PHYS-137

GENERAL PHYSICS-1

Week 2, October 10-13, 2021

Prof. M. Boz
Hacettepe University
Physics Department

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 PHYS-137
GENERAL PHYSICS-1
2021-2022 FALL SEMESTER
COURSE TEXTBOOK: David Halliday, Robert Resnick, and Jearl Walker, Fundamentals of Physics,
Extended, 10th Edition, John Willey & Sons, Inc., 2013.

OTHER RECOMMENDED TEXTBOOKS: Hough D. Young, Roger A. Freedman, University Physics with
Modern Physics, 13th Edition, Addison-Wesley, 2012.
Raymond A. Serway, John W. Jewett, Jr., Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics,
8th Edition, Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning, 2010.

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CHAPTER 3 MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE

What we know is a drop,

what we don’t know is an ocean

Isaac Newton

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MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE

Chapter 3 Motion along a Straight Line

3-1 Position, Displacement and Average Velocity
3-2 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
3-3 Acceleration
3-4 Constant Acceleration
3-5 Free Fall Acceleration
3-6 Graphical Integration in Motion Analysis
Review and Summary
Some Examples

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 3-1 Position, Displacement and Average Velocity

To locate an object means to find its position relative to some reference point, often the origin (or
zero point) of an axis such as the x axis. The positive direction of the axis is in the direction of
increasing numbers (coordinates)- to the right in Fig. 3-1. The opposite is the negative direction.

Fig 3.1. Position is determined on an axis in units of length (in m) .

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 Displacement

A change from position x1 to position x2 is called a displacement x, where

∆ 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

Displacement is an example of a vector quantity, which has both a direction and a magnitude.

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 Displacement

For example, if the particle moves from x1 = 5 m to x2 = 12 m, then the displacement is :

∆x = (12 m) - (5 m) =7 m.
The positive result indicates that the motion is in the positive direction.
Then, the displacement vector can be expressed as:
∆𝑥റ = 7 𝑖Ƹ
whose magnitude is given by:

|∆𝑥|
റ = ∆𝑥 = 49 = 7
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 Displacement
If, instead, the particle moves from x1 = 5 m to x2 = 1 m, then the displacement is:
∆x = (1 m) - (5 m) =-4 m.
The negative result indicates that the motion is in the negative direction.
Then, the displacement vector can be expressed as:
∆𝑥റ = -4 𝑖Ƹ
The magnitude of ∆𝑥റ is given by :

|∆𝑥|
റ = ∆𝑥 = 16 = 4
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 3-2 Average Velocity and Average Speed
A compact way of describing position is by means of a graph of
x plotted as a function of time t.
As a simple example, Fig. 3-2 shows the position function x(t)
for a stationary particle.

𝑥 𝑡 = 0 = −5 𝑚,
𝑥 𝑡 = 3 = 0,
𝑥 𝑡 =4 =2𝑚 Fig 3.2. The graph of x(t) for a moving armadillo. The path
associated with the graph is also shown, at three times.

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 Average Velocity and Average Speed
The graph in Fig. 3-2 reveals how fast the armadillo moves. Actually, there are several quantities
associated with this “how fast” phrase , and among these one of them is the average velocity, which is
the ratio of the displacement x that occurs during a particular time interval t to that interval:
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝜈𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
Here 𝑥2 and 𝑥1 are the positions of the particle at 𝑥 𝑡2 = 𝑥2 and 𝑥 𝑡1 = 𝑥1 respectively. The time
interval is ∆𝑡= 𝑡2 - 𝑡1 .
[𝐿]
In terms of the dimensional symbols we write [𝑇]
and the unit of 𝜈𝑎𝑣𝑔 is m/s.

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 Average Velocity and Average Speed

On a graph of x versus t, 𝜈𝑎𝑣𝑔 is the slope of the straight line that

connects two particular points on the x(t) curve: one is the point that
corresponds to 𝑥2 and 𝑡2 , and the other is the point that corresponds to
𝑥1 and 𝑡1 .

Figure 3-3 shows how to find 𝜈𝑎𝑣𝑔 for the time interval t =1 s to t =4 s.

