GEOTECHNICAL

ENGINEERING
LABORATORY
MANUAL

Unfortunately, soils are made by nature and not by man, and the products
of nature are always complex…
karl von TERZAGHI
 CONTENTS
No Name of Experiment IS Code Reference Page
1 Moisture Content IS:2720(Part-2)-1973 3
2 Specific Gravity 5
Fine Grained Soil IS:2720(Part-3/Sec1,2)-1980
Coarse Grained Soil ( Reaffirmed 1987)
Atterberg Limits 7
3 Liquid Limit IS:2720(Part-5)-1985 8
4 Plastic Limit IS:2720(Part-5)-1985 14
5 Shrinkage Limit IS:2720(Part-6)-1972 16
Field Density
6 Core Cutter Method IS:2720(Part-29)-1975 18
7 Sand Replacement Method IS:2720(Part-28)-1975 19
8 OMC & MDD By Light Compaction IS:2720(Part-7)-1980 22
9 Proctor’s Plasticity Needle Test 26
Grain Size Analysis
10 Mechanical Sieve Analysis IS:2720(Part-4)-1985 28
11 Hydrometer Analysis IS:2720(Part-4)-1985 30
12 California Bearing Ratio ( CBR) Test IS:2720(Part-16)-1979 41
Un Soaked CBR Test
Soaked CBR Test
13 North Dakota Cone Test 44
14 Direct Shear Test IS:2720(Part-13)-1986 45
15 pH Value Of Soil IS:2720(Part-26)-1987 51
Permeability Test
16 Constant Head Method IS:2720(Part-17)-1987 53
17 Variable Head Method IS:2720(Part-17)-1986 56
18 Consolidation Test IS:2720(Part-15)-1986 59
19 Unconfined Compressive Strength IS:2720(Part-10)-1973 62
20 Laboratory Vane Shear Test IS:2720(Part-30)-1980(R-1987) 66
21 Triaxial Shear Test IS:2720(Part-11)-1971(R-1978) 68
22 Free Swell Index IS:2720(Part-40)-1977 73
23 Standard Penetration Test IS:2131-1963 74
24 Relative Density or Density Index IS:2720(Part-14)-1983 76
25 Heavy Compaction Test IS:2720(Part-8)-1983 82

1
 KARL VON TERZAGHI 1883-1963
Karl Terzaghi, (born Oct. 2, 1883, Prague—died Oct. 25, 1963, Winchester, Mass., U.S.), He
studied mechanical engineering at the Technical University in Graz, graduating in 1904, then
worked as an engineer for several years; he was awarded a doctorate in engineering by the
same institution in 1911. After visiting the United States, he served in the Austrian Air Force
during World War I, but in 1916 he accepted a position with the Imperial School of Engineers,
Istanbul. When the war was over, he took a post (1918–25) with Robert College, a U.S.
institution, also in Istanbul. Much research had been done on foundations, earth pressure, and
stability of slopes, but Terzaghi set out to organize the results and, through research, to provide
unifying concepts. The results were published in his most noted
work, Erdbaumechanik (1925;Introduction to Soil Mechanics, 1943–44). In 1925 he went to the
United States, where—as a member of the faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge—he worked unceasingly for the acceptance of his ideas, serving also as consulting
engineer for many construction projects. In 1929 he accepted the newly created chair of soil
mechanics at Vienna Technical University. He returned to the United States in 1938 and served
as professor of civil engineering at Harvard University from 1946 until his retirement in 1956. His
consulting practice grew to encompass the world, including the chairmanship of the Board of
Consultants of Egypt’s Aswān High Dam project until 1959.

2
 MOISTURE CONTENT
IS: 2720 (Part 2) - 1973

Aim: To determine the moisture content (water content) of a given soil sample.
Theory and applications:
A soil is an aggregate of soil particles having a porous structure. The pores may have
water and/or air. The pores are also known as voids. If voids are fully filled with water,
The soil is called saturated soil and if voids have only air, the soil is called dry. Moisture
content is defined as the ratio of the mass/weight of water to the mass/weight of soil
solids
W = Ww / Ws
Where, W = water content
Ww = Weight/ mass of water
Ws = Weight/ mass of soil solids (mass of oven dry soil)
The mass of water used in the above expression is the mass of free pore water only.
Hence for moisture content determination the soil samples are dried to the temperature
at which only pore water is evaporated. This temperature was standardized 105 0 C to
1100 C. Soils having gypsum are dried at 600 C to 800 C.
The quantity of soil sample needed for the determination of moisture content depends
on the gradation and the maximum size of particles.

Following quantities are recommended.

Size of particles more than 90% passing Minimum quantity of soil specimen to be
taken for test, Mass in g
0.425 mm IS Sieve 25
2 mm IS Sieve 50
4.75 mm IS Sieve 200
9.5 mm IS Sieve 300
19 mm IS Sieve 500
37.5 mm IS Sieve 1000

The methods to determine moisture content in the laboratory are oven-drying,

pycnometer, infrared lamp, torsion balance moisture meter. The approximate methods
are alcohol burning method and calcium carbide method.
Applications:
Moisture content plays an important role in understanding the behavior of fine grained
soils. It is the moisture content which changes the soils from liquid state to plastic and
solid states. Its value controls the shear strength and compressibility of soils.
Compaction of soils in the field is also controlled by the quantity of water present.
Densities of soils are directly influenced by its value and are used in calculating the
Stability of slopes, bearing capacity of soils-foundation system, earth pressure behind
the retaining walls and pressure due to overburden. The knowledge of determining the
moisture content is helpful in many of the laboratory tests such as Atterberg’s limits,
shears strength compaction and consolidation.

3
OVEN DRYING METHOD
Apparatus
1. Containers
2. Balance (accuracy 0.04 percent of the weight of the soil taken for test).
3. Oven
4. Desiccators.
Procedure
1. Clean, dry and weigh the container.
2. Take the required quantity of the soil specimen in the container and weigh.
3. Maintain the temperature of the oven between 105 0 C to 1100 C for normal soils
and 600 C to 800 C for soils having loosely bound hydration water or/and Organic
matter. Dry the sample in the oven till its mass becomes constant. In normal
conditions the
4. sample is kept in the oven for not more than 24 hours. After drying remove the
container from the oven.
5. Weigh the dry soil with the container.
Precautions
1. The soil specimen should be loosely placed in the container.
2. Drier the soil, the greater shall be the quantity of soil taken.
3. Overheating should be avoided.
4. Dry soil sample should not be left in open before weighing.
5. Water content specimen should be discarded and not to be reused for any other
tests.

Observations and Calculations

The moisture content is calculated as follows:
W= Ww / Ws = [(W2-W3) / (W3-W1)] x 100 %
Where W1 = mass of container with lid
W2 = mass of container + wet soil
W3 = mass of container + dry soil

4
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
IS: 2720 (Part 3 / Sec 1) – 1980 (Reaffirmed 1987)
Fine Grained Soils
AIM: This test is done to determine the specific gravity of fine-grained soil by density
bottle. Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight in air of a given volume
of a material at a standard temperature to the weight in air of an equal volume of
distilled water at the same stated temperature.
Apparatus:
i) Two density bottles of 250ml capacity along with stoppers
ii) Constant temperature water bath (27.0 + 0.2oC)
iii) Vacuum desiccator
iv) Oven, capable of maintaining a temperature of 105 to 110 oC
v) Weighing balance, with an accuracy of 0.001g

PREPARATION OF SAMPLE
The soil sample (50g for one sample- minimum 3 samples) should if necessary be
ground to pass through a 2mm IS Sieve. The sample should be obtained by riffling and
oven-dried at a temperature of 105 to 110oC.
Procedure to Determine the Specific Gravity of Fine-Grained Soil
i) The density bottle along with the stopper, should be dried at a temperature of 105 to
110oC, cooled in the desiccator and weighed to the nearest 0.01g (W1).
ii)The sub-sample, which had been oven-dried should be transferred to the density
bottle directly from the desiccator in which it was cooled. The bottles and contents
together with the stopper should be weighed to the nearest 0.01g (W2).
iii) Cover the soil with air-free distilled water from the glass wash bottle and leave for a
period of 2 to 3hrs. for soaking. Add water to fill the bottle to about half.
iv)Entrapped air can be removed by heating the density bottle on a water bath or a sand
bath.
v) Keep the bottle without the stopper in a vacuum desiccator for about 1 to 2hrs. until
there is no further loss of air.
vi) Gently stir the soil in the density bottle with a clean glass rod, carefully wash off the
adhering particles from the rod with some drops of distilled water and see that no more
soil particles are lost.
vii) Repeat the process till no more air bubbles are observed in the soil-water mixture.
viii) Observe the constant temperature in the bottle and record.
ix) Insert the stopper in the density bottle, wipe and weigh(W 3).

5
x) Now empty the bottle, clean thoroughly and fill the density bottle with distilled water at
the same temperature. Insert the stopper in the bottle, wipe dry from the outside and
weigh (W 4 ).
xi) Take at least two such observations for the same soil.

REPORTING OF RESULTS
The specific gravity G of the soil = (W 2 – W 1) / [(W 4-1)-(W 3-W 2)]
The specific gravity should be calculated at a temperature of 27 oC and reported to the
nearest 0.01. If the room temperature is different from 27 oC, the following correction
should be done:-G’ = kG
where,G’ = Corrected specific gravity at 27oC
k = [Relative density of water at room temperature]/ Relative density of water at 27 oC.
A sample proforma for the record of the test results is given below. Relative density of
water at various temperatures is taken from table here. Relative Density Water
EXAMPLE

S Description I II III
No
1 Weight of bottle (W 1) in g 150 152 160
2 Bottle + Dry Soil (W 2) in g 200 202 210
3 Bottle + Soil + Water (W 3) in g 431.2 432.1 441
4 Bottle + Water (W 4) in g 400 401 410
5 Test Temperature in 0C 31 31 31
Calculation
A Specific Gravity 2.66 2.65 2.63
G = (W 2 – W 1) / [(W 4-W1)-(W 3-W 2)]
B Average G at 310C 2.65
C G at 270C
G
= 2.647 or say 2.65

Specific Gravity of distilled water

Temp 0C Specific Gravity Temp 0C Specific Gravity
25 0.997074 34 0.994399
26 0.996813 35 0.994059
27 0.996542 36 0.993712
28 0.996262 37 0.993357
29 0.995974 38 0.992994
30 0.995676 39 0.992623
31 0.995369 40 0.992246
32 0.995034
33 0.994731

6
 ATTERBERG LIMITS

A M ATTERBERG
Albert Mauritz Atterberg (March 19, 1846 – April 4, 1916) was aSwedish chemist and
agricultural scientist who created the Atterberg limits that are commonly referred to by
geotechnical engineers and engineering geologists today.

A fine-grained soil can exist in any of several states; which state depends on the amount of
water in the soil system. When water is added to a dry soil, each particle is covered with a film
of adsorbed water. If the addition of water is continued, the thickness of the water film on a
particle increases. Increasing the thickness of the water films permits the particles to slide past
one another more easily. The behavior of the soil, therefore, is related to the amount of water in
the system. Approximately sixty years ago, A. Atterberg defined the boundaries of four states in
terms of "limits" as follows:

 Liquid limit: The boundary between the liquid and plastic states;
 Plastic limit: The boundary between the plastic and semi-solid states;
 Shrinkage limit: The boundary between the semi-solid and solid states.

7
 LIQUID LIMIT TEST
IS: 2720 (PART 5) - 1985
MECHANICAL METHOD

ARTHUR CASAGRANDE
Arthur Casagrande was born in August 28, 1902 and educated in Austria. He immigrated to US
in 1926. There he accepted a research assistantship with the Bureau of Public Roads.

AIM: To determine the liquid limit of given soil sample by mechanical method
THEORY AND TERMINOLOGY: Liquid limit is the water content corresponding to the
boundary between liquid and plastic limit states of soil mass. At liquid limit the soil has
such low shear strength (about 1.76 kN/m2 or 17.6 g/cm2) that it flows to close a groove
of standard dimensions for a length of 12 mm when jarred 25 times using the standard
liquid limit device. The liquid limit and plastic limit of soils are both dependent on the
amount and type of clay in soil and form the basis for the soil classification system for
cohesive soils based on plasticity test.it also gives the cohesion property of soil and the
amount of capillary water which it can hold.
Consistency Index(IC): Ratio of the liquid limit minus the natural water content to the
plasticity index of the soil.
Flow Index(If): The slope of the flow curve obtained from a liquid limit test ,expressed
as a difference in water content at 10 blows and 100 blows.
Liquidity Index (or water plasticity ratio)(IL): The ratio expressed as a percentage of
natural water content of soil minus the plastic limit to its plasticity index.

8
Plasticity Index (IP): The Numerical difference between the liquid limit and plastic limit.
Toughness Index (IT): The ratio of plasticity index to the flow index.

APPARATUS:
1. Liquid limit device.
2. Grooving tool.
3. Balance of sensitivity of 0.01g.
4. Moisture tin.
5. Iron spatula.
6. Hot Air oven.
7. Porcelain basin.

