Engineering Mechanics 47

FIGURE 4.22 Simply supported beam.

FIGURE 4.20 Fixed support.

4.7.2 FIXED BEAM
A beam which is xed at both ends is called as a xed beam or
moment. For a structure to be stable at least one xed support “built-in beam” or “encastre beam” and is shown in Figure 4.23.
is necessary. A common example of a xed support is the high
mast lamp set into a concrete base. The steel reinforcement of a 4.7.3 CANTILEVER BEAM
Reinforced Concrete (RC) beam is embedded in an RC column to
produce a xed support as shown in Figure 4.20. Similarly, all the A beam xed at one end and free at the other is called a can-
welded joints in a steel structure are examples of xed supports. tilever beam which is shown in Figure 4.24.

4.6.4 PINNED SUPPORTS 4.7.4 CONTINUOUSLY SUPPORTED BEAM

Pinned supports can resist both vertical and horizontal forces
as shown in Figure 4.21. They are also called as hinged sup-
ports. They are not capable of resisting moments. It allows
rotation but restricts translation in all directions. Even then,
rotation is allowed in one direction only and is restricted in all
the other directions. The best example of a pinned support is
the knee in our body. It allows rotation in only one direction
and resists lateral movements. In practical cases, ideal cases of
pinned supports are rarely found. Beams supported on walls
or connected to other steel beams can be considered as pinned.
A beam with more than two supports is called a continuously
supported beam which is shown in Figure 4.25.
4.7.5 OVERHANGING BEAMS
Some beams are freely supported at two points and the beam
may be extending beyond the supports at either one end or
both the ends. Such beams are called overhanging beams
shown in Figure 4.26.

4.7 TYPES OF BEAMS

Horizontal slender structural members are called beams. The loads
are transferred horizontally along their length to the supports.
At the supports, the loads are then resolved into vertical forces.
Beams can resist transverse vertical loads, shear forces, and bend-
ing moments. Beams can be classi ed into different types based
on the various types of support given to the beams. FIGURE 4.23 Fixed beam.

4.7.1 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

In some beams, the ends of a beam rest freely on the supports.
Such beams are called as simply (freely) supported beams
shown in Figure 4.22.

FIGURE 4.24 Cantilever beam.

FIGURE 4.21 Pinned support. FIGURE 4.25 Continuously supported beam.

48
FIGURE 4.26 Overhanging beam.
4.8 TYPES OF LOADS
4.8.1 POINT LOADS
Loads applied at certain points in a beam are said to be point
loads or concentrated loads shown in Figure 4.27.
4.8.2 UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
It is a type of load which has the same intensity of load over
a certain length of the beam shown in Figure 4.28. The total
load will be w × x , where w is the intensity of load and x is the
loaded length.
4.8.3 UNIFORMLY VARYING LOAD
When the load varies uniformly from one point to another
point on the beam, it is called uniformly varying load shown
in Figure 4.29. When the intensity of load varies from zero at
one end to w/unit length at the other end, over a length x, then
1
the total load will be × x × w = the area of the triangle.
2 4.9.2.1 Sliding Friction
4.8.4 SUPPORT REACTIONS
When loads are applied, reactions develop at the supports.
A beam is kept in equilibrium by the system of forces consisting
of applied loads and reactions. The nature of reactions depends
upon the type of support and types of loads. The equations for
equilibrium shown in Eqn. 4.17 can be applied to the beams and
frames for calculating the reactions at the supports.
FIGURE 4.27 Point load.
FIGURE 4.28 Uniformly distributed load.
Practical Civil Engineering
FIGURE 4.29 Uniformly varying load.
4.9 FRICTION
Friction is de ned as the resistive force acting in opposite
direction at the surface of a body which tends to move or it
moves. Frictional forces always act tangentially at the point
of contact. Friction may be categorized into two groups—(a)
static friction; (b) kinetic friction/dynamic friction.
4.9.1 STATIC FRICTION
Even when there is no motion between a body and the surface
on which it moves, the body experiences a frictional force
under the action of the external force acting on the body.
This is called as static friction.
4.9.2 KINETIC FRICTION/DYNAMIC FRICTION
The frictional force experienced by a body when it is in
motion is called kinetic friction. There are two types of
kinetic friction which are sliding friction and rolling friction.
When a body slides over another body or on a surface, sliding
friction occurs. This is shown in Figure 4.30. The resistive
force to sliding is known as sliding frictional force.
4.9.2.2 Rolling friction
When a body rolls over another body or surface, the resistive
force is known as rolling friction force shown in Figure 4.31.
FIGURE 4.30 Sliding friction.
Engineering Mechanics 49

