90 Practical Civil Engineering

c. For one end xed and the other free, this is 2L so, formula can be usually used to determine buckling load.
K=2 Rankine’s formula applies to all column types, both short and
d. For one end xed and the other hinged, this is long columns.
L/1.414, so K =1/1.414
5.20 SPRINGS
Rankine Gordon-Formula:
A spring can be characterized as an elastic member, whose
1 1 1 1 1 primary role is to distort or de ect the load applied; it regains
= + = +
critical load crushing load buckling load Pc Pe its natural form when the load is set to release. Springs are
(5.114) also categorized as units with energy absorption. Springs
store energy and slowly or quickly reinstate it; obviously it
where Pe = Euler’s Load = F. depends on the application of the load.
Pc = Crushing strength of the column material
5.20.1 CLOSED COILED HELICAL SPRINGS
Or,
A helical spring is formulated as a circular cylindrical helix
Pc by winding a wire. These can be axial loads or torsional loads.
Pcr = 2 (5.115) The angle of the horizontal coil is called the helix angle (α).
L
1+ a e  If α is smaller than 18, closely coiled helical springs are rec-
 k
ognized. Simply consider a closed coiled spring with an axial
can determine the crushing load by multiplying the crushing load W, as illustrated in Figure 5.54. Every coil can be con-
strength with the cross-sectional area of the column. Euler sidered to lie in a plane at the right angle to the helix axis.

FIGURE 5.54 Closed coiled spring.

Mechanics of Structures and Their Analysis 91

The wire that actually renders the helical spring close is under d
torsion. T×
Maximum bending stress = 2 = 32T (5.123)
πd 4 πd 3
5.20.1.1 Under Axial Load, W 64
Since the angle of the helix is fairly small, the action on
any cross section is a pure torque and the bending and shear Strain energy: The energy of the strain is characterized as
effects can be ignored. The torque value is given by: the energy stored in a material when the work on the material
is carried out. In the particular instance of a spring, the energy
D of the strain is caused by bending and apparently given by the
Torque = W × (5.116)
2 expression.

where W is the axial load and D is the mean coil diameter. 32T 2 Dn
The spring stiffness U= (5.124)
Ed 4
W Gd 4
= = (5.117)
x 8D 3n 5.20.2 OPEN COILED HELICAL SPRING
The strain energy The spring’s coils are not close to each other. The helix angle
is larger than 18. Consider an open helical spring under axial
1 load.
U= Wx (5.118)
2 Let α be the angle of the helix, then the length of the wire
where x is the de ection of the spring.
πDn
Which by replacing in terms of τ from Equation 5.117 can l= (5.125)
cos
be reduced to
The total strain energy due to bending and twisting is given
 2 by:
U = × volume (5.119)
 4G 
2 2
  WD     WD  
5.20.1.2 Under Axial Torque Load, T   2  cos + T sin  l T cos −  2  sin  l
U= +
This results in a pure bending moment of magnitude T in all 2GJ 2EI
cross sections. The total strain energy is given by (5.126)
T 2l T 2πDn 32T 2 Dn
U= = 4 = (5.120) 5.21 STRAIN ENERGY
2EI πd Ed 4
2E ×
64 Sometimes strain energy is called internal work, to differenti-
However, if T causes one end of the spring to rotate out through ate it from external work “W.” Consider a simple bar con ned
an angle φ around the axis relative to the other end, then to a tensile force F with a small element of dx, dy, and dz
dimensions as seen in Figure 5.55. The energy of strain U is
1 the area under the triangle.
U= T (5.121)
2
U 1 x2
Substituting this in Equation 5.120 = (5.127)
volume 2 E
Tl 64TDn
= = (5.122)
EI Ed 4
92 Practical Civil Engineering

FIGURE 5.55 Strain energy.