PROCEDURE:

1. Weight about 200 g of air dried soil passing through 425 micron IS Sieve.
2. Take the soil in a porcelain basin and add clear water till it becomes paste. Mix
the soil thoroughly (certain soil require mixing up to 40 minutes).
3. Check and adjust the fall of the liquid limit device cup to exactly 1 cm, using the
gauge on the handle of the grooving device.
4. Place the soil paste in the cup of liquid limit device and level it horizontal with
lowest edge of the cup with spatula so that the maximum depth of soil in the cup
is 1 cm.
5. Using standard grooving tool ,make a groove in the middle of the soil along the
diameter , dividing the soil into two parts (use casagrande grooving tool for soils
containing more clay and ASTM device for soils containing more silts).
6. Turn the handle of the liquid limit device at the rate of 2 revolutions per second,
till the two parts of the soil in the cup join together i.e. the groove closes by 12
mm length. Ensure that the grooving closes by flow and not by slipping of soil on
the surface of the cup.
7. Note the number of blows imparted to the cup. Taken about 20 g of moist soil
from the centre of the groove in a moisture tin and determine its moisture
content.
8. By altering (increasing) the water content of the soil and repeating the above
operation obtain five or six sets of observation, for blows in the range of 15 to 35.
9. The test should always proceed from drier (more blows) to wetter(less blows)
condition of the soil. Each time the soil is thoroughly mixed to ensure that the
water content is uniform throughout the soil mix.

9
Liquid limit (wL): Tabulation
Container Weight Weight of Weight of Number Moisture
serial of container+ container+ of Blows Content
No container wet soil dry soil (g) N w%
g (g)
A B C D E F=(C-D)/(D-B)
1 11.73 48.17 38.34 33 36.94
2 12.57 52.16 41.34 28 37.61
3 12.07 50.29 39.64 21 38.63
4 12.51 51.17 40.27 18 39.27
5 14.06 50.83 40.33 15 39.97

LIQUID LIMIT OF SOIL WL= 38 %

40

39
Moisture Content (%)

38

37

36

35
10 100
No of blows(N)

Graph: Plot the results of the experiment on a semi log sheet. The percentage of
moisture content are marked as ordinates on the arithmetic scale and corresponding
number of blows are marked as abscissae on logarithmic scale. A straight line in drawn
connecting these points (maximum point should in the straight line) and the line shall be
extended to either end, so as to intersect the abscissae corresponding to 10 and 100
blows. This line is called flow curve. The slope of this line expressed as the difference in
water content at 10 blows and 100 blows shall be reported as flow index.

The flow index may be calculated from the following equations.

10
If = (w1-w2) / log10 (N2/N1)

Where If- flow index

w1- Moisture content in % at N1 blows.

w2- Moisture content in % at N2 blows.

REPORT OF RESULTS: The liquid limit & flow index should be reported to the nearest
whole number. The history of soil sample, that is , natural state , air dried , oven dried or
unknown, the method used for the test reported and the period of soaking allowed after
mixing of water to the soil shall be reported .

11
 LIQUID LIMIT TEST
IS: 2720 (PART 5) - 1985
CONE PENETRATION METHOD

AIM: Determination of liquid limit of given soil sample by cone penetration method.

AAPPARATUS:

1. Cone penetrometer- it shall consist of a metallic cone with angle of 310 and 30.5
mm coned length. The rod should pass through two guides (to ensure vertical
movement), fixed to the stand. Suitable provision shall be made for clamping the
vertical rod at any desired height above the surface of the soil paste in the cup.
2. Cup- 50 mm diameter and 50 mm height.
3. Balance
4. Moisture tin
5. Oven

PROCEDURE:

1. Take about 150 g of air dried soil passing through 425 micron IS Sieve.
2. Soak the soil sample with distilled water for 30 to 40 minutes in case of silt soil
and in case of clay soil soaking may take up to 24 hours.
3. The wet soil paste shall then be transferred to the cylindrical cup of the cone
penetrometer apparatus and leveled up to the top of the cup.
4. Adjust the cone point just to touch the surface of the soil paste in the cup and
clamp zero indicators (holding the in position by the hand).
5. Release the cone and record the penetration in mm on scale after a lapse of 30
seconds time.
6. If the penetration is less than 20 mm, the wet soil in the cup shall be taken out
and more water added and thoroughly mixed.
7. The test shall then be repeated again till a penetration between 20 mm to 30 mm
is obtained.
8. The moisture content of wet soil in the penetration cone shall be determined
taking at least three samples.

CALCULATION:

The liquid limit of the sample is determined by using the following relationship

wL= w / 0.77 log10 x

or, wL= w / 0.65 + 0.0175 x

Where

12
wL= Liquid limit of the soil

w = Moisture content of the soil corresponding to the penetration of x mm.

x = Depth of penetration of cone in mm.

REPORT OF RESULT:

The liquid limit so obtained should be reported to the nearest whole number. The history
of the soil sample, that is natural state, air drained oven dried, and the period of soaking
allowed after mixing of water to the soil shall also be reported.

13
 PLASTIC LIMIT
IS: 2720(Part 5)-1985
OBJECTIVE
Determination of the plastic limit of soil.

EQUIPMENT & APPARATUS

1. Oven
2. Balance (0.01 g accuracy)
3. Sieve [425 micron]
4. Flat glass surface for rolling

5.
PREPARATION SAMPLE
After receiving the soil sample it is dried in air or in oven (maintained at a temperature of
600C). If clods are there in soil sample then it is broken with the help of wooden mallet.
The soil passing 425 micron sieve is used in this test.
PROCEDURE
1. A soil sample of 40 gm. passing 425 micron IS sieve is to be taken.
2. It is to be mixed with distilled water thoroughly in the evaporating dish till the soil
mass becomes plastic enough to be easily moulded with fingers.
3. It is to be allowed to season for sufficient time, to allow water to permeate
throughout the soil mass.
4. 8 g of the above plastic mass is to be taken and a ball is formed. Then, it is to be
rolled between fingers and glass plate with just sufficient pressure to roll the mass
into a thread of uniform diameter throughout its length. The rate of rolling shall be
between 60 and 90 stokes per minute.
5. The rolling is to be continued till the thread becomes 3 mm. in diameter.
6. The soil is then kneaded together to a uniform mass and rolled again.
7. The process is to be continued until the thread crumbled with the diameter of 3 mm.

14
 8. The pieces of the crumbled thread are to be collected in an air tight container for
moisture content determination.
REPORT
The Plastic limit is to be determined for at least three portions of soil passing 425 micron
IS sieve. The average of the results calculated to the nearest whole number is to be
reported as the plastic limit of the soil.
PRECAUTIONS
 Soil used for plastic limit determination should not be oven dried prior to testing.
 After mixing the water to the soil sample , sufficient time should be given to
permeate the water throughout the soil mass
 Wet soil taken in the container for moisture content determination should not be left
open in the air; the container with soil sample should either be placed in desiccators
or immediately be weighed.

Tabulation: Plastic limit (wP)

container container container+ container+ w(%)
No (g) wet soil dry soil (g)
(g)
1 12.1 21.83 19.7 28.03
2 12.44 21.32 19.41 27.40
3 12.29 22.46 20.29 27.13
Average 27.52
wp 28 %

15
 SHRINKAGE LIMIT TEST
IS: 2720 (PART 6) - 1972
NEED AND SCOPE
As the soil loses moisture, either in its natural environment, or by artificial means in
laboratory it changes from liquid state to plastic state to semi-solid state and then to
solid state. The volume is also reduced by the decrease in water content. But, at a
particular limit the moisture reduction causes no further volume change. A shrinkage
limit test gives a quantitative indication of how much moisture can change before any
significant volume change and to also indication of change in volume. The shrinkage
limit is useful in areas where soils undergo large volume changes when going through
wet and dry cycles (e.g. earth dams)
APPARATUS
1. Evaporating Dish of Porcelain
2. Spatula and Straight Edge
3. Balance-Sensitive to 0.01 g minimum.
4. Shrinkage Dish. Circular, porcelain or non-corroding metal dish
5. Glass cup. 50-55 mm in diameter and 25 mm in height
6. Glass plates. Two, 75x75 mm one plate of plain glass and the other prongs
7. Oven
8. Wash bottle containing distilled water
9. Mercury.
PROCEDURE
Preparation of soil paste
1. Take about 100 g of soil sample from a thoroughly mixed portion of the material
passing through 425-µm I.S. sieve. Place about 30 g the above soil sample in the
evaporating dish and thoroughly mixed with distilled water and make a creamy
paste. (Use water content slightly higher than the liquid limit.)
Filling the shrinkage dish
2. Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of Vaseline to prevent the soil
sticking to the dish.
3. Fill the dish in three layers by placing approximately 1/3 rd of the amount of wet soil
with the help of spatula. Tap the dish gently on a firm base until the soil flows over
the edges and no apparent air bubbles exist. Repeat this process for 2nd and 3rd
layers also till the dish is completely filled with the wet soil. Strike off the excess soil
and make the top of the dish smooth. Wipe off all the soil adhering to the outside of
the dish.
4. Weigh immediately, the dish with wet soil and record the weight.
5. Air- dry the wet soil cake for 6 to 8 hrs, until the colour of the pat turns from dark to
light. Then oven-dry the cake at 1050C to 1100C say about 12 to 16 hrs.
6. Remove the dried disk of the soil from oven. Cool it in a desiccator. Then obtain the
weight of the dish with dry sample.
7. Determine the weight of the empty dish and record.
8. Determine the volume of shrinkage dish which is evidently equal to volume of the
wet soil as follows. Place the shrinkage dish in an evaporating dish and fill the dish
with mercury till it overflows slightly. Press it with plain glass plate firmly on its top to
remove excess mercury. Pour the mercury from the shrinkage dish into a measuring

16
 jar and find the shrinkage dish volume directly. Record this volume as the volume of
wet soil pat.
Volume of the Dry Soil Pat
9. Determine the volume of dry soil pat by removing the pat from the shrinkage dish
and immersing it in the glass cup full of mercury in the following manner.
Place the glass cup in a larger one and fill the glass cup to overflowing with mercury.
Remove the excess mercury by covering the cup with glass plate with prongs and
pressing it. See that no air bubbles are entrapped. Wipe out the outside of the glass
cup to remove the adhering mercury. Then, place it in another larger dish, which is,
clean and empty carefully.
Place the dry soil pat on the mercury. It floats submerge it with the pronged glass
plate which is again made flush with top of the cup. The mercury spills over into the
larger plate. Pour the mercury that is displayed by the soil pat into the measuring jar
and find the volume of the soil pat directly.

TABULATION AND RESULTS

S.No Determination No. 1 2 3
1 Wt. of container in g,W1
2 Wt. of container + wet soil pat in g,W 2
3 Wt. of container + dry soil pat in g,W 3
4 Wt. of oven dry soil pat, W 0 in g
5 Wt. of water in g
6 Moisture content (%), W
7 Volume of wet soil pat (V), in cm
8 Volume of dry soil pat (V0) in cm3
By mercury displacement method
a. Weight of displaced mercury
b. Specific gravity of the mercury
Shrinkage limit (W S) =
9
[W - (V-V0) x w / W 0)] x 100

10 Shrinkage ratio (R)

CAUTION : DO NOT TOUCH THE MERCURY WITH GOLD RINGS.

17
 FIELD DENSITY (IN SITU DENSITY) OF SOIL
CORE CUTTER METHOD
IS: 2720 (Part 29) – 1975
APPARATUS

1. Cylindrical core cutter

2. Hammer.
3. Excavating tools, crow bar, Trowel.
4. Balance
5. Moisture can.
6. Straight edge.

PROCEDURE

1. Clean the core cutter and dolly. Weight the core cutter (W 1) and determine its
volume (V). Apply grease inside the core cutter.
2. Clear an area of about (45x45) cm 2 size and trim off 10cm of top soil and make it
level.
3. Drive the core cutter (with dolly fitted on top) with hammer to its full depth. Avoid
overdriving by seeing the top level of the soil in the cutter through the air vent
provided in the volley.
4. Dig out the core cutter with the help of crow bar and lift it carefully from the
ground with the help of a trowel placed at the bottom of the cutter. Trim the top
and bottom surface of the sample with a straight edge.
5. Determine the weight of the core cutter with soil (W 2).

CALCULATION
1. Mass of Core Cutter W1(g)
2. Mass of Core + Soil, W 2(g)
3. Mass of wet soil (W 2-W1)
4. Mass of moisture tin(g)
5. Mass of moisture tin + wet soil (g)
6. Mass of moisture tin + dry soil (g)
7. Mass of Water = (5-6)
8. Mass of Dry soil = (6-4)
9. Moisture Content, W= (7/8) x 100
Result
10. Wet Density (γt) = (W 2-W 1) / V (g/cc)
11. Dry Density (γd)= γt / (1+w) g/cc
12. Void Ratio, e = (Gs γw )/ γt
13. Degree of Saturation ,S = (w.Gs /e) x 100 %

18
 IN SITU DENSITY OF SOIL
SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD
IS: 2720 (Part 28) - 1974
Apparatus
Special
1. Sand pouring cylinder
2. Trowel or bent spoon
3. Cylindrical calibrating container
4. Metal tray with hole (30 cm square with 10 cm hole in the centre)
5. Sand (clean oven dried, passing 1mm and retaining on 600 micron sieve)
General
1. Balance (accuracy 1gm)
2. Balance (accuracy 0.01gm)
3. Oven
4. Glass plate (about 45 cm square)

Background
As we know density means weight per unit volume or in other words how much mass is
being enclosed in a specific quantum of volume. We can easily determine the mass of
soil by using the physical balance or digital balance, but the problem lies in finding the
volume of the hole dug. This problem is solved with the help of a calibrated sand whose
unit weight or density is already being determined and thus if we could determine how
much weight of calibrated sand is going to rest in the dug hole we can find the volume
of the hole by using following formula;
Volume of dug hole = weight of soil in hole dug / unit weight of calibrated soil

Procedure
The standard procedure of this test is being divided in two parts in first part we will find
the unit weight of the standard sand by calibration process described as follows;

Calibration
1. Determine the internal volume (V) of the calibrating container by using dimensions.
2. Now fill the sand pouring cylinder with the sand (passing through 1 mm and
retained on 600 micron sieve) to be calibrated within about 20 mm of its top left
vacant and then determine the mass of the sand pouring cylinder along with sand and
note it as w1.