𝑥2 − 𝑥1 2 − (−4) Fig 3.3 Calculation of the average velocity between t=1 s and t=4 s
𝜈𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = 2 m/s
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 4−1 as the slope of the line that connects the points on the x(t) curve.

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 Average Speed

Average speed (𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) is a different way of describing “how fast” a particle moves. As the average
velocity involves the particle’s displacement x, the average speed involves the total distance
covered independent of direction; that is,

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∆𝑡

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 3-2 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed

Average velocity and average speed are the two tools in the description of how fast something
moves . However, the phrase “how fast” more commonly refers to how fast a particle is moving at
a given instant—its instantaneous velocity (or simply velocity) 𝜈 .
The velocity at any instant is obtained from the average velocity by shrinking the time interval t
closer and closer to 0. As t dwindles, the average velocity approaches a limiting value, which is the
velocity at that instant:

∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣 = lim =
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed

Note that 𝜈 is the rate at which position x is changing with time at a given instant; Namely, it is the
derivative of x with respect to t. Also note that v at any instant is the slope of the position–time
curve at the point representing that instant.

Velocity is another vector quantity and thus has an associated direction.

Speed is the magnitude of velocity.

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 3-3 Acceleration
When a particle’s velocity changes, the particle is said to undergo acceleration (or to accelerate).
For motion along an axis, the average acceleration 𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 over a time interval t is given by:

∆𝑣 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ∆𝑣
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = =
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡

where the particle has velocity 𝑣1 at time 𝑡1 and then 𝑣2 at time 𝑡2 . The instantaneous
acceleration is defined as:

∆𝑣 𝑑𝑣
a = lim =
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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 Acceleration

In words, the acceleration of a particle at any instant is the rate at which its velocity is changing at
that instant. Graphically, the acceleration at any point is the slope of the curve of v(t) at that point.
Combining

𝑑𝑣 ∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎= with 𝑣 = lim =
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
one obtains:
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
𝑎= 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡 2

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 Acceleration

In words, the acceleration of a particle at any instant is the second derivative of its position 𝑥 𝑡
with respect to time.
A common unit of acceleration is the meter per second per second: m/𝑠 2
[𝐿] [𝐿]
Other units are in the form of or
[𝑇][𝑇] [𝑇]2

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 Acceleration and dv/dt

Example 1 (Sample problem 2.03 from the textbook)

A particle’s position on the x axis of is given by:
𝑥 𝑡 = 4 − 27𝑡 + 𝑡 3 (𝑚)
(a) To get the velocity function v(t), one differentiates x(t)
with respect to 𝑡 :
𝑣 𝑡 = −27 + 3𝑡 2 (m/s)
(b) Differentiating this with respect to 𝑡 leads to:
a 𝑡 = 6𝑡 (m/𝑠 2 )

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 Acceleration and dv/dt

(c) Is there any time where 𝑣 = 0 ?

𝑣 𝑡 = −27 + 3𝑡 2 (m/s) ⇒ t=±3 s.
Thus, the velocity is zero both 3 s before and 3 s after the clock reads 0.
(d) What is the position and the instantaneous velocity at t=0 s?
𝑥 𝑡=0 =4 𝑚
𝑥 = 4 𝑖Ƹ (m)
𝑣 𝑡 = 0 = −27 + 3 = −27 m/s ( in the negative direction of the x axis)
𝑣 = -27 𝑖Ƹ (m/s)

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 3-4 Constant Acceleration

In many types of motion, the acceleration is either constant or approximately so. For instance, a might be
accelerated at an approximately constant rate when a traffic light turns from red to green.

Fig 3-4 The position x(t) of a particle moving with constant acceleration. Its velocity, given at each point by the slope of the curve of x(t),
whereas its acceleration equals to the (constant) slope of the curve of v(t).
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 Constant Acceleration: A Special Case

When the acceleration is constant, due to the fact that the average and instantaneous
accelerations are equal, one can write:

Here, 𝑣0 is the velocity at t=0 and 𝜈 is the velocity at any later time t. Then,

First Basic Equation 𝜈 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡

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 Constant Acceleration: A Special Case

Similarly, starting from

one gets:

𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝜈𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑡

where 𝑥0 is the velocity at t=0 and 𝜈𝑎𝑣𝑔 is the average velocity between t=0 and a later time t.