4.9.5 CALCULATION OF FRICTIONAL FORCE ON A BODY

Consider Figure 4.32,

N = total reaction perpendicular to the contact surface

f = frictional force
W = weight of the body = mg
m = mass of the body
g = acceleration due to gravity
µ = coef cient of friction
R = resultant of f and N
ϕ = angle of friction
FIGURE 4.31 Rolling friction.
By de nition,

4.9.3 LAWS OF FRICTION f = N (4.18a)

The force of friction depends on certain assumptions speci-
ed in the laws of friction which are in close agreement with From Figure 4.32,
experiments.
f
4.9.3.1 Law 1 tan = (4.18b)
N
When two bodies are in contact, the direction of forces of
friction on one of them at its point of contact is opposite to the
direction in which the point of contact tends to move relative tan = (4.18c)
to the other.
Considering the equilibrium of the body, from Equation 4.15b,
4.9.3.2 Law 2
The magnitude of frictional force that can be exerted between N = mg (4.18d)
two surfaces is limited. If the magnitude of forces acting on the
body is large enough to exceed this, motion will occur. Thus, Then, frictional force,
limiting friction is de ned as the friction exerted when equilib-
rium breaks and one body slides on another body or on a surface. f = µmg (from Equation 4.18a) (4.18e)

4.9.3.3 Law 3
The ratio of the limiting friction to the normal reaction between
two surfaces depends on the material property of the surfaces.
It does not depend on the magnitude of the normal reaction.
This ratio is denoted by µ and is called as coef cient of friction.
Thus, if the normal reaction is R, the limiting friction is µR.
4.9.3.4 Law 4
The amount of limiting friction does not depend on the con-
tact area between two surfaces and their shape if the normal
reaction is unaltered.
If external force, F < µmg then, there is no motion in the body
and the body will remain so until the frictional force of the
body is equal to external force. When µmg > F then, body
slides over the surface.
4.9.6 ANGLE OF FRICTION
Just at the time of sliding, the angle between the normal reac-
tion and the resultant reaction is called the angle of static
friction as shown in Figure 4.32.

4.9.3.5 Law 5
When a body moves, the direction of friction is opposite to
the direction of relative motion. It is independent of velocity.
There exists a constant ratio between the magnitude of the
frictional force and the normal reaction.

4.9.4 COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION

The coef cient of friction is de ned as the ratio of the fric-
tional force to the normal force. This coef cient depends on
the material properties of the contact surfaces. A rougher sur-
face will have a higher coef cient. FIGURE 4.32 Forces on a body.
50 Practical Civil Engineering

From Equation 4.18c,

= tan −1 (4.19)

4.9.7 ANGLE OF REPOSE

Angle of repose is de ned as the angle of the inclined plane
with horizontal at which the body is in the condition of just
sliding as shown in Figure 4.33. In bodies resting on an
inclined plane, the angle of friction is always equal to the
angle of repose.

4.9.8 CONE OF FRICTION

Figure 4.34 shows an inverted cone with a semicentral angle,
α, which is equal to limiting frictional angle, ϕ. This cone is
called the cone of friction.
FIGURE 4.35 Wedge friction.
related to the equilibrium of bodies resting on inclined planes.
These problems are therefore solved by applying Lami’s
theorem or by equilibrium method.

4.9.9 WEDGE FRICTION

Wedges are small pieces of materials with a triangular or
trapezoidal cross section as shown in Figure 4.35. Wedges are
advantageous in heavy weightlifting, for slightly adjusting the
position of a body, etc. Compared to the weight to be lifted,
the weight of the wedge is very small. Hence, it is usually
neglected. The problems on wedges are usually the problems
4.9.10 LADDER FRICTION
A ladder is used for climbing on the walls. It basically consists
of two long uprights which are connected by a number of
crossbars called as rungs. They act as the steps while climbing.
A ladder AB is shown in Figure 4.36. Its end A rests on the
ground and end B leans against a wall. The following forces
act on the ladder.

• Self-weight of the ladder, W, acts downward at its

midpoint
• Normal reaction, Rb, and frictional force, Fb = μRb,
are the two forces at the end B. The ladder may slip
downward. Therefore, the frictional force will act
upward. In the case of a smooth wall, the frictional
force will be equal to zero as μ = 0.
• Normal reaction, Ra, and frictional force, Fa = μRa,
are the forces at the end A. While slipping, since the
ladder has a tendency to move away from the wall,
the frictional force will act toward the wall.

Applying equilibrium conditions, given in Equation 4.15, the

FIGURE 4.33 Angle of repose. unknown forces can be determined.