19
3. Now place the sand pouring cylinder on top of calibrating cylinder of known volume
and open the shutter to allow the sand to fall in to the cylinder after no more sand is
falling close the shutter and determine the mass of the calibrating cylinder filled with
sand and note it as W2
4. Now as we also have the weight of the sand in the conical portion of the sand pouring
cylinder, we must subtract the weight of sand that can accumulate within
that conical portion. For that take a flat glass plate and place the sand pouring cylinder.
Open the shutter till no more sand falls and determine the mass of sand in
the conical portion and note it as W3.
5. Now the weight of the sand in the calibrating cylinder is determined as
Wa = W1 – W2 – W3
6. The bulk density of the sand is determined by dividing the mass of sand in the
calibrating cylinder with the volume of the calibrating cylinder.
Density of Sand γs = Wa / V

Alternate method of calibration of sand

Take the sand pouring cylinder with dry sand (passing through 1 mm and retained on
600 micron IS sieve), place it on the calibrating cylinder and open the shutter. Sand will
be collected in the calibrating cylinder with a heap.
Level the sand and
Mass of calibrating cylinder + sand (M1)
Mass of calibrating cylinder (M2)
Volume of Calibrating Container, V (cm3)
Density of Sand γs = (M1-M2) / V

Determine the In situ Density of the soil

Before going to field, once again fill the sand pouring cylinder with the calibrated sand
and determine its mass as W4.
1. Prepare the area subject to test, level the top of the soil using the scrapper tool.
2. Place the metal tray on the flat surface, if required insert the nails into the small holes
of the metal tray.
3. Trace the circular hole of the tray on the ground and excavate the soil carefully
without losing any of the soil. Dig a hole of approximately 12-15 cm in the ground.
4. Collect all the excavated material in a metal container and clear the hole using
a brush.
5. Determine the mass of this soil as weight of wet soil from hole Ww.
6. Place the cylinder directly over the excavated hole. Allow the sand to run out the
cylinder by opening the shutter. Close the shutter when the hole is completely filled and
no further movement of sand is observed.
7. Now weigh the remaining sand in the sand pouring cylinder and note it as W5.
8. Take a sample of the excavated soil in an air tight sampler for the determination of
the moisture content.
9. Volume of the hole is determined by using the unit weight of the calibrated sand

20
already known;
Observations and Calculations (Example)

Volume of calibrating container = V cm3 = 1000 cm3

Weight of cylinder + sand (before pouring) , W1 g = 7400 g
Mean weight of cylinder + sand (after pouring), W2 g = 5600 g
Mean weight of sand in cone (of pouring cylinder), W3 g = 400 g
Weight of sand to fill calibrating container Wa = w1 – w2 – w3 g = 1400 g
Density of sand, γs = Wa / v = 1.40 g/cm3

Density of Soil
The weight of sand ( Wb ) in g, required to fill the excavated hole shall be calculated
from the following formula:
Wb = W4 – W5 – W3

where
W4 = weight of cylinder and sand before pouring into hole in g,
W5 = weight of cylinder and sand after pouring into hole and cone in g, and
W3 = mean weight of sand in cone in g.

The bulk density of soil γb, shall be calculated from the following formula:
γb = (Ww / Wb) x γs
where
Ww = weight of soil excavated from the hole in g,
Wb = weight of sand required to fill the hole in g, and
γ s = bulk density of sand in g/cm3.
After determination of moisture content calculate the dry density of soil.

Precaution
1. Care should be taken in excavating the hole to that it is not enlarged by levering the
dibber against the side of the hole, as this will result in lower density being recorded.
2. No lose material should be left in the hole.
3. Initial height of sand in the pouring cylinder should be kept same during calibration
and density determinations.
4. There should be no vibrations during this test.
5. Since dry density of soils varies from point to point, it is necessary to repeat the test
at several point, it is necessary to repeat the test at several points and to average
the result.

21
 LIGHT COMPACTION TEST
IS: 2720 (Part 7) – 1980, Reaffirmed 1987
AIM:

To determine the maximum dry density (M.D.D.) and optimum moisture content
(O.M.C.) of a given soil sample using the standard proctor method.

THEORY:

This test determines the optimum amount of water be mixed with a soil in order to
obtain maximum compaction for a given compaction effect. This will enable the field
engineer to plan field compaction of the soil to a degree comparable to that obtained in
the laboratory by suitably altering the effective lift or number of passes with the available
roller. Maximum compaction leads to maximum dry density and hence the deformation
and strength characteristics of the soil turn out to be best possible value.

This test is based on the method given by R.R. Proctor (1933) and referred as to
standard proctor test. This test is satisfactory for cohesive soil but does not lead itself
well to the study of compaction characteristics of clean sands and gravel which are
easily displaced when compacted with rammer. When high densities are warranted as
in case of formation for airport runways higher compaction effort becomes necessary.
For this modified proctor test is adopted.

APPARATUS:

1. Standard proctor test

apparatus.
a. Cylindrical mould.
b. Collar.
c. Base plate.
d. Rammer.
2. 4.75 mm IS sieve.
3. Glass measuring cylinder.
4. Iron spatula.
5. Balance & weight box.
6. Sample extractor.
7. Moisture tin.
8. Oven.
9. Desiccator.
10. Tray.

22
 PROCEDURE:

1. Weight the empty mould (W m). Fix the mould to the base plate and attach the collar
to the mould. Apply a thin layer of grease to the inside surface of mould & collar.
2. Take 2.4 Kg. of soil passing through 4.75 mm size sieve and add water to bring its
moisture content to about 8% in case of silt soil and 14% in case of clayey soil. For
uniformity this quantity of water is sprinkled on the soil and the soil is mixed
thoroughly.
3. Keep the soil covered under an oil paper for 15 to 20 minutes to allow the soil for
full maturation.
4. Divide the weight soil into three equal parts. Fill the mould with one part of the soil
and compact it with 25 evenly distributed blows with the standard rammer.
5. Repeat this process for second & third parts of the soil taking precaution to scratch
the top of the previously compacted layer with a spatula in order to avoid
stratification and achieve homogeneity.
6. Remove the collar by rotating it and trim the top of the soil to flush with the top of
the mould.
7. Detach the mould (with compacted soil in it) from the base plate. Take the weight
of compacted soil along with the mould(W 1).
8. Extract the soil from the mould and take some wet soil from the core of compacted
soil and determine the moisture content.
9. Repeat this procedure (5 to 6 times) by taking fresh soil sample and adding water
to make the water content 2 to 4% more than the previous water content.

TABULATION (STANDARD PROCTOR TEST)

Tested by: - Date:

Soil type: -

1 Test No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 Weight of empty mould (W m) gms.
3 Internal dia of mould (d) cm.
4 Height of mould (h) cm.
5 Volume of mould (V) = (π/4) d2h. C.C.
6 Weight of mould + compacted soil (W 1) gms.
7 Weight of compacted soil (W 1 – Wm) gms.
8 Wet density γt = (W 1-Wm) / V gm./C.C.
9 Container No.
10 Wt. of Container (X1) gms.
11 Wt. of Container + wet soil (X2) gms.
12 Wt. of Container + dry soil (X3) gms.
13 Wt. of dry soil (X3 – X1) gms.
14 Wt. of water (X2 – X3) gms.

23
15 Water content W% = (X2 – X3) / (X3 – X1)
16 Dry density γd = (γt) / (1 + ) gm./C.C.
CALCULATION:

Wet density =

Moisture content % = x 100

Dry density (gms. /C.C) =

Calculation of Zero Air Void Line:

Zero air void line gives the relationship between dry density and moisture content
when the degree of saturation is assumed to be 100%. It can be calculated by using the
following formula: -

γd = γw

γd – Dry density corresponding to 100% saturation ( gm. / C.C.).

G – Specific gravity of soil solids.

W – Water content of soil (%).

γw – unit weight of water (gm. / C.C.)

GRAPHS: Draw the following graphs: -

1. A graph between moisture content and the corresponding dry density

obtained from the compaction test.
2. A graph between the assumed water content and the corresponding dry
densities calculated from the above formula. The curve is known as Zero Air
Void Line.

REPORT OF RESULT:

The maximum dry density (MDD) in g/C.C should be reported to nearest 0.01.
The optimum moisture (OMC %) is reported to nearest 0.2 for values below 5%, to the
nearest 0.5 for values from 5 to 10 %, and to the nearest whole number for value
exceeding 10 percent.

24
25
 PROCTOR’S PLASTICITY NEEDLE TEST
ASTMD- 1558
AIM:

To determine the penetration resistance of a compacted soil with its moisture content
and dry density.

APPARATUS: The proctor’s static penetrometer with plasticity needle points, proctor’s
compaction test apparatus etc.

THEORY: In standard proctor compaction test it is observed that maximum dry density
of a given soil is obtained only at a particular moisture content called the optimum
moisture content and it is best to compact the soil in an embankment at this state for the
most desirable structure effects. But in actual practice it is difficult to subject the soil in
the embankment to moisture content determination at every stage. By simple
penetration test the moisture content and density relationship of a soil could be studied
in the field. The results obtained by the test in the laboratory could thus be used for
effective compaction control in the field.

PROCEDURE:

1. Select a suitable penetration needle and note down its cross sectional area and
attach it to the penetrometer.
2. Push the penetrometer with penetration into the compacted soil mould at a speed of
12mm per second to a depth of 75mm. Record the maximum penetration resistance
in (kg.) obtained during the above penetration.
3. Compute the penetration resistance per unit area (kg/cm2) corresponding to the
moisture content of the soil.
4. Repeat the test for each trial of the light compaction / standard proctor test. Plot the
penetration resistance (kg/cm2) versus corresponding moisture content (%) obtained
from the compaction test on the already plotted moisture content versus dry density
graph.

26
TABULATION (PROCTER’S PLASTICITY NEEDLE TEST)

1 Test No. 1 2 3 4 5
2 Area of plasticity needle (cm2)
3 Penetration resistance (Kg)
4 Penetration resistance per unit area (cm2)
5 Moisture content (%)

GRAPH: Plot the graph between moisture content versus penetration resistance.

27
 GRAINSIZE ANALYSIS
IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985
MECHANICAL SIEVE ANALYSIS
OBJECTIVE
For determination of particle size distribution of fine, coarse and all-in-aggregates by
sieving.
EQUIPMENT & APPARATUS:
 Balance
 Sieves ( 20, 10, 6.25, 4.75, 2, 1 mm, 600, 425, 300, 212, 150, 75 micron)
 Sieve shaker
PREPARATION SAMPLE
After receiving the soil sample it is dried in air or in oven (maintained at a temperature of
600C). If clods are there in soil sample then it is broken with the help of wooden mallet.
PROCEDURE
1. The sample is dried to constant mass in the oven at a temperature of 1100±50C.
2. Take 1000 g of dry soil (Quantity may vary according to the maximum size of the
particle present in the soil mass).
3. Using a 75 micron IS sieve wash the soil to remove the fine particles present in soil.
4. After washing collect the wet soil mass retained on the sieve.
5. Put the wet soil in oven for 24 hours.
6. After the soil is dried, arrange all the sieves which are to be used in the analysis.
7. The oven dry sample is weighed and sieved successively on the appropriate sieves
starting with largest. Each sieve is shaken for a period of not less than 2 minutes.
8. On completion of sieving the material retained on each sieve is weighed.
CALCULATION
The percent retained (%), Cumulative retained (%) & percent finer (%) is calculated.

Percent retained on each sieve = Weight of retained sample in each sieve / Total weight
of sample before washing.
The cumulative percent retained is calculated by adding percent retained on each sieve
as a cumulative procedure.The percent finer is calculated by subtracting the cumulative
percent retained from 100 percent.

REPORT
The result of the sieve analysis is reported graphically on a semi log graph, taking sieve
sizes on log scale and % finer in arithmetic scale. The observation is maintained in
observation sheet.

28
 Tabulation: SIEVE ANALYSIS, Mass of dry soil = 1000 g
SIEVE MASS % CUM % %
SIZE (mm) RETAINED(g) RETAINED RETAINED FINER
10 10 1 1 99
6.25 20 2 3 97
4.75 30 3 6 94
2 50 5 11 89
1 40 4 15 85
0.6 70 7 22 78
0.425 80 8 30 70
0.3 50 5 35 65
0.212 40 4 39 61
0.15 20 2 41 59
0.075 40 4 45 55

100
90
PERCENTAGE FINER

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000
GRAINSIZE in mm

29
 HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
IS: 2720 (Part 4) - 1985

AIM:
To determine the grain size distribution of a given fine grained soil sample by
hydrometer analysis.
THEORY:
Hydrometer analysis is an indirect method of assessing the size of soil particles based
on stokes law which relates the velocity with which a spherical particle settles in a still
liquid to the diameter of the particle. Hence the size of particle determined in this
method is known as equivalent diameter. Hydrometer at any instant measures the
relative density of soil suspension.
APPARATUS:
Hydrometer dispersing cup & stirrer, 1000 cc. jar, balance, dispersing agents, distilled
water, thermometer, stop watch etc.

CALIBRATION OF HYDROMETER
1. Take about 1000ml of water in one measuring cylinder. Place the cylinder on a table
and observe the initial reading.
2. Immerse the hydrometer in the cylinder. Take the reading after the immersion.
3. Determine the volume of the hydrometer ( ) which is equal to the difference
between the final and initial readings. Alternatively weigh the hydrometer to the nearest
0.1g. The volume of the hydrometer in ml is approximately equal to its mass in grams.