 6 Principles of Surveying
6.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING
Surveying is the methodology used to determine exactly the
relative position of points above or below the surface of the
earth using direct or indirect distance, direction, and eleva-
tion measurements. It also includes points determination with
predetermined angular and linear measurements.
Leveling is a branch of the survey whose object is
• to actually nd the elevations of points for a speci-
ed or presumed data, and
• to set points at a previously given elevation or totally
different elevations for a speci ed or presumed date.
The rst operation is vital for the design of the works, whereas
the second operation is crucial for all types of engineering
work. Leveling deals with vertical plane measurements.
6.1.1 OBJECTIVES OF SURVEYING
The main purpose of the survey is to prepare a map showing the
relative positions of the objects on the earth’s surface. The map
is drawn to some appropriate scale. It shows a country’s natural
characteristics such as villages, towns, rivers, roads, railways,
etc. Maps might also include particulars of various engineering
works, such as roads, railways, canals of irrigation, etc.
6.1.2 NEED OF SURVEYING
• To make a topographical map, it shows the country’s
hills, valleys, rivers, villages, cities, etc.
• To aid in preparation of a cadastral map showing the
boundaries and other properties of the eld houses.
• To plan and prepare an engineering map for details
such as roads, railways, canals, and so on.
• To start preparing a military map displaying roads
and railways, communications with various parts of
the country
• To help in making the contour map and help to decide
the capacity of the reservoirs and tunnels, nd the
perfect possible route for roads, railroads, etc.
• To aid in preparation of archeological maps as well
as for locations where there may be ancient relics.
• To help in sketching out of a geological map showing
regions with underground resources.
6.1.3 GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF SURVEYING
• Working from whole to part.
• To x the position of new stations with at least two
readings (linear or angular) from the xed point of
reference.
The rst principle is that the entire area is rst enclosed by
major stations and major survey lines. The area is then frag-
mented into several parts by establishing well-conditioned
triangles; the most well-conditioned triangle is an almost equi-
lateral triangle. The main lines of the survey are measured
with a standard chain very precisely. Then the triangle sides
are calculated.
According to the second principle, the new stations should
always be xed by at least two measurements from xed refer-
ence points. Linear measurements refer to horizontal distance
which is measured by chain or tape. Angular measurements
refer to the magnetic bearing or horizontal angle taken by a
prismatic compass or theodolite.
6.1.4 SCALES
The area that is surveyed is vast, and therefore, plans are made
to some scale. Scale is the xed ratio that each distance on
the plane has a corresponding ground distance. The following
methods can represent scale:
• One centimeter on the plan represents a number of
meters on the ground, e.g., 1 cm = 10 m. This scale
type is called the engineering scale.
• 1 unit of length on the plan symbolizes a number of
units of the same length on the ground, e.g., 1/1000.
This map distance ratio to the subsequent ground
distance unbiased of the measuring units is referred
to as the representative factor (RF). For instance,
1 cm = 50 m, RF = 1/(50 × 100) = 1/5000.
The two above-mentioned scales are also called numerical
scales. The four major types of scales that are used for mea-
surements for different tasks are plain scale, diagonal scale,
Vernier scale, chord scale.
6.1.4.1 Plain Scale
Plain scale is the one on which it is possible to measure only
two dimensions. For example, measurements such as units and
lengths, meters, and decimeters, etc. Six different plain scales
in metric are used by engineers, architects, and surveyors.
6.1.4.2 Diagonal Scale
The diagonal scale is the one on which three dimensions like
meters, decimeter, and centimeter can be measured; units,
tens and hundreds; yards, feet and inches, etc. A short length
is partitioned into several parts using the similar triangle
principle in which the sides are proportional, as shown in
Figure 6.1. Figure 6.1 shows 1-1 for 1/10 PQ, 2-2 for 2/10
PQ,… 9-9 for 9/10 PQ.
93
94 Practical Civil Engineering

presumed to be spherical angles. Geodetic surveys are car-

ried out by the Survey Department of India and cover an area
exceeding 250 km2.

6.2.2 SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION

Instrument-based:

• Chain surveying
• Compass surveying
• Plane table surveying
• Theodolite surveying
• Tacheometric surveying
• Photographic surveying
• Modern surveying

Methods-based:

FIGURE 6.1 Diagonal scale.

• Triangulation surveying
• Traverse surveying

6.1.4.3 Vernier Scale Object based:

The Vernier scale is a device used to quantify the marginal por-
tion of one of the smallest graded divisions. It is normally a • Geological surveying
small auxiliary scale that slides along the primary scale. Lowest • Mine surveying
Vernier count is the difference between the smallest division in • Archaeological surveying
the main division and the smallest division in the Vernier. • Military surveying

6.1.4.4 Scale of Chords Based on eld nature:

Chord scale is used to calculate an angle and is marked on a
rectangular protractor or a standard wooden box scale. • Land surveying
• Marine surveying
• Astronomical surveying
6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
6.2.1 PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION
6.3 VALUES OF A QUANTITY
Surveys are classi ed primarily as plane surveys and
geodesic surveys. 6.3.1 TRUE VALUE OF A QUANTITY
The real value is the value of a quantity that is completely free
6.2.1.1 Plane Surveying
of errors. It is never discoverable and indeterminate.
The earth’s shape is spheroidal, so the surface of earth is obvi-
ously curved. However, the curvature of the earth is not taken
into account in the plane survey. This is because plane sur-
6.3.2 OBSERVED VALUE OF A QUANTITY
veys are performed only in a small area. The surface of the
earth is therefore regarded as a plane. In this survey, a line The value observed is the value of a quantity obtained from
that joins two points is considered straight. The three-point eld measurement after correction for all observation-related
triangle is considered to be a plane triangle and the angles of errors.
the triangle are presumed to be plane angles. Plane surveys
are carried out by state agencies such as the Department of
6.3.3 MOST PROBABLE VALUE OF A QUANTITY
Irrigation, the Department of Railways, etc. Plane survey is
carried out on an area of less than 250 km 2. The value that is most obviously true than any other value is
called a quantity’s most probable value. This is most likely
6.2.1.2 Geodetic Surveying free, but not entirely free, from mistakes. The most probable
The curvature of the earth is considered in geodetic surveys value for direct observations with the same weight is the arith-
and extends over a wide area. The line connecting two points metic mean. When observing unequal weights directly, the
is regarded a curved line. The three-point triangle is consid- most probable value is the weights; the most probable value is
ered spherical and the angles of the triangle are therefore the weighted arithmetical mean.