80 Practical Civil Engineering

5.12.3 CONJUGATE BEAM METHOD reactions on that structure. The xed and continuous beams
are called indeterminate beams.
The conjugate beam method is an exceptionally versatile The degree of indeterminacy of a structure can be charac-
beam de ection calculation method. The correlation between terized as the number of unknown forces exceeding the static
the loading, shear, and bending moments is obtained by equation. These unidenti ed extra forces are termed redun-
dant forces. Support reactions or forces in internal members
d 2 M dV
= = −w x (5.64) might be redundant. When redundancies are taken away from
dx 2 dx the structure, they become determinate.
where M is the bending moment, V is the shear force, and w For the analysis of indeterminate structures, the following
(x) is the intensity of distributed load. two methods are available.
Similarly,
1. Force or Flexibility or Compatibility method
d 2v d M 2. Displacement or Stiffness method
2
= = (5.65)
dx dx EI
It can be ascertained from the above two equations that if 5.13.1 FORCE METHOD
M/EI is the load on an imaginary beam, the consequent shear
In this method, the selected redundant reactions are removed
and moment in the beam are the slope and the displacement
from the structure so that the resulting structure is determi-
of the real beam. The imaginary beam is called the “conjugate
nate. The de ections of the points, where the redundant are
beam” and its length is almost the same as original beam.
acting, are found out in the direction of redundant removed.
The conjugate beam method involves two major steps.
Now the external loads are eliminated and the redundant
reactions are assumed to act as loads and the de ections for
1. Set up an additional beam, called “conjugate beam.”
the same points are found out in terms of redundant. The
2. Determine the “shearing forces” and “bending
resultant equations are equated to nd out the values of the
moments” in the conjugate beam.
redundant. The method of consistent distortions (deforma-
tions), Castigliano’s second theorem, and the three-moment
Two concepts related to the conjugate beam are as follows:
theorem are force methods.

Theorem 1: 5.13.2 DISPLACEMENT METHOD

The slope of the real beam at one point is arithmetically In this method of analysis, the displacements of joints (may
equal to the shear at the corresponding point of the conjugate be rotation or translation) are selected as redundant and
beam. similar equations as in force method are written. Solution
of these equations gives the displacement assumed. By
substituting these displacements in original equations, the
Theorem 2: reaction components can be found out. Slope de ection
method is a displacement method, whereas moment distri-
The displacement of a point in the real beam is mathemati- bution method is a successive approximation method based
cally equal in value to the moment in the conjugate beam at on the same general theory as the displacement method.
the corresponding point. The slope of (the center line of) the This method is of the greatest importance because it is the
actual real beam is exactly equal to the “shearing force” at matrix analysis method which can be computerized for
the correlating cross section of the conjugate beam at any general usage.
cross section. This slope is positive or anticlockwise when the
“shearing force” is positive in the beam convention to rotate
the beam element anticlockwise. The “bending moment” of
the conjugate beam at any point provides the de ection of the
real beam at that point (the center line of). This de ection is
down if the “bending moment” is positive in the beam conven-
tion, probably causing top bers in compression. The positive
shear force and moment of bending are shown in Figure 5.41.
The differences between real beams and conjugate beams are
shown in Table 5.3.

5.13 INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

A structure is statically indeterminate if the static equilibrium
equations are inadequate to evaluate the internal forces and FIGURE 5.41 Positive shearing force and bending moment.
Mechanics of Structures and Their Analysis 81

TABLE 5.3
Differences between Real Beam and Conjugate Beam
Real Beam Conjugate Beam
Fixed support Free end
v=0 M=0
θ=0 Q=0