30
4. Determine the area of cross section (A) of the cylinder. It is equal to the volume
indicated between any two graduations divided by the distance between them. The
distance is measured with an accurate scale.
5. Measure the distance (H) between the neck and the bottom of the bulb. Record it as
the height of the bulb (h).
6. Measure the distance (H) between the neck to each marks on the hydrometer ( ).
7. Determine the effective depth ( ), corresponding to each of the mark ( ) as

[Note: the factor should not be considered when the hydrometer is not taken out
when taking readings after the start of the sedimentation at ½, 1, 2, and 4 minutes.]
8. Draw a calibration curve between and . Alternatively, prepare a table
between and . The curve may be used for finding the effective
depth corresponding to reading .

31
 CALIBRATION CURVE
20

18
EFFECTIVE DEPTH He

16

14

12 CALIBRATION CURVE

10

8
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
OBSERVED HYDROMETER READING Rh

Fig: Hydrometer Calibration Chart

PROCEDURE:
1) Take about 50 g of oven dried soil passing through 2 mm sieve. Weight the soil
correctly and put it in beaker.
2) Add 100 cc of fresh (2%) solution of dispersing agent (i.e. sodium hexameta
phosphate or a mixture of sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate) into the soil. Add
distilled water if necessary and soak the soil for few hours (overnight soaking is
desirable for clays).
3) Transfer the soaked soil with water into the dispersion cup (two third full) and stir
the mixture for 15 minutes. Put the soil mixture into standard measuring jar and make
the total volume of soil suspension 1000 cc by adding distilled water.
4) Calibrate the hydrometer and determine the various hydrometer corrections with
the help of tables and charts supplied. (See Appendix).
5) Shake the soil suspension thoroughly without any loss by holding the bottom of
the jar with one palm and closing its top with the other and turning it’s upside down. Put
the jar back on a level platform. Start the stopwatch. Insert the cleaned hydrometer
slowly without allowing any oscillation in the suspension.
6) Take the hydrometer reading R1h (Corresponding to the top of the meniscus) at
elapsed time (t) of ½, 1, 2 and 4 minutes. While it floats in the suspension. Enter the
observations in the tabular form.
7) Remove the hydrometer from the suspension and place it in a separate jar
containing clean water.
8) Repeat steps (5), (6) & (7). Use the average value of readings R 1h obtained from
steps (6) & (8) for computation.

32
9) Note the temperature of the soil suspension occasionally throughout the testing
period by slowly inserting the thermometer without disturbing the setting of soil particles.
10) Insert the hydrometer in soil suspension just before a reading is desired and
remove it (after taking the reading). Hydrometer should not be allowed to touch the side
walls of the jar or rest on the settled sediments at the bottom of the jar.
11) Take hydrometer readings at total elapsed time of 8, 15, 30 minutes, 1 hr, 2hr, 4
hr, 8 hr, 12 hrs and 24 hrs. In plastic clay it is desirable to continue the reading until the
hydrometer reads 1.000 or 48 hrs of time is elapsed whichever occurs earlier. Or the
hydrometer readings may also be taken for elapsed time 1,2,3,4,5,10,15,20,25,30, 45,
60, 90, 120, 240, 720, 1440, 2880 minutes. The recording of observations depends on
the type of soil.
12) Compute the equivalent diameter of the soil particle corresponding to any
reading of the hydrometer Rh from Stoke’s law as follows :

Dmm =

Where F = f (specific gravity of soil particles and temperature) - Please see table I for
this relationship).
He = f (Rh) = Rh + Cm from table II
13) Compute the (cumulative) percentage finer (p%) corresponding to R 1h (or Dmm)
as follows :
p% = ( ) ( ) (Rh + Cm + Ct – Cd – 1.000) x 100
Where G = specific gravity of soil particles
V = Volume of soil suspension (generally 1000 cc)
Ws = Dry weight of soil used in suspension in g
Cm, Ct, Cd = Hydrometer corrections
The above formula is valid provided representative test sample with all particle size
originally existing in the in-situ soil is used for hydrometer analysis. However generally
only the finer fraction passing through either 2.00 mm sieve or 75 micron sieve is used.
In which case the actual percentage finer is given by :
P=p%x
14) Plot the grain size curve ( p% vs Dmm) incorporating results of the hydrometer
analysis.

33
APPENDIX:
1) DETERMINATION OF HYDROMETER CORRECTIONS:
During actual use of hydrometer to measure the (relative) density of soil suspension,
certain errors creep in. Hence suitable corrections have to be made. The following are
the corrections.
a. Meniscus correction:
(Cm) Normally hydrometer reading flush with the top of the (liquid) suspension level
must be read. But generally the suspension adheres to the stem of hydrometer in the
form of a meniscus. As the soil suspension is opaque it is not possible to take the
hydrometer reading corresponding to the bottom of the meniscus (R 1h)/* is read. As Rh
is less than Rh, a negative error results which is compensated by applying the Positive
meniscus correction, Cm = R1h – Rh. the value of Cm is determined from R1h and Rh values
read from the hydrometer immersed in a transparent liquid (water).
b. Temperature correction (Ct):
When the temperature of soil suspension is different from the temperature at which
hydrometer is calibrated, there will be an error committed in the hydrometer readings.
Temperature correction Ct can be determined by reading the hydrometer in liquid
(water) at different temperatures. Table-III gives the Ct values for different temperatures.
Ct is positive if the observed temperature is more than the temperature at which the
hydrometer is calibrated and vice-versa.
c. Dispersing agent correction (Cd):

34
Due to the addition of dispersing agent the specific gravity of the suspension increases
slightly. Hence a negative correction (Cd) is applied. Its value can be determined by
reading hydrometer in plain water and in water with identical amount and type of
dispersing agent is used in the soil suspension.
d. Displacement (immersion or volume) correction (Ch):
Hydrometer measures the specific gravity of the suspension at the centre of gravity of
its bulb. In practice the Hydrometer is inserted in the suspension and its readings are
noted at different times. As soil particles settle they have the tendency to settle on the
neck of the bulb of hydrometer thus affecting its apparent weight. This tendency is not
felt at short intervals and hence up to first 4 minutes hydrometer can be allowed to float
continuously in the suspension, where after it is removed from suspension immediately
after taking a reading and reinserted to enable reading pertaining to a given time.
Insertion of hydrometer of volume Vh will raise the liquid surface owing to the
displacement of equal volume of liquid. This in turn will affect the calibration He = f (Rh)
given in Table-II. For reading beyond 4 minutes,
He =He – = He - Ch,
Where Aj is the cross sectional area of the jar in which suspension is contained. Table-II
also provides the calibration for He = f (Rh) for a standard measuring jar whose internal
diameter is 6 cm.

INFERENCE:

From a discrete analysis of the shape of the grain size distribution curve, the physical
and engineering properties can be inferred in a qualitative manner, especially in the
case of coarse soils.
A well graded curve indicates
i) Low void ratio and low porosity.
ii) High density.
iii) Low permeability and low compressibility and
iv) High shear strength.
A poorly graded curve has the opposite characteristics. Also from the uniformity co-
efficient and effective size, the suitability of a soil in filters etc. can be judged.
REPORT OF RESULTS:
Draw grain size distribution curve (both sieve & Hydrometer analysis). Find out the
percentage of various soil fractions as per I.S: 1498-1970 and co-efficient of uniformity
and coefficient of curvature and discuss on the type of soil.

35
 Grainsize curve of only hydrometer analysis
100
90
80
PERCENTAGE FINER

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000
GRAINSIZE in mm

Grainsize analysis curve of both

sieve and hydrometer analysis
100
90
80
PERCENTAGE FINER

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000
GRAINSIZE in mm

36
 TABLE – I
VALUES OF F FOR USE IN FOR USE IN FORMULA FOR COMPUTING DIAMETER
OF PARTICLE (Dmm) IN HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
Temp. Specific Gravity
in OC 2.50 2.55 2.60 2.65 2.70 2.75 2.80
15 0.01528 0.01503 0.01479 0.01458 0.01435 0.01414 0.01395
16 0.01508 0.01483 0.01460 0.01438 0.01417 0.01396 0.01377
17 0.01490 0.01465 0.01442 0.01420 0.01399 0.01379 0.01360
18 0.01470 0.01446 0.01406 0.01402 0.01381 0.01361 0.01342
19 0.01452 0.01428 0.01389 0.01384 0.01364 0.01344 0.01325
20 0.01434 0.01411 0.01372 0.01367 0.01347 0.01328 0.01309
21 0.01417 0.01393 0.01355 0.01351 0.01331 0.01311 0.01294
22 0.01400 0.01377 0.01339 0.01335 0.01315 0.01296 0.01278
23 0.01383 0.01360 0.01323 0.01318 0.01299 0.01280 0.01262
24 0.01367 0.01344 0.01308 0.01305 0.01284 0.01265 0.01248
25 0.01351 0.01329 0.01293 0.01288 0.01269 0.01251 0.01233
26 0.01335 0.01313 0.01279 0.01273 0.01254 0.01236 0.01219
27 0.01321 0.01299 0.01264 0.01244 0.01241 0.01224 0.01191
28 0.01305 0.01284 0.01250 0.01231 0.01226 0.01069 0.01178
29 0.01291 0.01270 0.01236 0.01217 0.01213 0.01208 0.01165
30 0.01277 0.01256 0.01224 0.01205 0.01199 0.01195 0.01154
31 0.01264 0.01243 0.01211 0.01193 0.01187 0.01182 0.01142
32 0.01251 0.01230 0.01195 0.01180 0.01175 0.01170 0.01130
33 0.01238 0.01218 0.01186 0.01168 0.01163 0.01158 0.01118
34 0.01225 0.01205 0.01174 0.01156 0.01151 0.01146 0.01107
35 0.01212 0.01191 0.01161 0.01144 0.01139 0.01134 0.01095
36 0.01199 0.01180 0.01150 0.01139 0.01127 0.01120 0.01084
37 0.01188 0.01169 0.01139 0.01122 0.01116 0.01110 0.01064
38 0.01176 0.01157 0.01128 0.01110 0.01105 0.01100 0.01064

37
39 0.01165 0.01146 0.01118 0.01101 0.01094 0.01089 0.01055
40 0.01155 0.01136 0.01108 0.01092 0.01084 0.01079 0.01045

TABLE – II
CALIBRATION OF HYDROMETER
Relationship between Zr and Rh values for Hydrometer analysis.
Reading of the Zr value without volume Zrc =Zr + Ch for use
Hydrometer correction Ch for use up beyond 4 minutes
RH = R’H + CN to 4 minutes
1 2 3
0.995 21.655 20.500
0.996 21.355 20.200
0.997 21.055 19.900
0.998 20.755 19.600
0.999 20.455 19.300
1.000 20.155 19.000
1.001 19.855 18.700
1.002 19.555 18.400
1.003 19.255 18.100
1.004 18.955 17.800
1.005 18.655 17.500
1.006 18.355 17.200
1.007 18.055 16.900
1.008 17.755 16.600
1.009 17.455 16.300
1.010 17.155 16.000
1.011 16.855 15.700
1.012 16.555 15.400
1.013 16.255 15.100
1.014 15.955 14.800
1.015 15.655 14.500
1.016 15.355 14.200
1.017 15.055 13.900
1.018 14.755 13.600
1.019 14.455 13.300
1.020 14.155 13.000
1.021 13.855 12.700
1.022 13.555 12.400
1.023 13.255 12.100
1.024 12.955 11.800

38
 1.025 12.655 11.500
1.026 12.355 11.200
1.027 12.055 10.900
1.028 11.755 10.600
1.029 11.455 10.300
1.030 11.155 10.000

HYDROMETER ANALYSIS

RECORDING OF OBSERVATION

Soil Type:

Hydrometer (Type):

Specific gravity (Gs):

Volume of the suspension (Vcc):

Weight of the dry soil (Ws g) :

Gradation of soil used:

Date Time Elapsed

time t
(min)
0.5
1
2
4
5
8
10
15
20
30
45
60
90
120
240
480
1440

39
 TABLE – III
TEMPERATURE CORRECTION (Ct) FOR HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
Temperature in OC Temperature Correction (Ct)
20.0 0.00000
20.5 0.00009
21.0 0.00017
21.5 0.00027
22.0 0.00037
22.5 0.00049
23.0 0.00058
23.5 0.00068
24.0 0.00081
24.5 0.00091
25.0 0.00102
25.5 0.00116
26.0 0.00127
26.5 0.00139
27.0 0.00150
27.5 0.00163
28.0 0.00178
28.5 0.00191
29.0 0.00206
29.5 0.00219
30.0 0.00232
30.5 0.00247
31.0 0.00262
31.5 0.00278
32.0 0.00291
32.5 0.00320
33.0 0.00350
33.5 0.00380
34.0 0.00400
34.5 0.00420
35.5 0.00440
36.0 0.00470

40
 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO
CBR TEST
IS: 2720(Part 16)-1973

OBJECTIVE
Determination of CBR of soil either in undisturbed or Remoulded condition
EQUIPMENTS /
APPARATUS
 Load Frame /
Compression
machine
 Proving ring, Dial
gauge, Timer
 Sampling tube
 Split mould
 Vernier caliper,
Balance

PREPARATION OF SAMPLE
The test may be performed
(a) On undisturbed soil specimen (b) On remoulded soil specimen
(a) On undisturbed specimen
Undisturbed specimen is obtained by fitting to the mould, the steel cutting edge of 150
mm internal diameter and pushing the mould as gently as possible into the ground.
When the mould is sufficiently full of soil, it shall be removed by under digging. The top
and bottom surfaces are then trimmed flat so as to give the required length of specimen.
(b) remouldedSpecimens
The dry density for remoulding should be either the field density or if the subgrade is to
be compacted, at the maximum dry density value obtained from the Proctor Compaction
/ light compaction test. If it is proposed to carry out the CBR test on an unsoaked
specimen, the moisture content for remoulding should be the same as the equilibrium
moisture content which the soil is likely to reach subsequent to the construction of the
road. If it is proposed to carry out the CBR test on a soaked specimen, the moisture
content for remoulding should be at the optimum and soaked under water for 96 hours.
Soil Sample – The material used in the remoulded specimen should all pass through a
19 mm IS sieve. Allowance for larger material may be made by replacing it by an equal
amount of material which passes a 19 mm sieve but is retained on a 4.75 mm IS sieve.
This procedure is not satisfactory if the size of the soil particles is predominantly greater
than 19 mm. The specimen may be compacted statically or dynamically.

