + 4 + 12 + + n2 n −1
= ( n − 1) 2 + 1
n

i =1
= ( k − 1) 2k + 1 + ( k + 1) 2k
Let P ( n ) : 1 + 4 + 12 + + n2 n −1 = ( n − 1) 2 n + 1
= 2k ( k − 1 + k + 1) + 1
P (1) : RHS  (1 − 1) 2 + 1 = 1
1 = 2 k ( 2k ) + 1
LHS  1 = 1 = k 2k +1 + 1 as required.
RHS = LHS  P ( k + 1) is true.
 P (1) is true for n = 1.

Therefore
P ( k ) : Assume that 1 + 4 + 12 + + k 2 k −1 = ( k − 1) 2 k + 1 n

is true for every natural number k . i =1

i 2i −1 = ( n − 1) 2n +1 is true.
 34
Example 4 Prove by induction that 7 − 4 is a multiple of 3, for all n  .
n n

Proof :
Let P ( n ) : 7 − 4 = 3a where a 
n n +
. P ( k + 1) : 7 k +1 − 4k +1
= 7 k +1 − 7  4k + 7  4k − 4k +1
= 7  7 k − 7  4k + 7  4k − 4k  4
P (1) : RHS  7 − 4 = 3 = 3 (1) where a = 1
= 7 ( 7 k − 4k ) + 4k ( 7 − 4 )
 P (1) is true for n = 1.
= 7  3b + 3  4k
P ( k ) : Assume that 7 k − 4k = 3b where b  = 3 ( 7b + 4 k )
is true for every natural number k . = 3c where c = 7b + 4k as required.
 P ( k + 1) is true.

Therefore 7 n − 4n is a multiple of 3, for all n  .