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 Constant Acceleration: A Special Case

For the linear velocity function in the equation,

the average velocity over any time interval (say, from t= 0 to a later time t) is the average of the
velocity at the beginning of the interval (𝑣0 ) and the velocity at the end of the interval (𝜈 ).
Namely, from t =0 to the later time t then, the average velocity is:

Substituting the right hand side of the previous equation into this, one obtains 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 as:

1 1
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = (𝜈 + 𝜈0 +𝑎 𝑡) = 𝑣0 + 2 at
2 0

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 Constant Acceleration: A Special Case

On the other hand, substituting

1 1
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = (𝜈 + 𝜈0 + 𝑎 𝑡) = 𝑣0 + 𝑎 𝑡
2 0 2

into
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝜈𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑡

one gets
1
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡2
2

1
Second Basic Equation 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡2
2

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 The Other Equations

Starting from the two basic equations,

1
𝜈 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡2
2

and eliminating t by using these, one gets:

𝜈 2 = 𝜈02 + 2 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )

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 Equations of Motion For Constant Acceleration
Equation Missing Quantities
𝜈 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑥0
1 𝜈
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡2
2
𝜈 2 = 𝜈02 + 2 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) 𝑡
1 𝑎
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = (𝜈 + 𝑣0 ) 𝑡
2
1 𝑣0
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝜈𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑡2
2

Table 3-1 Equations of motion for constant acceleration

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 Another Look At Constant Acceleration

The first two equations in the Table 3-1 are the basic equations from which the others are derived. Those two
can be obtained by integration of the acceleration with the condition that a is constant:
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= ⟹ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Taking the integral of both sides , one gets:

න 𝑑𝑣 = න 𝑎 𝑑𝑡

Since the acceleration is constant, it is observed that:

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 Another Look At Constant Acceleration

න 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 න 𝑑𝑡

from which one gets : 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑡 + 𝐶 .

To evaluate the constant of integration C, by substituting the initial condition 𝑣 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑣0 , one obtains:

𝑣 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑣0 = 𝐶
which gives the basic equation: 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑣0

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 Another Look At Constant Acceleration

On the other hand, starting from the definition of velocity:

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
and taking the indefinite integral of both sides, one gets:

න 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑣 𝑑𝑡

Inserting 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑣0 into this equation gives:

න 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑣0 𝑑𝑡

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 Another Look At Constant Acceleration

Since 𝑣0 is constant as well as the acceleration, one obtains:

න 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 න 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣0 න 𝑑𝑡

Integration yields:
1
𝑥 = 2 𝑎 𝑡 2 + 𝑣0 t + 𝐶 ′

where 𝐶 ′ is another constant of integration . Using the initial condition 𝑥 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑥0, one gets the result as:
x 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑥0 = 𝐶 ′ .
1
which leads to the second basic equation: 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 2
𝑎 𝑡2

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 Free Fall Motion
Few words on history of science It is well known that, in the absence of air resistance,
all objects dropped near the Earth’s surface fall toward the Earth with the same constant
acceleration under the influence of the Earth’s gravity. However, before the 17th century, depending on the in
in line with the teachings of the Aristotle, it was a common belief that heavier objects fall
faster than lighter ones. R. A. Serway, J. W. Jewett, Jr., Physics
for Scientists and Engineers with
Modern Physics, 9th Edition,
Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning, 2014.

Our present-day ideas concerning falling objects depend on Galileo Galilei’s (1564–1642) pioneering works.
Besides made many other significant discoveries in physics and astronomy.He performed many experiments
on objects moving on inclined planes. In these experiments, he rolled balls down a slight incline and measured
the distances they covered in successive time intervals, to draw conclusions about freely falling objects.

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 Free Fall Motion

Concerning the falling objects, one of the well-known experiments is dropping, simultaneously, a coin and a
crumpled-up piece of paper from the same height. It will be observed that, if the effects of air resistance are
negligible, both of them will have the same motion and will hit the floor at the same time. In the idealized
case, in which air resistance is absent, such motion is referred to as free-fall motion.