41
I. Compaction by Static Method
The mass of the wet soil at the required moisture content to give the desired density
when occupying the standard specimen volume in the mould is calculated. A batch of
soil is thoroughly mixed with water to give the required water content. The correct mass
of the moist soil is placed in the mould and compaction obtained by pressing in
displacer disc, a filter paper being placed between the disc & soil.
II. Compaction by Dynamic Method
For dynamic compaction, a representative sample of soil weighing approximately 4.5 kg
or more for fine grained soils and 5.5 kg or more for granular soil shall be taken and
mixed thoroughly with water. If the soil is to be compacted to the maximum dry density
at the optimum water content determined in accordance with light compaction or heavy
compaction, the exact mass of soil required is to be taken and the necessary quantity of
water added so that the water content of soil sample is equal to the determined
optimum water content. The mould with extension collar attached is clamped to the
base plate. The spacer disc is inserted over the base plate and a disc of coarse filter
paper placed on the top of the spacer disc. The soil water mixture is compacted into the
mould in accordance with the methods specified in light compaction test or heavy
compaction test.
For OMC & MDD of light compaction test apply 56 blows in 3 layers-2.6 kg hammer.
For OMC & MDD of heavy compaction test apply 56 blows in 5 layers- 4.89 kg hammer.
PROCEDURE
1. The mould containing the specimen with the base plate in position but the top face
exposed is placed on the lower plate of the testing machine.
2. Surcharge weights, sufficient to produce an intensity of loading equal to the weight
of the base material and pavement is placed on the specimen.
3. To prevent upheaval of soil into the hole of the surcharge weights, 2.5 kg annular
weight is placed on the soil surface prior to seating the penetration plunger after
which the remainder of the surcharge weight is placed.
4. The plunger is to be seated under a load of 4 kg so that full contact is established
between the surface of the specimen and the plunger.
5. The stress and strain gauges are then set to zero. Load is applied to the
penetration plunger so that the penetration is approximately 1.25 mm per minute.
6. Readings of the load are taken at penetrations of 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 4.0,
5.0, 7.5, 10.0 and 12.5 mm.
7. The plunger is then raised and the mould detached from the loading equipment.
CALCULATION: Load-Penetration curve:
The load penetration curve is plotted taking penetration value on x-axis and Load values
on Y-axis. Corresponding to the penetration value at which the CBR is desired,
corrected load value is taken from the load-penetration curve and the CBR calculated
as follows

42
California bearing ratio = (PT/PS)x100
Where
PT = Corrected unit (or total) test load corresponding to the chosen penetration curve, and
PS = Unit(or total) standard load for the same depth of penetration as for PStaken from standard code.
CBR: STANDARD LOAD
Penetration Depth (mm) Unit Standard Load (kg/cm2) Total Standard Load (kg)
2.5 70 1370
5 105 2055
7.5 134 2630
10 162 3180
12.5 183 3600
TABULATION:
Corrected
Proving Test Test Standard CBR 120
Penetration Ring Load Load Load Value
Reading
mm (div) kg (kg) (kg) (%) 100
0.00 0 0
0.50 8 16 80

LOAD IN kg
1.00 14 28
1.50 20 40 60
2.00 25 50
2.50 30 60 60.00 1370 4.38 40
3.00 33 66
3.50 35 70 20
4.00 37 74
4.50 39 78
0
5.00 40 80 80.00 2055 3.89
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5
7.50 46 92 PENETRATION IN mm
10.00 50 100
12.50 53 106

REPORT
The CBR values are usually calculated for penetration of 2.5 mm and 5 mm. Generally,
the CBR value at 2.5 mm penetration will be greater than that at 5 mm penetration. If
the CBR value corresponding to a penetration of 5 mm exceeds that for 2.5 mm, the
test shall be repeated. If identical results follow, the bearing ratio corresponding to 5 mm
penetration shall be taken for design. The CBR value is reported correct to the first
decimal place.

43
 NORTH DAKOTA CONE TEST
AIM-To determine the cone bearing value of given soils.
SCPOE AND LIMITATION-test may be made on subgrade either in its natural state or
sample prepared by compaction or stabilization. This test may be conducted at site or
on soil compacted in a C.B. R mould. This test gives good results only on fine grained
cohesive soils. A little piece of stone may give rise to erratic result. Many tests have to
be carried out to find the average value.
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:
It consist of a shaft with a sharp cone attached. It is supported by a frame which
facilitates the vertical free movement. Frame rests uniformly on a leveled surface. A rod
graduated in 1/20th of an inch moves through the frame along with the shaft. The
weights are increased on the plate fixed to the shaft.
PROCEDURE
1. Place the compacted soil in the C.B.R mould under the cone of cone penetrometer ,
just touching the top of compacted soil.
2. Note down the reading on the graduated scale.
3. Allow the cone to penetrate the soil mass by unlocking the shaft screw and note the
penetration after one minute.
4. Find the difference of final and intial reading,which gives the amount of penetration.
5. Increase the load to 10 kg(20 lbs).
6. Proceed as before and find out the penetration thus under 10 kg.
7. Find out the penetration corresponding to 15 kg(30 lbs),20 kg.(40 lbs),30 kg.(60
lbs)and 40 kg.(80lbs) of loads after one minute each as before.
TABULATION: Bearing area= π(Corrected penetration x tan ½ cone angle)2
Load(lbs) Penetration Corrected Bearing value =
reading penetration Load / Bearing area
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
CALCULATION
Correction ‘c’ to be applied to all penetration readings is given by, C=p80 -2p20
P80 – penetration at 80 lbs load and
P20 – penetration at 20 lbs load
The semi vertical angle of cone is 15o30’ from which the reading and area of cross
section at surface level of the cone can be calculated.
Graph: plot the graph between corrected penetration versus bearing value.

44
 DIRECT SHEAR TEST
IS: 2720 (Part 13) - 1986
AIM: To determine the shear parameters of a given soil sample
(undisturbed/remoulded) using a direct shear test apparatus.

THEORY:

The shear strength of a soil is given by Mohr-Coulomb expression.

S = C+ σ tan Φ

Where, S – Shear strength, kg/cm2

σ -Normal stress on failure plane, kg/cm2

C-Unit Cohesion, kg/cm2

Φ-Angle of internal friction (degree)

In a strength test of soil, there are two basic stages. First a normal load is applied
to the specimen (consolidation stage) and then failure is induced by applying a
shear stress (shearing stage). If no water is allowed to escape from or enter into
specimen either during consolidation or during shearing then it is called
undrained test or unconsolidated undrained test (quick test). If the specimen is
allowed to consolidate under the normal load, but no drainage of water is allowed
during shear, it is consolidated undrained or (consolidated quick) test. If the
specimen is consolidated under the normal load & sheared under fully drained
conditions, it is called (consolidated drained or slow) test.

APPARATUS:

Shear box with its accessories, loading frame, proving ring, dial gauges. Sample
trimmer, balance, weights, spatula, vernier porous stone, grid plate, blotting
paper etc.

45
PREPARATION OF SAMPLE:

a) REMOULDED SPECIMEN:
i) Cohesive soils may be compacted to the required density and moisture
content, the sample extracted and then trimmed to the required size.
Alternatively the soil may be compacted to the required density and
moisture content directly into the shear box after fixing the two halves of
the shear box together by means of the fixing screws.
ii) Non-cohesive soils may be tamped in the shear box itself with the base
plate and grid plate or porous stone as required in place at the bottom of
the box.

b) UNDISTURBED SPECIMEN:
Specimens of required size shall be trimmed from undisturbed samples.

PROCEDURE:-

a) UNDRAINED TEST:
1. Prepare the soil sample as described above. The soil should not contain
particles more than 4.75mm. size.
2. Note that the grooves of both top and bottom grid plates should be at right
angles to the direction of shear. Place the loading pad on the top of the
grid plate.

46
 3. Transfer the box into the water jacket placed (on-rollers) on the platform of
the apparatus provided with an adjustable loading frame. See that the
shear box is in its centre.
4. Determine the leverage ratio and apply the desired normal load intensity in
the range of 0.5 to 2 kg/cm2 through the loading frame. Adjust the proving
ring so that its attached spindle touches the water jacket auto surface.
Remove the locking screws.
5. Attach a dial gauge to the fitting fixed to the vertical end plate. This gauge
measures the shear (horizontal) displacement.
6. Induce shear displacement at a rate of about 1% strain per minute 0.6mm/
minute.
7. Take the readings of proving ring dial gauge at every 0.6mm of shear
displacement till failure of till a displacement of 12mm (20% strain) which
occurs earlier.
8. Repeat the test on at least two more (total 3 samples) identical specimens
under increased normal loads. May be 0.5, 1, 1.5 kg/cm2.

b) CONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED TEST:

Procedure is similar to that in undrained test, except that instead of solid

grid plates use perforated grid plates at top and bottom of the specimen
conduct the shear test only after complete consolidation has occurred
under the applied normal stress. The rate of strain may be kept as above.

c) CONSOLIDATED DRAINED TEST:

Procedure is similar to that in consolidated undrained test except that the
shearing is done at a slow rate so that complete drainage can occur,
during the shear stage. For sandy soils a rate of strain of 0.2mm/minute
may be suitable. For clayey soils a rate of strain of 0.01mm/minute or
slower may be used.

CALCULATION:

Calculate the corrected cross sectional area Ac(kg/cm2) from the following
equation.

Ac= A0 * [1-(Δ/B)]

Where, A-Initial cross-sectional area of the specimen, cm2

Δ - Displacement (cm)

B-Initial length of specimen

47
Find out the shear load corresponding the proving ring reading. Find out the shear
stresses at a given shear strain by dividing the shear load by correct area of specimen.

GRAPHS:

i) Plot the shear strain versus shear stress curves to obtain the maximum
shear stress .Determine the failure strain.
ii) Plot failure (or maximum) shear stress versus normal stress to obtain
the shear parameters c and ɸ.

GENERAL REMARKS

1. In the shear box test, the specimen is not failing along its weakest plane but
along a predetermined or induced failure plane i.e. horizontal plane separating
the two halves of the shear box. This is the main draw back of this test.
Moreover, during loading, the state of stress cannot be evaluated. It can be
evaluated only at failure condition i.e Mohr’s circle can be drawn at the failure
condition only. Also failure is progressive.

2. Direct shear test is simple and faster to operate. As thinner specimens are used
in shear box, they facilitate drainage of pore water from a saturated sample in
less time. This test is also useful to study friction between two materials - one
material in lower half of box and another material in the upper half of box.

3. The angle of shearing resistance of sands depends on state of compaction,

coarseness of grains, particle shape and roughness of grain surface and grading.
It varies between 28o (uniformly graded sands with round grains in very loose
state) to 46o(well graded sand with angular grains in dense state).

4. The volume change in sandy soil is a complex phenomenon depending on

gradation, particle shape, state and type of packing, orientation of principal
planes, principal stress ratio, stress history, magnitude of minor principal stress,
type of apparatus, test procedure, method of preparing specimen etc. In general
loose sands expand and dense sands contract in volume on shearing. There is a
void ratio at which either expansion contraction in volume takes place. This void
ratio is called critical void ratio. Expansion or contraction can be inferred from the
movement of vertical dial gauge during shearing.

48
 5. The friction between sand particle is due to sliding and rolling friction and
interlocking action.

The ultimate values of shear parameter for both loose sand and dense sand
approximately attain the same value so, if angle of friction value is calculated at
ultimate stage, slight disturbance in density during sampling and preparation of test
specimens will not have much effect.

TABULATION- DIRECT SHEAR TEST:

Soil type:
Initial dimensions of the specimen:
Initial weight of specimen:
Bulk density of specimen:
Moisture content of specimen:
Tested by:
Proving ring no:
Proving ring constant:
Lever arm factor:
Specimen No. 1 2 3
1.Horizontal
displacement (cm)
2.corrected area, cm2
3.proving ring reading
4.Shear load (Kg)
5.Shear stress, kg/cm2

NORMAL SHEAR STRESS

STRESS
(kg/cm2) Proving Ring Reading Proving Shear Force (kg) Shear Stress
(Division) Ring (kg/cm2)
Constant
0.5 78 0.400 31.200 0.9
1 110 0.400 44.000 1.2
1.5 145 0.400 58.000 1.6

49
 SHEAR PARAMETERS
c = 0.5 kg/cm2, Φ = 36.30
2.00
SHEAR STRESS ( kg/cm2)
1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
NORMAL STRESS (kg/cm2)

REPORT OF RESULT: The unconsolidated undrained/consolidated undrained/

consolidated drained shear parameter of the given soil sample with dry density of
___________ and moisture content of___________ , in direct shear test was found to
be c= ______________ kg/cm2 and ɸ=________ degrees.