Free end Fixed support

v≠0 M≠0
≠0 Q≠0

Hinged support Hinged support

v=0 M=0
≠0 Q≠0
Middle support Middle hinge
v=0 M=0
continue Q continue

Middle hinge Middle support

v continue M continue
discontinue Q discontinue

5.14 FIXED BEAMS 5.14.2 DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD

These are constrained at the supports, so that the slopes at the
supports remain zero when the beam is loaded.
Consider a xed beam, xed at both the supports loaded
with an arbitrary load. There are four unknowns VA, MA at
support A and VB, MB at support B. Two equations of statics
∑V = 0 and ∑ M = 0 are available. Since two more equa-
tions are required to solve this beam, the degree of redun-
dancy is two. The boundary conditions for this are A = 0,
B = 0, A = 0, and B = 0. Any two conditions will give us
two equations. Three techniques are there for the solution of
such beams. These are:
1. Method of superposition
2. Double integration method
3. Moment area method
5.14.1 METHOD OF SUPERPOSITION
This method consists of nding slopes and de ections sepa-
rately for each load and reaction. The redundant reactions are
selected rst. Force–displacement relationships are devel-
oped. Deformation consistency is checked using compatibil-
ity equation.
This method is used to nd out the de ections and rotations
at various points. This method can be extended to solve the
propped and xed beams having one and two redundants,
respectively. The origin is selected at the xed end so as to
obtain the constants of integration to be zero as both slope
and de ection are zero at the xed end. After writing the
formulae of moments and integrating them, the boundary
conditions are applied at the other end. For a xed support,
both rotation and de ection should be zero at the other
end also.
5.14.3 MOMENT AREA METHOD
For structures primarily subjected to bending, the de ec-
tions can be found out by moment-area method, developed by
Mohr. Using compatibility of displacement, the de ections of
indeterminate structures can be easily found out.
In this technique, the area of the bending moment graphs
is used to calculate the slope and the de ections along the
beam axis or frame at certain points. For the measurement
of de ection, two algebraic concepts known as the moment
zone equations are used. One hypothesis is used to calcu-
late the change in the slope of the elastic curve between two
82 Practical Civil Engineering

5.14.3.2 Mohr’s Second Theorem (Mohr II)

d∆ = x × d (5.71)

We have
B B
M
∫ A
d∆ =
∫ A EI
× x × dx (5.72)

 B
M  M
∆ BA = 
 ∫ A EI
× dx  x = first moment of
 EI
diagram about B

(5.73)
FIGURE 5.42 Mohr’s rst theorem.
This is easily interpreted as
points. The other theorem is just used to ascertain the verti-
M
cal distance (called tangential deviation) between an elas- Vertical
 Intercept BA =  Area of diagram  ×
tic curve point and an elastic curve line tangent at a second  EI  BA
point.
 M 
5.14.3.1 Mohr’s First Theorem (Mohr I)  Distance from B to centroid of  EI  diagram  (5.74)
 BA 
As seen in Figure 5.42, recognize the elastic curve of a loaded
simple beam. Tangents are drawn on points A and B on the This is Mohr’s Second Theorem (Mohr II): The vertical inter-
elastic curve. Total angle of the two tangents is indicated as cept between one terminal and the tangent to the curve of
∆ AB . As to evaluate the value of ∆ AB , consider the augmen- another terminal is the rst moment of the curvature diagram
tal distinction in angle dθ over an in nitesimal segment dx around the terminal where the intercept is quanti ed for an
found at a distance of x from point B. The bending equation originally straight beam subject to bending moment.
gives the radius of the curvature and bending moment for From the above de nition, two important things are to be
each part of the beam. noted:
M E • From the fundamental diagram, the vertical intercept
= (5.66)
I R will not give the de ection. It is the distance from
where M denotes the bending moment, I is the moment of the beam’s deformed position to the tangent of the
inertia, E is the modulus of elasticity, and R is the radius of deformed beam shape at a different location. That is:
curvature.
The elementary length dx and the variation in angle dθ are ∆≠ (5.75)
related as,
• The moment of the curvature diagram should be
dx = d × R (5.67) taken at the point at which the vertical intercept is
necessary. That is:
The total change in rotation between A and B is thus
∆ BA ≠ ∆ AB (5.76)
B B
M
∫ A
d =
∫ A EI
dx (5.68)
5.15 CONTINUOUS BEAMS
where M/EI is the curvature. Thus we have
A continuous beam is a multispan beam with hinged support
B
M that is statically indeterminate. The end spans can be canti-
d BA = B − A =
∫ A EI
dx (5.69) lever, freely supported or xed. A reaction along the beam
axis must be able to establish at least one of the supports of
This is supposed to be a continuous beam. These beam types are used in structures
such as bridges and buildings, where the supports are strong
M enough for heavy loads.
Change
 in slope AB =  Area of diagram  (5.70)
 EI  AB
5.15.1 THREE-MOMENT THEOREM
This is Mohr’s First Theorem (Mohr I): It speci es that the
slope change over any length of a bending member is equal to The theorem of three moments presented by Clapeyron in
the curvature diagram area over that length. 1857 gives the relation between the support moments in a
Mechanics of Structures and Their Analysis 83