On August 2, 1971, such a demonstration is conducted by the astronaut David Scott on the Moon. Releasing
simultaneously a hammer and a feather, and the two objects fell together to the lunar surface.

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 3-5 Free Fall Acceleration
If you tossed an object either up or down and could somehow eliminate the effects of air on its flight,
you would find that the object accelerates downward at a certain constant rate. That rate is called the
free-fall acceleration, and its magnitude is represented by g. The acceleration is independent of the
object’s characteristics, such as mass, density, or shape; it is the same for all objects.

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 3-5 Free Fall Acceleration

When we use the expression freely falling object, we do not necessarily refer to an object dropped from rest.
A freely falling object is any object moving freely under the influence of gravity alone, regardless of its initial
motion. Any freely falling object experiences an acceleration directed downward, regardless of its initial
motion.

We shall denote the magnitude of the free-fall acceleration, also called the acceleration due to gravity, by the
symbol g. The value of g decreases with increasing altitude above the Earth’s surface. Furthermore, slight
variations in g occur with changes in latitude. At the Earth’s surface, the value of g is approximately g= 9.8
m/s2 . Unless stated otherwise, we shall use this value for g= 10 m/s2 when performing calculations.

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 Free Fall Acceleration
Taking the y-axis to point upward,
the acceleration of an object in
free fall is ay = -g where the
negative sign means that the
acceleration is downward and
hence the equations for free
fall take the form: Fig 3-5 A pitcher tosses a baseball
straight up into the air. The
𝜈 = 𝑣0 − g𝑡 equations of free fall apply for
1 rising as well as for falling
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 − 𝑔 𝑡2 objects, provided any effects from
2
the air can be neglected.
𝜈 2 − 𝜈02 = −2 𝑔 (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )

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 Free Fall Acceleration
Example 2 (Sample problem 2.05 from the textbook)
A pitcher tosses a baseball up along a y axis, with an initial speed (𝑣0 )

of 12 m/s.

(a) How long does the ball take to reach its maximum height ?

The velocity 𝑣 = 0 at 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 . Hence knowing

𝑚
𝑣 = 0 , 𝑎 = −𝑔 , and 𝑣0 = 12 and in seeking t,
𝑠

we solve the first equation which contains all those four variables:
𝑣−𝑣0 0−(−12) 𝑚
𝑡= = = 1.2 s (g≃ 10 )
𝑎 10 𝑠2

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 Free Fall Acceleration

(b) What is the ball’s maximum height above its release point?
Taking the ball’s release point as 𝑦0 = 0 and remembering the velocity 𝑣 = 0 at 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 , one
solves the third equation for y :

𝜈2 −𝜈02
𝜈2 − 𝜈02 = −2 𝑔 (𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) ⟹ y = −2𝑔

0 − 122
The result is : y= = 7.2 𝑚
(−2). (10)
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 Free Fall Acceleration

(c) How long does the ball take to reach a point 5.0 m above its release point?
Using the equation
1
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 − 𝑔 𝑡2
2

𝑚
for the given values 𝑦 = 5 m, and 𝑣0 = 12 , one gets:
𝑠

5 𝑡 2 −12 𝑡 + 5 = 0 and solving this quadratic equation for t yields : 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 .

There are two such times which is not really surprising since the ball passes twice through y = 5.0 m,
once on the way up and once on the way down.

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 3-6 Graphical Integration in Motion Analysis

INTEGRATING ACCELERATION when there is a graph of an object’s acceleration a versus

time t, one can integrate on the graph to find the velocity at any given time.
Since a is defined as a= dv/dt, the fundamental theorem of calculus tells us that:
𝑡1
𝑣1 − 𝑣0 = න 𝑎 𝑑𝑡
𝑡0

The right side (RHS) of the equation is a definite integral, where 𝑣0 is the velocity at 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑣1 at
later time 𝑡1 .

