Chapter 13

Kinematics of particles
Energy and Momentum Method

Objectives

 Calculate the work done by a force and caculate

the kinetic energy of aparticle in addition to the
gravitational and elastic potential energy of a
system.
 Solve kinetics particle problems using the
principle of work and energy.
 Calculate the power and efficiency of a
mechanical system.
 Solve particle kinetic problems using
conservation of energy and solve particle kinetic
problems involving conservative central force.
 Solve particle kinetic problems using the
principle of impulse and momentum and solve
 particle kinetic problems using conservation of
linear momentum.
 Solve impact prolems using the principle of
impact and momentum and the coefficient of
restitution.

13.2 Work of a Force:

Considering a particle which moves from a point

A to another point A' as shown, then: the work of
the force F corresponding to the displacement dr
is:

dU = F. dr 13.1
Taking F and ds to be the magnitude of the force
and displacement and α the angle formed by F
and dr we have,

dU = Fds cos α 13.1'

We can also express the work dU in terms of

rectangular components as:

dU = Fxdx + Fydy + Fzdz 13.1''

The work of F during a finite displacement of the
particle from A1. to A2 is obtained by integrating
eqn. 13.1 along the path described by the particle
 𝑨𝟐
U 1 -2 = ∫𝑨𝟏 𝑭. 𝒅𝒓 13.2

𝒔𝟐 𝒔𝟐
= ∫𝒔𝟏 ( 𝑭 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶 )𝒅𝒔 = ∫𝒔𝟏 𝑭tds 13.2'
Where, Ft = F cosα
When the force F is expressed in rectangular
components eqn. 13.2' will be:
𝑨𝟐
U 1 -2 = ∫𝑨𝟏 ( Fx dx + Fydy +Fzdz) 13.2''
Work of a constant force:

When a particle moves in a straight line is acted

upon by a force F of constant magnitude and of
constant direction eqn. 13.2' will be:
U 1 - 2 = ( F cos α ) Δx 13.3
Work of a force of gravity:
The work due to the weight W of a body is:

𝒚𝟐
dU = - ∫𝒚𝟏 𝑾 dy

= Wy1 – Wy2

= - W ( y2 – y1 ) 13.4
= -WΔy 13.4'
Work of a force of a spring:

For a mass attached to a fixed point by a spring,

we have:

F = kx 13.5
dU = - F dx
= - kx dx

𝒙𝟐
U 1 – 2 = - ∫𝒙𝟏 𝒌𝒙 𝒅𝒙
= ( kx12- kx22 )/2 13.6
The work can be obtained by evaluating the
area of the trapezoid:

𝟏
U 1 -2 = - ( F1 + F2 ) ∆x 13.6'
𝟐

Note that the work of F exerted by the spring on

the body is positive when x2 < x1. i.e. when the
spring is returning to its un deformed position.
Work of gravitational force:
For the case of gravitational force, we assume
that two particles at distance r from each other,
then:

F = GMm / r2

dU = - F dr

𝒓𝟐
= - ∫𝒓𝟏 𝑮 M m/ r2 dr
 𝑮𝑴𝒎 𝑮𝑴𝒎
= - 13.7
𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟏

13.3 Kinetic Energy of a Particle …Principle of

Work and Energy:

Consider a particle of mass m acted upon by a

force F and moving along a path which is either
rectilinear or curved, then:

Ft = m a t

𝒅𝒗
= m( )
𝒅𝒕
 𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒔
= m( )( )
𝒅𝒔 𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝒗
=mv
𝒅𝒔

Ft ds = m v dv

Integrating from A1, where s = s1 and v = v1 to

A2, where s = s2 and v = v2, we have:

𝟏
∫ Ft ds = ( m v22 - mv12 ) 13.8
𝟐

𝟏
Denoting , T = m v2 13. 9
𝟐

We have from eqn. 13.8,

U 1 – 2 = T2 – T1 13. 10

That is, the work of the force F is equal to the

change in K.E. of the particle. This is known the
principle of work and energy. Rearranging eqn.
13.10, we get,

T1 + U1 - 2 = T2 13.11

13.4 Applications of the Principle of Work and

Energy:

Consider a pendulum OA consisting of a bob of

mass m attached to a cord of length Ɩ, then:

T1 + U1 - 2 = T2
 𝟏
0 + m g Ɩ - 0 = m v2
𝟐

Suppose, we want to determine the tension in

the cord as the bob passes through A2, then:

P – W = m an
= m v2 / Ɩ
Substituting for v2 = 2g Ɩ, W = m g, we get:

P = m g + m ( 2g Ɩ / Ɩ )

= 3m g
13.5 Power and Efficiency:

Power is defined as the time rate at which work

is done

If ΔU is the work done during the time interval

Δt, then the average power during this time
interval is:

Average Power = ΔU/Δt

Power = dU/dt 13.12

Substituting F. dr for dU, then:

𝒅𝑼 𝒅𝒓
Power = = F.
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

= F. v 13.13
The Efficiency η is:

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌
η =
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌

The mechanical efficiency of a machine, is always

less than 1.
13.6 Potential Energy:

Take a body of weight W which moves along a

curve A1 of elevation y1 to A2 of elevation y2.Then
the work of the force of gravity W during this
displacement is:

U 1 – 2 = W y1 – W y2 13.14
This function is called the potential energy of the
body with respect the force of gravity W and is
denoted by Vg. Therefore,

U 1 – 2 = ( Vg )1 – ( Vg )2 13.15
Vg = Wy 13.16

In case of space vehicle, the work of a

gravitational force,

𝑮𝑴𝒎 𝑮𝑴𝒎
U 1–2 = – 13.17
𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟏

𝑮𝑴𝒎
Vg =- 13.17'
𝒓

For the case of a spring , we have :

U 1 – 2 = ( Vx)1 – ( Vx )2

𝟏
Vx = kx2 13.18
𝟐
13.7 Conservative Forces:

A force F acting on a particle is said to be

conservative if its work U1 – 2 is independent of the
path. Then we have:
U 1 – 2 = V(x1, y1 , z1) –V(x2, y2 , z2 ) 13.19

= V 1 – V2
If A1 is chosen to coincide with A2, the particle
describes a closed path and we have,
V1 = V2
Then,

ʃ F. dr = 0 13.20
 dU = V ( x,y,z ) – V ( x + dx,y + dy, z + dz )
= - d V (x,y,z) 13. 21

𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽
Fxdx + Fydy +Fzdz = - ( dx+ 𝒅𝒚 + 𝒅𝒛 )
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽
Fx = - , Fy = - , Fz = - 13.22
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

F = - grad V, grad = ▼

13.8 Conservation of Energy:

When a particle moves under the action of

conservative force,

V1 -V2 = T2 - T1 13.23

T1 + V1 = T2 + V2
For the case of a pendulum we have,
T1 = 0.0 , V1 = W Ɩ = mg Ɩ
T1 + V1 = mg Ɩ
𝟏 𝟏
T2 = mv22 = m (2g Ɩ ) 13. 24
𝟐 𝟐

13.9 Motion under a Conservative Central Force

Application of Space Mechanics:

Applying the principle of conservation of angular

momentum about O between Po and P, we have:

romvo sin φo = rmv sin φ 13.25

To+ Vo = T + V

𝟏 𝑮𝑴𝒎 𝟏 𝑮𝑴𝒎
m vo2 - = m v2 - 13.26
𝟐 𝒓𝐨 𝟐 𝒓
13.10 Principle of Impulse and Momentum:

Consider a particle of mass m acted upon by a force

F, we have:
𝒅
F= ( mv ) 13.27
𝒅𝒕

Fdt = d(mv)
𝒕𝟐
∫𝒕𝟏 𝑭𝒅𝒕 = mv2 – mv1
𝒕𝟐
mv1 +∫𝒕𝟏 𝑭𝒅𝒕 = mv2 13.28
𝒕𝟐
∫𝒕𝟏 𝑭𝒅𝒕 is called the impulse, then:

𝒕𝟐
Imp1-2 = ∫𝒕𝟏 𝑭𝒅𝒕
𝒕𝟐 𝒕𝟐 𝒕𝟐
= i ∫𝒕𝟏 𝑭𝒙𝒅𝒕 + j ∫𝒕𝟏 𝑭𝒚𝒅𝒕 + k ∫𝒕𝟏 𝑭𝒛𝒅𝒕 13.29
The units of impulse is,
N.sec = ( kg.m/s2 ) s = kg.m/s
Eqn. 13.28 , will be,
mv1 + Imp1-2 = mv2 13.30
Therefore,
𝒕𝟐
( mvx )1 +∫𝒕𝟏 𝑭𝒙𝒅𝒕 = ( mvx )2 13.31a

𝒕𝟐
( mvy )1 +∫𝒕𝟏 𝑭𝒚𝒅𝒕 = ( mvy )2 13.31b

𝒕𝟐
( mvz )1 +∫𝒕𝟏 𝑭𝒛𝒅𝒕 = ( mvz )2 13.31c

When several forces act on a particle, the impulse of

each of the forces must be considered. We have,
mv1 + ∑ Imp1-2 = mv2 13.32
When several particles are involved, we have,
∑ 𝐦𝐯 1 + ∑ Imp1-2 = ∑ 𝐦𝐯 2 13.33
If the sum of external forces is zero, the previous eqn.,
will be,
∑ 𝐦𝐯 1 = ∑ 𝐦𝐯 2 13.34
Which means that the total momentum of the particle
is considered.
Considering two particles of mass mA and mB at rest
which are being pulled together, then,
∑ 𝐦𝐯 1 = ∑ 𝐦𝐯 2
0 = mAvA + mBvB
This eqn. indicated will move in opposite directions
with velocities inversely proportional to their masses.