50
 SOIL pH
IS: 2720 (Part 26) – 1987

pH is a measure of the level of acidity or alkalinity in the soil. The pH scale ranges from
0 to 14 and reflects the hydrogen ion concentration in the soil. A pH value of 7.0 is
neutral. Values below 7.0 are acidic; those above 7.0 are alkaline or basic.

Soil pH has an impact on the availability of most nutrients. Elements such as nitrogen,
calcium and molybdenum are less available at pH levels below 6.0. The availability of
other nutrients, such as manganese, zinc, phosphorus and potassium decreases at pH
levels greater than 7.0.

Vegetables grown on mineral soils have a target pH of 6.1 to 6.5. On muck soils the
target pH is 5.1 to 5.5. pH also affects the activity of soil micro-organisms. These
organisms build soil structure, cycle organic matter or fix nitrogen in legume nodules.

pH = - log10 (H+) = log10 1/H+

wherein H+ is the hydrogen ion-concentration in moles/litre.

In pure water, at 25oC, H+ = 1.00 x 10-7 and thus pH = 7.00. This value corresponds to
exact neutrality.
Definition: The pH value of solution is the negative logarithm of Hydrogen Ion activity.

Electrometric method

Instrument: A glass electrode, pH meter with calomel reference electrode.

Procedure: Standard Buffer Solution-These may be of pH 4.0 and in other ranges of

expected soil pH values. In case of buffer tablets (available commercially), a single
piece is to be dissolved in double distilled water and made up to 100ml. A 0.05 m
solution of Potassium Hydrogen pthalet gives pH 4.0 & can also be used. It is necessary
to prepare fresh solutions after a few days as the buffers do not keep for long.

30gm of soil is taken in 100ml beaker to which 75ml of distilled water are added. The
suspension is steered at regular intervals for 30 minutes. Then pH is recorded. The
suspension must be steered well just before the electrodes are immersed. pH meter is
calibrated with 2 buffers , one in the acidic side and the other alkaline or neutral range.
The glass & calomel electrodes are inserted in suspension and pH measurement is
made.

51
52
 PERMEABILITY OF SOIL
CONSTANT HEAD METHOD
IS: 2720 (Part 36) - 1987
AIM: To determine the coefficient of permeability (k) of a remoulded coarse grained soil
sample with a constant head permeameter.
THEORY:
The coefficient of permeability (k) of a soil is defined as the rate of discharge of water
through a unit cross sectional area of a soil under unit hydraulic gradient for a laminar
flow condition. This can be determined in the laboratory by constant head permeability
test for coarse grained soil with k value greater than 10-3cm/sec.

APPARATUS:

1. Permeameter mould with collar

2. Tot cap with water inlet nozzle, air release valve
3. Perforated top and bottom plates
4. Constant head tank
5. Tamping rod
6. Stop watch, scale, measuring cylinder, spanner, grease, thermometer, etc.

53
PROCEDURE:

1. Remove the over size particles by sieving the soil specimen through IS 20mm sieve
and determine its %.
2. Note the dimensions of the permeameter and calculate its volume (1000 cm3 for a
standard instrument).
3. For testing remoulded soil sample, first calculate the amount of dry soil and water
required to achieve a particular density and moisture content.
4. Mark the height of mould into three equal parts and also divide the soil into three
equal parts.
5. Compact the soil into the mould in layers after fixing the mould to its base plate
containing porous stone and placing the collar on top.
6. Put the porous stone on the top of the soil and fix the top plate which is provided
with an inlet valve and air cock. Secure both the base plate and the top plate to
mould with suitable clamps and rubber gasket to make the entire assembly water
tight.
7. Place the assembly in a shallow metal tray with an out-let .Fill the tray with water
submerge the base plate completely. All the heads of water must be measured with
respect to the tail water level corresponding to the centre of the out-let pipe or crest
of the outlet in tray.
8. Attach the constant head water tank with the sliding bracket to a vertical stand. This
tank has three opening connect one of them to water supply source, the second to
the overflow tube and the third to the inlet valve provided on the cap of the
permeameter. Remove all the air bubbles with the help of the air cock, provided on
the top plate. Allow the soil sample to saturate. Check this by obtaining constant
values of discharge collected over a given time under a given head.
9. When steady flow is attained, collect sufficient quantity of water (about 250cc) and
note the time interval. Take three observations.
10. Note the total head loss and the length of specimen and note the temperature of
water.
11. Repeat the test for three different hydraulic heads.

TABULATION (CONSTANT HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST):

Dia of mould =
Area of mould ( A ) =
Length of mould ( L)=
Volume of mould (V ) = 1000 cm3 (For a standard mould)
Temperature of water ( T ) =

54
Specific gravity of soil (GS ) =
Void ratio (e ) =
Dry density =

Sl. No. Head (h)cm Quantity of Time (T)sec Permeability Remarks

water (Q)cc cm/sec
1
2
3
4
5
6
CALCULATION: The permeability at the test temperature can be found at by the
following formula

QL
KT = -----------
Ath
Where :-
KT : Coefficient of permeability at temperature T
Q : Quantity of water discharge
L : Length of soil specimen
A : Cross sectional area of specimen
t : Total time of discharge (minutes)
h : Head loss
The temperature correction shall be applied by the following formula:

GT
K27 = KT ---------
G27
Where :-

K27 : Coefficient of permeability at 270c

KT : Coefficient of permeability at test temperature
GT : Viscosity of water at T0c
G27 : Viscosity of water at 270c
REPORT OF RESULTS:
The reports of permeability test shall include the following information:
(a) Grain size analysis, maximum particle size, and percentage of any over size material
not used,
(b) Dry unit weight, void ratio,
(c) Average value of permeability obtained in cm/sec.

55
 PERMEABILITY OF SOIL
VARIBALE HEAD METHOD
IS: 2720(PART 17)-1986
AIM:

To determine the coefficient of permeability of the given fine grained

(remoulded/undisturbed) soil sample using variable head permeameter.

THEORY:

The coefficient of permeability (k) of a soil is defined as the rate of discharge of water
through a unit cross sectional area of the soil under unit hydraulic gradient under
laminar flow condition. This can be determined in the laboratory by variable head
permeability test for fine grained soils with k less than 10-3cm/sec.

APPARATUS:

1. Permeameter mould with collar.

2. Top cap with water inlet nozzle ,air release valve.

3. Perforated base plate & filter paper.

5. Falling head stand pipe.

6. Stop watch, scale, measuring cylinder, spanner, grease thermometer etc.

56
PROCEDURE:

1. Remove the oversize particles by sieving the soil specimen through IS 20mm. sieve
& determine its percentage.
2. Note the dimensions of permeameter mould and calculate its volume.
3. For testing an undisturbed soil sample, obtain the sample into mould. Trim the soil
sample if necessary and weigh the mould with soil sample, knowing the weight of
empty mould, find the weight of undisturbed sample. Determine the natural water
content of sample from soil trimmings.
4. For testing the remoulded sample, first calculate the weight of dry soil and amount of
water required to bring the compacted soil in mould to M.D.D. and O.M.C as found
out by standard proctor test.
5. Mix the soil with water & keep for some to allow through mixing of water and
maturation of soil and divide the soil into three equal parts.
6. Compact the soil into mould in three equal layers, after fixing the mould to its base
plate. Put a filter paper on top & bottom of soil.
7. Attach the top cap with sand pipe and scale to the mould and lighten the bolts to
make the assembly water tight.
8. Place the assembly in a shallow metal tray with an outlet. Fill the tray with water to
submerge the base plate completely.
9. Pour water into the stand pipe and allow it to run through the sample. Operate the air
cock to remove any air present. Check the saturation of soil by noting the same full
of head of water from the same initial head for equal time intervals.
10. Determine the cross sectional area of stand pipe by pouring known volume of water
(5 cc) measured by means of a pipette into the stand pipe. The cross sectional area
of stand pipe a= volume of water poured into the stand pipe/water level rise in stand
pipe.
11. Open the inlet valve and allow the water to flow through the soil sample. Note the
initial height(h1) of the water level in the stand pipe and at the same time start a stop
watch.
12. Allow sufficient time so that water level falls by about 30 to 50 cm in the stand pipe.
Stop the watch and note the height (h2) of the water level in the stand pipe at that
instant.
13. Fill the stand pipe again with water and repeat the same procedure. Note also the
time when the water level reaches h1, h2. Compete the elapsed times for the water
level to fall from h1 to h2 (If these times do not agree within 2% to 3% repeat the
same observation).

14. Take two or more sets of readings with different h1 and h2.

15. Note the temperature of water in stand pipe.

57
TABULATION (VARIABLE HEAD PEMEABILITY TEST)

SL NO.Initial head(h1)cm. Final head(h2)cm Time in sec. Permeability Kt cm/sec

Average value of Kt=

CALCULATION:
The coefficient of permeability in falling head test can be found out by the following
formula
Kt= 2.303 (al /At)*log(h1/h2)
Where:-
Kt- Coefficient of permeability at test temp (cm/sec)
a - Cross sectional area of stand pipe (sq.cm)
A-Cross sectional area of soil sample (sq. cm)
L -Length of soil sample (cm)
t - Time interval (sec)
h1 - Initial head of water (cm)
h2 - Final head of water (cm)
Apply the temp. Correction to determine the coefficient of permeability at 27 ◦C.
K27◦C = Kt (Gt/G27◦C) cm/sec.
REPORT OF RESULTS:
The report of permeability test shall include the following information:-
a. Grain size analysis, maximum particle size and percentage of any oversize material
not used.
b. Dry unit weigh, void ratio.
c. Average value of permeability corrected to 27◦C.

58
 CONSOLIDATION TEST
IS: 2720 (Part 15) - 1986
THEORY:
According to Karl von Terzaghi "consolidation is any process which involves a
decrease in water content of saturated soil without replacement of water by air." In
general it is the process in which reduction in volume takes place by expulsion of water
under long term static loads.

OBJECTIVE:
One dimensional Consolidation test of soil
APPARATUS:
1. Consolidometer consisting essentially of
a) A ring of diameter = 60mm and height =
20mm
b) Two porous stones.
c) Guide ring.
d) Outer ring.
e) Water jacket with base.
f) Pressure pad.
g) Rubber basket.
2. Loading device consisting of frame, lever
system, loading yoke dial gauge fixing device
and weights.
3. Dial gauge to read to an accuracy of
0.002mm.
4. Thermostatically controlled oven.
5. Stopwatch to read seconds.
6. Sample extractor.
7. Miscellaneous items like balance, soil
trimming tools, spatula, filter papers, sample
containers.

PROCEDURE
1. Saturate two porous stones either by boiling in distilled water about 15 minute or
by keeping them submerged in the distilled water for 4 to 8 hrs. Wipe away
excess water. Fittings of the consolidometer which is to be enclosed shall be
moistened.
2. Assemble the consolidometer, with the soil specimen and porous stones at top
and bottom of specimen, providing a filter paper between the soil specimen and
porous stone. Position the pressure pad centrally on the top porous stone.
3. Mount the mould assembly on the loading frame, and center it such that the load
applied is axial.
4. Position the dial gauge to measure the vertical compression of the specimen.
The dial gauge holder should be set so that the dial gauge is in the begging of its
releases run, allowing sufficient margin for the swelling of the soil, if any.

59
 5. Connect the mould assembly to the water reservoir and the sample is allowed to
saturate. The level of the water in the reservoir should be at about the same level
as the soil specimen.
6. Apply an initial load to the assembly. The magnitude of this load should be
chosen by trial, such that there is no swelling. It should be not less than 50 g/cm 3
for ordinary soils & 25 g/cm2 for very soft soils. The load should be allowed to
stand until there is no change in dial gauge readings for two consecutive hours or
for a maximum of 24 hours.
7. Note the final dial reading under the initial load. Apply first load of intensity 0.1
kg/cm2 start the stop watch simultaneously. Record the dial gauge readings at
various time intervals. The dial gauge readings are taken until 90% consolidation
is reached. Primary consolidation is gradually reached within 24 hrs.
8. At the end of the period, specified above take the dial reading and time reading.
Double the load intensity and take the dial readings at various time intervals.
Repeat this procedure fir successive load increments. The usual loading intensity
are as follows: 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8 kg/cm2.
9. After the last loading is completed, reduce the load to ½ of the value of the last
load and allow it to stand for 24 hrs. Reduce the load further in steps of ½ the
previous intensity till an intensity of 0.1 kg/cm2 is reached. Take the final reading
of the dial gauge.
10. Reduce the load to the initial load, keep it for 24 hrs and note the final readings of
the dial gauge. After this, dismantle the specimen assembly and remove the
excess water on the soil specimen in oven, note the dry weight of it.