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 Graphical Integration in Motion Analysis
The definite integral can be evaluated from an a(t) graph,
such as in Fig 3-6 . In particular:
Note that, as the
𝑡1 shaded area gives the
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
න 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 = change in velocity, in
𝑡0
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡0 to 𝑡1 the a versus t graph, it
gives the change in
position in the v
If a unit of acceleration is 1 m/s2 and a unit of time is 1 s, then versus t graph.
the corresponding unit of area on the graph is:

( 1 m/s2 ). (1s) = 1 m/s Fig 3-6 The area between a plotted

curve and the horizontal time axis,
from time 𝑡0 to time 𝑡1 , is indicated
or, in terms of the dimensional units: (L/[𝑇]2 )([T] ) = L/[T] for (a) a graph of acceleration a
which is (properly) a unit of velocity. versus t and (b) a graph of velocity v
versus t.
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 3-6 Graphical Integration in Motion Analysis

INTEGRATING VELOCITY when we have a graph of an object’s velocity v versus time t, we can
integrate on the graph to find the position at any given time.
Since v is defined as a dx/dt:
𝑡1
𝑥1 − 𝑥0 = න 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑡0

The right side (RHS) of the equation is a definite integral, where 𝑥0 is the position at 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑣1 at
a later time 𝑡1 .

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 Graphical Integration in Motion Analysis
The definite integral can be evaluated from an v(t) graph,
such as in Fig 3-6 . In particular:
Note that, as the
𝑡1 shaded area gives the
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
න 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = change in velocity, in
𝑡0
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡0 to 𝑡1 the a versus t graph, it
gives the change in
position in the v
If a unit of velocity is 1 m/s and a unit of time is 1 s, then the versus t graph.
corresponding unit of area on the graph is:

( 1 m/s ). (1s) = 1 m Fig 3-6 The area between a plotted

curve and the horizontal time axis,
from time 𝑡0 to time 𝑡1 , is indicated
or, in terms of the dimensional units: (L/[T])([T] ) = [L] for (a) a graph of acceleration a
which is (properly) a unit of position and displacement. versus t and (b) a graph of velocity v
versus t.
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 Review and Summary
Position: x

Displacement: ∆ 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Average Velocity 𝜈𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Instantaneous Velocity 𝑣 = lim =
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

∆𝑣 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ∆𝑣
Average Acceleration 𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = =
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡

∆𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
Instantaneous Acceleration a = lim = = 𝑑𝑡 =
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

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 Review and Summary
𝜈 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
1
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡2
2
𝜈 2 =𝜈02 + 2 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
Constant Acceleration 1
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = (𝜈 + 𝑣0 ) 𝑡
2
1
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝜈𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑡2
2

If an object is tossed either up or down, eliminating the effects of

air, it accelerates downward at a certain constant rate ( free-fall
acceleration) which is the same for all objects.
Free-Fall Acceleration
Taking the y-axis to point upward, the acceleration of an object in
𝑚
free fall is ay = -g ≃ 10 2
𝑠 10/18/2022 44
 Some Examples

1. (2.5. from the textbook)

The position of an object moving along an x axis (a) 𝑥(t=1 s) = (3 m/s)(1 s) – (4 m/s2)(1 s)2 + (1 m/s3)(1 s)3 = 0.
is given by 𝑥 = 3t- 4t2 +t3, where x is in meters
(b) 𝑥(t=2 s) = (3 m/s)(2 s) – (4 m/s2)(2 s)2 + (1 m/s3)(2 s)3 = -2 m.
and t in seconds. Find the position of the object
at the following values of t: (a) 1 s, (b) 2 s, (c) 𝑥(t=3 s) = (3 m/s)(3 s) – (4 m/s2)(3 s)2 + (1 m/s3)(3 s)3 = 0.
(c) 3 s, and (d) 4 s. (e) What is the object’s (d) 𝑥(t=4 s) = (3 m/s)(4 s) – (4 m/s2)(4 s)2 + (1 m/s3)(4 s)3 = 12 m.
displacement between t = 0 and t = 4 s? (f) (e) ∆ 𝑥 = 𝑥(t=4 s) - 𝑥(t=2 s) = 14 m.
What is its average velocity for the time interval
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
from t= 2 s to t = 4 s? (f) 𝜈𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = 7 m/s.
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

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 Some Examples

2. (2.15. from the textbook)