13.11 Impulsive Motion:

When a ball is struck, the contact between the bat and

the ball takes place during a very short time interval
∆t, but the average value of the force F exerted by the
bat on the ball is very large and resulting impulse F∆t
is large enough to change the sense of motion of the ball
as in the following figure.
 mv1 + F∆t = mv2 13.35
Any force which is not an impulsive force may be
neglected .
In case of impulsive motion of several particles (
eqn.13.33 ) will be,
∑ 𝐦𝐯 1 + ∑ 𝐅∆𝐭 = ∑ 𝐦𝐯 2 13.36
13.12 Impact:
A collision between two bodies which occurs in a very
small interval of time, and during which the two bodies
exert on each other relatively large forces, is called an
impact.

13.13 Direct Central Impact:

Consider two particles when there is no impulsive

external force, then the total momentum of the two
particles is conserved and we have:
mAvA + mBvB = mAvA' + mBvB '
Since all the velocities are directed along the same axis,
we can replace the previous eqn. by an eqn. involving
scalar components as:
mAvA + mBvB = mAvA' + mBvB ' 13.37
In order to obtain vA' and vB', we consider the motion
of particle A during the period of deformation and
apply the principle of impulse and momentum and get,
 𝒕𝒐
mAvA - ∫𝟎 𝑷𝒅𝒕 = mAu 13.38
where , the integral extends over the period of
deformation
P the force exerted by B on A
Consider now the motion of A during the period of
restitution and R the force exerted by B on A during
this period, we have :
𝒕
mAu - ∫𝒕𝒐 𝑹𝒅𝒕 = mAvA' 13.39
where , the integral extends over the period of
restitution.
In general,

𝒕 𝒕𝒐
e = ∫𝒕𝒐 𝑹𝒅𝒕 / ∫𝟎 𝑷𝒅𝒕 13.40

and 0 < e < 1 which depends to a large extent on the

two materials involved.
R varies considerably with impact velocity and shape
and size of the two colliding bodies. Solving eqns. (
13.38,13.39,13.40 ), we have:
e = ( u - v A' ) / ( v A - u ) 13.41
Similar analysis of the effect of particle A on particle
B yields,
e = ( vB' - u ) / (u - vB ) 13.42
Since eqns. ( 13.41 and 13.42 ) are equal, we have:
e =( u - vA' ) / ( vA - u ) = ( vB' - u ) / (u - vB )
They are also equal to the quotient obtained by adding,
respectively, their numerators and their denumerators,
we have:
e = { ( u - vA' ) +( vB' - u ) } / {( vA - u ) +(u - vB ) }
e = ( vB' - vA' ) / (vA - vB )
= Relative vel. of Separation / Relative vel. of
Approach
Note: 3 / 6 = 7/14 = ( 3+7) /( 6 + 14 ) = 10/20 = 0.5
and,
( vB' - vA' ) = e (vA - vB ) 13.43
The particular cases are:
1. For e = 0 ( perfect plastic impact ), then v B' = vA',
there is no period of restitution and both particles
 stay together after impact, and using vB' = vA' = v' ,
eqn. 13. 37, yields,
mA vA + mB vB = ( mA + mB )v ' 13.44
2. For e = 1 ( perfect elastic impact ), eqn. 13.43 reduces
to:
( vB' - vA' ) = (vA - vB ) 13.45
Which means that the relative velocities before and
after impact are equal.
In the case of a perfectly elastic impact, the total
energy of the two particles as well as their total
momentum is conserved. Therefore, eqns. 13.37 and
13.45 yield,
mA( vA - vA' ) = mB( vB' - vB ) 13.37'
( vA + vA' ) = ( vB + vB' ) 13.45'
Multiplying eqns. eqns. 13.37' and 13.45', member by
member, we have,
mA ( vA - vA' ) ( vA + vA' ) = mB ( vB' - vB ) ( vB + vB' )
mA (vA )2 - mA (vA' )2 = mB (vB' )2 - mB (vB )2
Rearranging the terms in the previous eqn. and
𝟏
multiplying by 𝟐
, we get:
𝟏
𝟐
mA(vA )2 + 𝟏𝟐 mB(vB )2 = 𝟏𝟐 mA(vA' )2 + 𝟏𝟐 mB (vB' )2
This means that the kinetic energy is conserved.
T1 + T2 = T1' + T2'
3. However, when e ≢ 1, the total kinetic energy is
not conserved.
 Course Competency Learning Outcomes

 CLO3: The student will demonstrate the

knowledge of work and energy in kinetics by:
1. Finding work done by a force.
2. Applying the principle of conservation work
and energy.
3. Explaining the convertibility of work and
energy.
4. Evaluating power requirements.
5. Defining and evaluating efficiency.
6. Extending the principle of conservation work
and energy to systems of particles.