OBSERVATION AND READING

Table
Data and observation sheet for consolidation test pressure, compression and time.
Description of soil:
Empty weight of ring: g Area of ring: cm2
Diameter of ring: 20 mm (2 cm) Volume of ring : cm3

Dial gauge least count: 0.01 mm (100 Division = 1 mm)

Pressure 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 4 8 16

Intensity
(Kg/cm2)
Elapsed
Time
(minutes)
0.25
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

60
8
9
10
15
20
25
30
45
60
120
240
480
720
1440

CALCULATIONS
1. Height of solids (HS) is calculated from the equation, HS = Md / G*A*ρw
2. Void ratio. Voids ratio at the end of various pressures are calculated from equation
e = (H -HS)/HS
3. Coefficient of consolidation. The Coefficient of consolidation at each pressures
increment is
calculated by using the following equations :
i. Cv = 0.197 d2/t50 (Log fitting method)
ii. Cv = 0.848 d2/t90 (Square fitting method)
In the log fitting method, a plot is made between dial reading and logarithmic of
time, the time Corresponding to 50% consolidation is determined.
In the square root fitting method, a plot is made between dial readings and
square root of time and the time corresponding to 90% consolidation is
determined.
4. Compression Index. To determine the compression index, a plot of voids ratio (e) V s
log p is made. The initial compression curve would be a straight line and the slope of
this line would give the compression index Cc.
5. Coefficient of compressibility. It is defined as the decrease in voids ratio per unit
increase of pressure. av = (e0-e) / (σ’- σ0’)
6. Coefficient of permeability. It is calculated as, K = Cv*av* ρw / (1+e).
Graphs
1. Dial reading VS log of time or Dial reading VS square root of time.
2. Voids ratio VS log p (average pressure for the increment).
General Remarks
1. While preparing the specimen, attempts has to be made to have the soil strata
orientated in the same direction in the consolidation apparatus.
2. During trimming care should be taken in handling the soil specimen with least
pressure.
3. Smaller increments of sequential loading have to be adopted for soft soils.

61
 UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
IS: 2720 (Part 10) - 1973
AIM:

To determine the unconfined compressive strength of the given cohesive soil sample.

THEORY:

The unconfined compressive strength is the load per unit area at which an unconfined
cylindrical specimen of soil will fail in a compression test, if the unit axial compression
force per unit area has not reached a maximum value up to 20percent strain. Saturated
soils tested under undrained condition (like unconfined compression test) tend to
behave as if they are purely cohesive soils with Ф=0, & for such soils the usual
expression for shear strength.

S=c + σtanФ reduce to

Su=Cu since Фu=0 where
Cu=undrained cohesion
Фu=undrained angle of friction
Su=undrained shear strength

Drawing the Mohr’s circle for the failure condition of the sample, it is seen that
Su=Cu=qu/2.
The unconfined compression test is also useful to calculate the sensitivity of the soil
which is defined as the ratio of qu of the soil in its undisturbed state to that in its
remolded state.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Unconfined compression testing apparatus (Load frame), proving ring with fitting, dial
gauge & fittings, sampling tube, sample extractor, stop watch, scale etc.

62
SAMPLE SEPARATION:

A) UNDISTURBED SAMPLES: Undisturbed samples are usually obtained in

large diameter tube (of not less than 100mm).For most of the fine grained cohesive soils
normally 38mm dia. & 150mm long sampling tubes are used to collect the samples of
correct size. These are lightly greased inside & penetrated into large sampler tube.
Sampling tubes (in which the field samples are obtained) using universal extractor, so
that each of the tube is filled with soil sample with minimum possible disturbance. The
sample thus extracted (38mm dia. sample) is trimmed up to a length of 76mm.These
samples should be stored in a moist chamber to avoid moisture losses. The samples
are taken out from the split moulds just before testing.

B) REMOULDED SAMPLES: Compact the given soil either by static or dynamic

compaction into a mould of 100mm dia. To desired density & moisture content obtain
three 38mm dia. & 76mm dia. long samples from this mould as explained earlier.
However the test specimen can be prepared directly of 38mm internal diameter & 76mm
long or 50 dia x 100 ht, 75 dia x 150 ht, 100 dia x 200 ht using constant volume mould.
PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare the sample as explained above.

2. Note the dimensions of the samples (take the average value after measuring the
length & dia. at three places) and weight it.

3. Adjust the distance between two patterns of loading device to suit the size of the
specimen.

4. Place the specimen on the lower plate with its vertical axis as near to the centre of
the plate as possible. Operate the handle, raise the lower plate & bring the specimen
just in contact with the upper fixed plate.

5. Mount the dial gauge for strain measuring on the bracket place it in a vertical
position. As a final check for the proper initial setting, any movement on the lower
plate is to be followed with a movement of pointer in dial gauge for strain
measurement as well as the dial gauge of proving ring of load measurement, in the
positive direction.

6. Apply the compressive load on the soil sample by turning the handle so as to give an
axial strain rate of about 1% per minute. One percent strain corresponding to
0.76mm deflection in the strain measuring dial gauge.

7. Note the proving ring reading corresponding to each 0.5% axial strain value until a
total strain of 2% is reached & thereafter note the proving ring readings for each 1%
additional strain.

8. Continue the loading and recording till an axial strain of 20% is attained irrespective
of the fact whether load increase continuously or increases initially & decreases
latter.
63
9. Sketch the failure pattern. Measure the angle between the failure planes (cracks) &
the horizontal plane (Фf).

10. Calculate the corrected axial stress corresponding to each strain for the corrected
area.

11. Plot the stress –strain curve. Note the maximum value of the stress & strain
corresponding to this value. If the sample does not fail even at strain of 20% the
axial stress at 20% strain may be taken as the value of qu.

12. Plot the Mohr’s circle for the test sample tested at failure condition. An approximate
value of Cu can be obtained from all plotted circle.

UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

IS: 2720 (Part 10) - 1973
Undisturbed / Remoulded sample: Tested by:
Soil type: Date:

TABULATION-1:

SL
Details Specimen no 1 Specimen no 2 Specimen no 3
NO
1 Wt. of specimen(g)
2 Dry density g/cc.
Moisture content (%)
3

4 Strain at failure
Unconfined compressive
5
strength

TABULATION-2:

Initial Effective
Specimen Initial dia. Initial Initial area Angle of
volume angle of
No. Cm height cm cm2 cracking
cm3 friction
1
2

64
TABULATION-3:

Specimen- Specimen-
Corre
1 2
Dial gauge cted %
Proving Load Axial Proving Load Axial
reading area, Strain
ring kg. stress ring kg. stress
cm2
reading reading
0
50
100
Up to 20%
strain or failure
whichever is
earlier
CALCULATION:

Stress strain values shall be calculated as follows:-

a) The axial strain Є=L/LO

=the change in specimen length.
LO =the initial length of specimen.

b) The average cross sectional area A at a particular strain shall be determined from the
following relationship.

A=AO / (1-Є)

Where AC=Initial cross sectional area specimen.

c) Compressive stress shall be determined from the relationship

σ=P/A
Where P=Compressive force as per proving ring reading.
A=Average cross sectional area.

GRAPH:Plot the following graph.

a) Stress versus strain curve & find out the failure load (qu) & corresponding strain.
b) Draw Mohr’s envelopes for all the specimen tested & find out the value of C U.

REPORT:
A) Dry density, moisture content & degrees of saturation at failure.
B) Where failure is reached by maximum strain or stress failure.
C) Unconfined compress strength & effective angle of internal friction.

65
 LABORATORY VANE SHEAR TEST
IS: 2720(Part 30)- 1980, Reaffirmed 1987

AIM:

To determine the undrained Shear strength of soft cohesive soil by laboratory

vane shear test.

THEORY:

Normal clays and cohesive soils can be sampled in undistributed state by

selecting a good sampler. Soft and sensitive clays like some marine clays are
distributed even by release of stress during drilling, sampling and also
preparation of soil specimen for test .But vane shear test can be conducted in
field as well as in laboratory for these type of soil without much disturbance to
soil. This test is used to obtain undrained cohesion of saturated soils (Øu=0).

APPARATUS:

Vane shear apparatus, calibrated torsion springs, porcelain dish, spatula,

balance etc.

PROCEDURE:

1. Prepare the soil specimen to required dry density and moisture content and
compact it into the container to get a specimen of minimum length of 75 mm.

2. Mount the specimen container with the specimen on the base of vane Shear
apparatus and fix it securely to the base.

3. Lower the Shear vanes into the specimen to their full length gradually without
disturbing the soil specimen so that the top of the vane is atleast 10mm below
the top of the specimen.

4. None the readings of the strain and Torque indicators.

5. Rotate the vane at a uniform rate of about 0.1 % sec by suitably operating the
torque applicator handle until the specimen fails which is indicated by the return
of the strain indicating pointer.

6. Note the final reading of the Torque indicator.

66
 7. Just after the determination of maximum torque rotate the vane rapidly through
a minimum of 10 revolutions. The remoulded strength should then the
determined within 1 minute after completion of the revolution.

8. Determine the moisture content of the soil sample.

9. Change the moisture content and proceed as before to find out maximum
torque and corresponding and moisture content.

CALCULATIONS:-

Calculate the Shear strength of the soil using the following formula.

T
S = -----------------------
ᴨ[(D2H/2)+(D3/6)]

Where, S = Shear strength in kg/cm2

T = Torque in kg.cm

T = Torque angle * spring constant/180°

D = overall diameter of vane in cm

H = Height of the vane in cm

TABULATION:
SOIL TYPE: TESTED BY:
TEST NO. 1 2 3 4 5
1.Initialreading of Torque indicator(θ1)

2.Final reading of Torque indicator(θ2)

3.Torque angle θ=(θ2- θ1)
4.Torque (T) in kg.cm
5.Shear strength(s) kg/cm2
6.container no.
7.Wt.of container + wet soil
8.Wt.of container + dry soil
9.Wt.of empty container
10.Wt.of water
11.Wt.of dry soil
12.Water content(%)

67
 TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST
Unconsolidated Undrained (UU)
IS: 2720 (Part 11) – 1971, Reaffirmed 1978

ALEC WESTLEY SKEMPTON

AIM:To determine the strength parameters of given soil sample by unconsolidated

undrained Triaxial compression test.

THEORY:

A triaxial test is intended to provide strength data of a soil sample subjected to

compressive stresses in three mutually perpendicular directions. The analysis is based
on coulomb’s envelop for S=C+Ϭtanⱷ combined with Mohr’s failure criteria. A Mohr
circle with Ϭ3 and Ϭ1 at failure represents state of specimen at shear. The limitations of
predetermined plane of failure,

Non-uniform stress distribution, inadequate control of drainage and ignoring the effects
of minor principal stresses in direct shear test can be avoided by using this test. By this
test, it can also possible to measure the pore water pressure and volume change
precisely.

APPARATUS:

1. Triaxial machine with lateral pressure assembly and axial load device.
2. Specimen trimmer with accessories.
3. Specimen mould.
4. Rubber membrane.
5. Rubber band.
68
6. Water supply system and air compressor.
7. Balance, oven etc.

69
PROCEDURE:

1. Obtain three soil samples of size 38mm diameter and 76mm long from a
sampling tube, usually of diameter of 100mm.
2. Alternatively soil sample of above size and required dry density and moisture
content can be remoulded with split sampler for triaxial test.
3. Enclose each of the samples in a rubber membrane sheath stretcher.
4. Attach 38mm diameter solid base cap at the centre of base plate of triaxial cell.
5. Place the soil sample centrally on the base cap of the triaxial cell and cover it
with the loading plate.
6. Seal the rubber membrane against the top and bottom caps with circular rings.
Place the steel ball in the central groove of the top cap.
7. Carefully lower the upper assembly of the triaxial cell into position checking that
the plunger bottom just rests on the spherical ball on the top cap of the sample.
8. Fix the upper assembly to the base plate tightening the nuts evenly. Place the
cell centrally on the loading frame.
9. Admit the water into the triaxial chamber, ensuring that the air cock at the top of
cell is open to facilitate the escape of air. Close the air cock after the cell is filled
with water and connect with the compressor maintained at a pressure equal to
around pressure to be given to the sample.
10. Bring down the loading ram such that its bottom is 0.5cm.above the steel ball,
lock the handle and start the motor or operate by hand till the loading ram bottom
just touches the spherical ball. When this happens the proving ring dial gauge
just starts moving. Immediately stop the motor adjust the proving ring dial gauge
reading to zero.
11. The axial strain is measured by a dial gauge fixed to the ram.
12. Start loading the sample at a constant rate of strain of 0.75mm/minute (1% strain
/min).
13. Record the load (proving ring dial reading) at every 1% strain. Continue the
loading until an axial strain of 20% is reached.
14. Drain out the cell water. Take out the soil sample. Remove the rubber
membrane. Sketch the failure pattern. Weight the sample. Determine the sample
at 3 different places along the failure plane.
15. Conduct the test for at least three different cell pressures.

TABULATION: (UNCONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST)

Soil type: - Date:-

Specimen type: - Remoulded/undisturbed tested by:-
Initial length of sample: - Proving ring no:-
Initial dia. of sample: - Proving ring constant:-

70
 Rate of strain:-

Sl no Description of specimen Specimen no.

1 2 3
1 Initial weight of
specimen (gm)
2 Bulk density gm/c.c.
3 Initial moisture content
%
4 Cell pressure (σ3) gm
/cm2
5 Mode of failure
6 Angle of shear plane
with vertical axis
7 Wt. of wet soil +
container (gm)
8 Wt. of dry soil +
container (gm)
9 Wt. of empty container
(gm)
10 Wt. of water (gm)
11 Wt. of dry soil (gm)
12 Final water content (gm)

Tabulation – 2

Axia Dial Correct Specimen 1 Specimen 2 Specimen 3

l gaug ed Provi Deviat Deviat Provi Deviat Deviat Provi Deviat Deviat
Stra e area ng or or ng or or ng or or
2
in readi cm ring load stress ring load stress ring load stress
ng readi readi readi
ng ng ng
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0

71
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
19.0
20.0
CALCULATION :

Calculate the deviator stress using the corrected area AC corresponding to various axial
strain values

AC = Where Ɛ =

dl being the change in length, lo is the initial length and Ao the initial area of the soil
sample.

GRAPHS:

1) Plot a graph between percentage axial strength (on X axis) and deviator stress
on (x axis) and determine maximum deviator stress and corresponding axial
strain. Compute the major and minor principal stresses at failure.
2) Draw the Mohr’s circle and find out the shear parameters & soil.