(a) If a particle’s position is given by x= 4 -12t+
𝑑𝑥 𝑑
3t2 (where t is in seconds and x is in meters), (a) 𝑣(𝑡) = = 𝑑𝑡 (4 -12t+ 3t2 ) = -12 + 6t
𝑑𝑡
what is its velocity at t=1 ?(b) Is it moving in the
positive or negative direction of x
Since v(t=1 s) = -6 m/s; it is moving in the –x direction.
just then?
𝑚 𝑚
(b) 𝑣 = −6 𝑖Ƹ ⟹ 𝑣 =𝑣=6 .
𝑠 𝑠

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 Some Examples

3. (2.20. from the textbook)

𝑑𝑥 𝑑
(a) If the position of a particle is given by x = 20t - (a) 𝑣(𝑡) = = (20t -5t3) = 20 -15t2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
5t3, where x is in meters and t is in seconds, when,
if ever, is the particle’s velocity zero? (b) When is
its acceleration a zero? (c) For what time range From 0= 20 -15t2 it is seen that the only positive value of t for
(positive or negative) is a negative? 20
which the particle is (momentarily) stopped is t = 15 =1.2 s

𝑑𝑣 𝑑
(b) a(𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 (20 -15t2)= -30 t; we see (c) It is clear that a(t) = – 30t is negative for t > 0 and
that a 𝑡 = 0 = 0 is positive for t < 0.

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 Some Examples

4. (2.23. from the textbook)

An electron with an initial velocity 𝑣0 =1.50 x 105 m/s enters a region of length
L =1.00 cm where it is electrically accelerated. It emerges with 𝑣 = 5.70 x 106
m/s. What is its acceleration, assumed constant?

With the givens ∶ 𝑣0 =1.50 x 105 m/s ; 𝑣 = 5.70 x 106 ; 𝑥 = 0.010 m and 𝑥0 = 0 one can find the average
𝜈2 − 𝜈02
acceleration by using 𝜈2 =𝜈02 + 2 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) from which one gets 𝑎 = = 1.62 x 1015 m/s2 .
2( 𝑥−𝑥0 )
𝜈−𝑣0
Since 𝑎 is known, the time it takes for the electron to reach its final speed would be t = = 3.426 x 10 -9 s
𝑎

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 Some Examples

5. (2.31. from the textbook)

(a) Given that a = 9.8m/s2 ; v0 =0 and v= 0.1c = 3.0x107 m/s ;
Suppose a rocket ship in deep space moves with one can solve 𝜈 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 for the time:
constant acceleration equal to 9.8 m/s2, which
gives the illusion of normal gravity during the 𝜈−𝑣0
= 𝑡 ⟹ t= 3.1 x 106 s
𝑎
flight. (a) If it starts from rest, how long will
it take to acquire a speed one-tenth that of light,
which is about 1.2 months
which travels at 3.0 x 108 m/s? (b) How far will it
travel in so doing?
(b) To calculate the distance traveled during this time
interval, with x0 =0 and v0 =0 , one evaluates
1
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 2 𝑎 𝑡 2
which leads to the result 𝑥 = 4.6 x 1013 m
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 Some Examples

5. (2.49. from the textbook)

(a) Given v0 =12 m/s and y0 =80 m one can solve the equation:
A hot-air balloon is ascending at 1
y= 𝑦0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 - 2 𝑔 𝑡 2 or
the rate of 12 m/s and is 80 m 1
0= −𝑦 − 𝑣 𝑡 + 𝑔 𝑡 2
above the ground when a package 0 0 2
is dropped over the side. for t, using the quadratic formula:
(a) How long does the package 𝑣0 ± 𝑣0 2 +2𝑔𝑦0
𝑡=
(b) take to reach the ground? 𝑔
(b) With what speed does it hit Choosing the positive root for t> 0, one gets t (≈5.4 s) .
the ground?
(b) The speed of the package when it hits the ground can be calculated by
using:

v= 𝑣0 - 𝑔𝑡 10/18/2022 50
 Assignments

Read Chapter 2 of the book.

Examine the sample problems .
HW problems: 2.18, 2.25, 2.44, 2.45

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