FIGURE 4.34 Cone of friction. FIGURE 4.36 Ladder friction.

Engineering Mechanics 51

4.10 PROPERTIES OF SURFACES AND SOLIDS

4.10.1 CENTER OF GRAVITY
The center of gravity (CG) is a point where the whole weight
of a body acts. The earth attracts all the particles in a body
toward its center and this force of attraction is called as the
weight of the body. These forces exerted by the particles may
be considered to act along parallel lines. There exists a point
in the body, through which the resultant of all such parallel
forces acts. This point, through which the whole resultant or
the weight of the body acts is known as the CG and is shown in
Figure 4.37. It may be noted that each body has only one CG. FIGURE 4.38 Centroid.

4.10.2 CENTROID
As CG is for 3D bodies, centroid is for 2D plane gures (like
circle, triangle, quadrilateral, etc.). They have only areas, but
no mass. The center of area of such gures is known as cen-
troid shown in Figure 4.38.

4.10.3 AXIS OF REFERENCE

For calculating the location of the CG of a body, an assumed
axis known as the axis of reference is used with respect to
which computations are made. For plane gures, this axis of FIGURE 4.39 Axis of reference.
reference is usually taken as the bottommost line in the gure
for calculating Y (distance measured vertically) and the left- 4.10.4 AXIS OF SYMMETRY
most line of the gure for calculating X (distance measured
horizontally) as shown in Figure 4.39. Axis of symmetry is a line or axis, which divides the given
line, area, or volume into two equal and identical parts.

4.10.5 CG OF SOLID BODIES

Consider a lamina with a de nite area. Its plane consists of a
number of particles with masses m1, m2, m3, etc., and hence
weights m1g, m2g, m3g, etc., with coordinates (x1, y1), (x2, y2),
(x3, y3), etc. Taking moments about O, with the reference axis
OX in Figure 4.37, the following equations are obtained.
n

∑m x i i

x= i =1
n (4.20a)
∑m
i =1
i

∑m y i i

y= i =1
n (4.20b)
∑m
i=1
i

4.10.6 CENTROID OF AREA

The method used for nding out the centroid of a plane gure
and the CG of a body is the same. The distance of centroid of an
area from Y-axis and X-axis is given by Equations 4.21a and b,
FIGURE 4.37 Center of gravity. respectively, in which dA is an elemental area, x is the distance
52 Practical Civil Engineering

of this elemental area from Y-axis, and y is the distance of ele-

mental area dA from X-axis as shown in Figure 4.40.
y=
∫ ya = ∑ ( ya) = a y + a y + 
1 1 2 2
(4.22b)
∫ a ∑a a + a +  1 2

x=
∫ x dA (4.21a)
∫ dA 4.10.7 THEOREMS OF PAPPUS–GULDINUS
These theorems relate a surface of revolution to its generating
y=
∫ y dA (4.21b)
curve and a volume of revolution to its generating area.

∫ dA
A composite area can be divided into a number of plane g-
ures like triangle, square, rectangle, circle, semicircle, etc.,
for which areas and locations of centroids of each area are
known. The distances of centroid of the composite area from
the Y axis and X axis are given by Equations 4.22a and b,
where a1, a2, ……. are areas of each section, x1, x2, ……… are
the distances of centroid of a1, a2, ……... from the Y-axis, and
y1, y2, ……… are the distances of centroid of a1, a2, ……...
from the X-axis as shown in Figure 4.41.
4.10.7.1 Theorem 1
The area of the surface generated by revolving a plane curve
about a nonintersecting axis in the plane of the curve is equal
to the product of the length of the curve and the distance
travelled by the centroid of the curve while the surface is
being generated. The entire area generated by the curve
A=
∫ 2πy dL = 2π ∫ ( y dL) = 2πyL (4.23)
where 2πy is the distance traveled by the centroid of the curve
of length L as shown in Figure 4.42.

x=
∫ xa = ∑ (xa) = a x + a x + 
1 1 2 2
(4.22a) 4.10.7.2 Theorem 2
∫ a ∑a a + a + 1 2 The volume of a body generated by revolving a plane area
about a nonintersecting axis in the plane of the area is equal
to the product of area and the distance traveled by the centroid
of the plane area while the body is being generated. The entire
volume generated by A

V=
∫ 2πy dA = 2π ∫ y dA = 2πyA (4.24)

where 2πy is the distance traveled by the centroid of area

A (see Figure 4.43).

FIGURE 4.40 Centroid of a plane gure.

FIGURE 4.41 Centroid of composite area. FIGURE 4.42 Pappus–Guldinus Theorem 1.