REPORT OF RESULTS:

72
 FREE SWELL INDEX
IS: 2720 (Part 40) -1977
AIM: To determine the free swell index of soil as per IS: 2720 (Part XL) – 1977.
Free swell or differential free swell, also termed as free swell index, is the increase in
volume of soil without any external constraint when subjected to submergence in water.
Apparatus:
1. IS Sieve of size 425µm
2. Oven
3. Balance, with an accuracy of 0.01g
4. Graduated glass cylinder- 2 nos., each of 100ml capacity
Procedure:
1. Take two oven dried specimens of 50g each passing through 425µm IS Sieve.
2. Pour each soil specimen into a graduated glass cylinder of 100ml capacity.
3. Pour distilled water in one and kerosene oil in the other cylinder upto 100ml
mark.
4. Remove entrapped air by gently shaking or stirring with a glass rod.
5. Allow the suspension to attain the state of equilibrium (for not less than 24hours).
6. Final volume of soil in each of the cylinder should be read out.
REPORT
Free swell index = [Vd – Vk] / Vk x 100%
where,
Vd =volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder containing distilled water.
Vk = volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder containing kerosene.

FSI in % expansiveness

< 20 Low

20-35 Moderate

35-50 High

> 50 very high

73
 STANDARD PENETRATION TEST
IS: 2131-1981
Components

Drilling Equipment
Inner diameter of hole - 100 to 150 mm
Casing may be used in case of soft/non-cohesive soils
Split spoon sampler - IS:9640-1980
Drive weight assembly - Falling Weight = 63.5 Kg (Fall height = 75 cm)
Others - Lifting bail, Tongs, ropes, screw jack, etc.
Procedure

1. The bore hole is advanced to desired depth and bottom is cleaned.

2. Split spoon sampler is attached to a drill rod and rested on bore hole bottom.
3. Driving mass is dropped onto the drill rod repeatedly and the sampler is driven into
soil for a distance of 450 mm. The number of blow for each 150 mm penetration are
recorded.

N-value

First 150 mm penetration is considered as seating drive

The number of blows for the last two 150 mm penetration are added together and
reported as N-value for the depth of bore hole.

The split spoon sampler is recovered, and sample is collected from split barrel so as to
preserve moisture content and sent to the laboratory for further analysis.

SPT is repeated at every 750 mm or 1500 mm interval for larger depths.

Under the following conditions the penetration is referred to as refusal and test is halted

a. 50 blows are required for any 150 mm penetration

b. 100 blows are required for last 300 mm penetration
c. 10 successive blows produce no advancement

Precautions

The height of free fall of the weight must be 750 mm

The fall of hammer must be free, frictionless and vertical

Cutting shoe of the sampler must be free from wear & tear

74
The bottom of the bore hole must be cleaned to collect undisturbed sample

When SPT is done in a sandy soil below water table, the water level in the bore hole
MUST be maintained higher than the ground water level.

Interpretation from SPT: Cohesion less Soil

N’ Φ’ ID (%) Density Description
0-4 25-30 0-15 Very loose
4-10 27-32 15-35 Loose
10-30 30-35 35-65 Medium
30-50 35-40 65-85 Dense
>50 38-43 85-100 Very dense

Interpretation from SPT: Cohesive Soil

N Cu (kPa) Consistency Remarks
0-2 0-12 Very soft N- Not corrected for
2-4 12-25 Soft overburden
4-8 25-50 Medium
8-15 50-100 Stiff Cu = 6.25 * N kPa
15-30 100-200 Very stiff
>30 >200 hard

75
 RELATIVE DENSITY OR DENSITY INDEX
IS: 2720-PART-15
AIM: To determine the relative density or density index of cohesionless soil.

THEORY
Relative density is also known as density index. It is defined as the ratio of
difference between the void ratio of a cohesionless soil (i.e. sand) in the loosest
state and any given void ratio to the difference between its void ratios in the
loosest state and in the densest state.

APPARATUS
1. Vibratory table
2. Moulds
3. Surcharge
weights
4. Dial gauge
5. Pouring device
6. Mixing pans
7. Weighing scale
8. Steel straight
edge
9. Metal hand
scoop

TEST PROCEDURE
The test procedure to determine the relative density of soil involves the
measurement of density of soils in its loosest possible state (γmin) and densest
possible state (γmax). Knowing the specific gravity of soil solids (Gs) the void
ratios of the soil in its loosest state (emax) and densest state (emin) are computed.
The density of soil in the field (γ) is used to compute the void ratio (e) in the field.
After obtaining the three void ratios (i.e. minimum, maximum and natural) the
relative density is computed. The two moulds (3000 cm3 or 15000 cm3) are used
depending upon the maximum size of soil particle present.

76
The first step is to calibrate these moulds. Then the possible minimum and
maximum densities of the soil are obtained as explained below.

CALIBRATION OF MOULDS
To calibrate, the mould should be filled with water and a glass plate should be
slide carefully over the top surface of the mould in such a manner as to ensure
that the mould is completely filled with water. The volume of the mould should be
calculated in cm3 by dividing the weight of water in the mould by the unit weight
of water.

PREPARATION OF SOIL SAMPLE

A representative sample of soil should be selected. The weight of soil sample to
be taken depends upon the maximum size of particles in the soil as given in the
table below. The soil sample should be dried in an oven at a temperature of
1050 to 1100 c. The soil sample should be pulverized without breaking the
individual soil particles and sieved through the required sieve.
Weight of soil sample to be taken for the test
As per IS-2720-Part-15

Maximum Weight of soil Pouring device to be used Size of the

size of soil sample in the test for the mould to
particles required determination of minimum be used
(mm) (kg) density (cm3)

80 45 Shovel or large scoop 15000

40 12 Scoop 3000

20 12 Scoop 3000

Pouring device (25 mm dia

10 12 spout) 3000

Pouring device (12 mm dia

4.75 12 spout) 3000

77
PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF MINIMUM DENSITY
1. The pouring device and mould should be selected according to the maximum
size of particle as indicated in the table above. The mould should be weighed
and weight recorded. Oven dry soil should be used.
2. Soil containing particles smaller than 10 mm should be placed as loosely as
possible in the mould by pouring the soil through the spout in a steady
stream. The spout should be adjusted so that the height of free fall of the soil
is always 25 mm. while pouring the soil, the pouring device should be moved
in a spiral motion from the outside towards the centre to form a soil layer of
uniform thickness without segregation. The mould should be filled
approximately 25 mm above the top and leveled with the top by making one
continuous pass with the steel straight edge. If all excess material is not
removed, an additional continuous pass should be made. Great care shall be
exercised to avoid jarring during the entire pouring and trimming operation.
3. The mould and the soil should be weighed and the weight recorded.
4. Soil containing particles larger than 10 mm should be placed by means of a
large scoop (or shovel) held as close as possible to and just above the soil
surface to cause the material to slide rather than fall into previously placed
soil. If necessary, larger particles may be held by hand to prevent them from
rolling off the scoop. The mould should be filled to overflowing but not more
than 25 mm above the top. The surface of the soil should be leveled with the
top of the mould using the steel straight edge in such a way that any slight
projections of the larger particles above the top of the mould shall
approximately balance the large voids in the surface below the top of the
mould. The mould and the soil should be weighed and the weighed and the
weight recorded.
PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF MAXIMUM DENSITY
The maximum density of soil may be determined by either dry or wet method.

A. DRY METHOD
1. The guide sleeve should be assembled on top of the mould and the clamp
assemblies tightened so that the inner surfaces of the walls of the mould and
the sleeve are in line. The lock nuts should be tightened. The third clamp
should be loosened, the guide sleeve removed, the empty mould weighed
and its weight recorded.
2. The mould should then be filled with the thoroughly mixed oven dry soil in a
loose state.

78
3. The guide sleeves should be attached to the mould and the surcharge base
plate should be placed on the soil surface. The surcharge weight should then
be lowered on to the base plate using the hoist in the case of the 15000 cm 3
mould.
4. The mould should be fixed to the vibrator deck. The assembly of mould fixed
on to the vibrating table is shown in the figure below. The vibrator control
should be set at its maximum amplitude and the loaded soil specimen should
be vibrated for 8 minutes.
5. The surcharge weight and the guide sleeves should be removed from the
mould. The dial gauge readings on two opposite sides of the surcharge base
plate should be obtained and the average recorded. The mould with the soil
should be weighed and its weight recorded.
B. WET METHOD
1. The wet method may be conducted on dry soil or wet soil from the field.
2. The mould should be filled with wet soil. Sufficient water should be added to
the soil to allow a small quantity of free water to accumulate on the surface of
the soil during filling. During and just after filling the mould, it should be
vibrated for a total of six minutes. During this period the amplitude of the
vibrator should be reduced as much as necessary to avoid excessive boiling
or fluffing of the soil, which may occur in some soils. During the final minutes
of vibration, any water appearing above the surface of the soil should be
removed.
3. The guide sleeve, surcharge base plate and surcharge weight should be
assembled as described in dry method.
4. The specimen with the surcharge weight should be vibrated for 8 minutes.
After the vibration, the surcharge weight and the guide should be removed
from the mould. Dial gauge reading should be obtained on two opposite sides
of the base plate and recorded. The entire wet specimen should be carefully
removed from the mould, dried to constant weight, weighed and the weight
recorded.

79
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION
Observation and calculations are recorded and done as per the table shown
below.

Determination of minimum density

Observation Trial-1 Trial-2 Trial-3

Weight of mould, g

Weight of soil+mould,(W) g

Calibrated volume of mould,

(Vc), cm3

Minimum density, γmin=W/Vc,

g/cm3

Determination of maximum density

Observation Trial-1 Trial-2 Trial-3

Weight of mould, g

Dial gauge reading , left

Dial gauge reading, right

Average gauge reading, Df

Initial gauge reading, Di

Surface area of soil sample,

(A), cm2

Volume of soil Vs=Vc-(Df-

Di)A, cm3

80
Weight of dry soil+mould, g

Weight of dry soil, (W), g

Maximum density,
(γmax)=W/Vs, g/cm3

Computation of relative density

Observation Trial-1 Trial-2 Trial-3

In place density, γd, g/cm3

γmax, g/cm3

γmin, g/cm3

γd-γmin

γmax-γmin

Realtive density

Dr={[(γmax)(γd-γmin)]/[γd(γmax-γmin)]}*100

CALCULATION BY VOIDS RATIO METHOD

Relative density or density index is the ratio of the difference between the void
ratios of a cohesionless soil in its loosest state and existing natural state to the
difference between its void ratio in the loosest and densest states.

Relative density = (emax – e) / (emax – emin)

Where,
emax = void ratio of coarse grained soil ( cohesionless) in its loosest state.
emin = void ratio of coarse grained soil ( cohesionless) in its densest state.
e =void ratio of coarse grained soil (cohesionless) in its natural existing
state in the field or the required voids ratio to be maintained in the field.

81
 MODIFIED PROCTOR COMPACTION TEST
OR HEAVY COMPACTION TEST
IS: 2720 (Part-8) - 1983
OBJECTIVE
To determine moisture content and dry density relationship using heavy compaction or
modified compaction method as per IS-2720-Part-8.

APPARATUS
• Metal mould (volume = 1000 cm3)
• Balance (capacity = 10 kg, least count = 1g)
• Oven (105 to 1100C)
• Sieve (19 mm)
• Metal rammer (weight = 4.9 kg)

PROCEDURE
1. Dry the soil sample by exposing it to air or sun light.
2. Sieve the air dried soil through 19 mm sieve.
3. Add suitable amount of water with the soil and mix it thoroughly. For sandy and
gravelly soil add 3% to 5% of water. For cohesive soil the amount of water to be
added should be12% to 16% below the plastic limit.
4. Weigh the mould with base plate to the nearest 1g. Record this weight as W1’.
5. Attach the extension collar with the mould.
6. Compact the moist soil into the mould in five layers of approximately equal mass,
each layer being given 25 blows, with the help of 4.9 kg rammer, dropped from a
height of 450 mm above the soil. The blows must be distributed uniformly over the
surface of each layer.
7. After completion of the compaction operation, remove the extension collar and level
carefully the top of the mould by means of straightedge.
8. Weigh the mould with the compacted soil to the nearest 1 g. Record weight as ‘W2’.
9. After weighing remove the compacted soil from the mould and place it on the mixing
tray. Determine the water content of a representative sample of the specimen.
Record the moisture content as ‘M’.
10. Broken up the remainder of the specimen and repeat step 5 to step 9 by adding
suitable increment of water to the soil. For sandy and gravelly soils the increment
in general is 1% to 2%. For cohesive soils the increment in general is 2% to 4%.

82
 11. The total no. of determinations made shall be at least five, and the moisture
contents should be such that the optimum moisture content, at which the maximum
dry density occurs, is within that range.
CALCULATION
Bulk density, γb in g/cm3 of each compacted specimen is calculated from the following
equation.
γb = (W2-W1)/Vm
where,
W1 = Weight in g of mould + base plate
W2 = Weight in g of mould + base plate + soil
Vm = Volume of mould i.e. 1000 cm3.
Dry density, γd in g/cm3 of each compacted specimen is calculated from the following
equation.
γd = 100 γb/(100+M)
Where,
γb = Bulkdensity of soil in g/cm3.
M = Moisture content of soil
GRAPH
The dry densities, γd , obtained in a series of determinations is plotted against the
corresponding moisture content ‘M’. A smooth curve is then drawn through the resulting
points and the position of the maximum on this curve is determined, which is
called maximum dry density (M.D.D). And the corresponding moisture content is
called optimum moisture content (O.M.C.).

83