continuous beam. This theorem is usually developed for T1 = P1d1 (5.80)

the beams of constant cross section between each pair of T2 = P2d2 (5.81)
supports.
Let A, B, C be the three successive support points, the The couples T1, T2 are known as torques or twisting couples or
length of AB is indicated by l and BC by lʹ, and the weight twisting moments.
per unit of length in these segments by w and wʹ. The bend-
Consider a bar that is rigidly af xed to one end and twisted
ing moments M A, MB , MC can then be linked to the following to the other end by a torque or twisting moment T equivalent
three points: to F × d, which is introduced perpendicular to the bar axis, as
1 3 1 seen in Figure 5.44. Such a bar is supposed to be in torsion.
3
M Al + 2 M B l + l ′ + M c l ′ = wl + w′ l ′ (5.77)
4 4
5.16.1 TERMS RELATED TO TORSION
This equation can be written as

6a1x1 6a2 x2 5.16.1.1 Torsional Shearing Stress (τ)

M Al + 2M B l + l′ + M C l ′ = + (5.78)
l l′ For a hollow or solid circular shaft subject to a twisting
where a1 and a2 are the bending moment area diagram due to moment T, the torsional shear stress p from the center of the
vertical loads on AB and BC, respectively, x1 is the distance shaft is at a distance p
from A to the center of the beam moment diagram AB, x2 is Tp
the distance from C to the center of the beam moment area = (5.82)
J
BC.
The second equation is more speci c since it does not Tr
= (5.83)
necessitate a uniform allocation of the weight of each segment. Jmax
The three-moment equation is given by
where r is the outer radius and J is the polar moment of inertia
M1L1  L L  M L of the section.
+ 2M 2  1 + 2  + 3 2 For solid cylindrical shaft as shown in Figure 5.45:
E1I1  E1I1 E2 I 2  E2 I 2

 ∆A − ∆B ∆C − ∆B   AX AX  π 4
= 6 + − 6  1 1 + 2 2  (5.79) J= D (5.84)
 32
 L1 L2   E1I1L1 E2 I 2 L2 
16T
= (5.85)
πDmax
3
5.16 TORSION
Torsion is the twisting of a structural member when lled by For hollow cylindrical shaft as shown in Figure 5.46:
pairs that rotate the longitudinal axis around it. The torque
unit, T is N-m. π
J= D4 − d 4 (5.86)
As shown in Figure 5.43, 32
16TD
= (5.87)
π D4 − d 4 max

5.16.1.2 Angle of Twist

The angle θ through which the bar length L will twist is

TL
= in radians (5.88)
JG
where T = the torque in Nmm; L = the shaft length in mm;
J = the polar moment of inertia in mm4; G = shear modulus in
Mpa; D and d = diameter in mm; and r = the radius in mm.

5.16.1.3 Power Transmitted by the Shaft

If a twisting moment T is acted on a shaft that rotates at a con-
stant angular velocity (in radians per second); the transmitted
power of the shaft is offered by

FIGURE 5.43 Torsion. P=T = 2πTf (5.89)

84 Practical Civil Engineering

FIGURE 5.44 Bar in torsion.

where T = the torque in Nm; f = the number of revolutions per 5.16.2 COMPOSITE SHAFTS
second; and P = the power in watts.
A composite shaft is made up of shafts of two different diam-
5.16.1.4 Equivalent Torque eters. The composite shaft may experience twist when it is
σ1 and σ 2 for the combined bending and twisting case are subjected to the torque. This twist can be calculated based on
expressed by the relations: the position of the torque applied, i.e., when the shafts are in
series and parallel.
16 
, = M ± M2 + T2  (5.90) 5.16.2.1 Composite Shafts in Series
πd 3  
1 2

If two or more shafts of various materials, diameters, or basic

16 16 shapes are linked together, as seen in Figure 5.47, so that each
= M2 + T2 (5.91) shaft has the same torque, the shafts are said to be linked
πd 3 πd 3emax
in series, and the composite shaft thus generated is called a
series–connected shaft.
where M 2 + T 2 is regarded as the equivalent torque, which The equilibrium of the shaft, in this case, requires a torque
would create the same maximum shear stress as pure torsion “T,” which is to be same throughout both the parts.
by acting alone. In these instances, the composite shaft strength is achieved
by individually taking into consideration each shaft element
Hence, Te = M 2 + T 2 (5.92) by applying the theory of torsion to each. The composite shaft