Topic 4 Chemical bonding (Part 1)

Ionic Bonding & Covalent Bonding

Ionic Bonding

Ionic bonds are formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another.

Electrostatic forces of attraction exist between ions of opposite charges. Metals and non-
metals form ionic bonds.

Representing Ionic Compounds

The Na atom loses an electron to form a cation while the chlorine atom gains an electron to
form an anion. The charges have to be written in ionic compounds representation.

Covalent Bonding

Covalent bonds are formed by sharing of electrons between two atoms.

Binding force results from the attraction between shared electrons and the positive nuclei of

atoms.
Electrons used for covalent bonding are called bonding pairs and are represented as a line in Lewis Structure.

Covalent Bonding Representation

Example: Each of the 2 hydrogen atom share an electron to form a covalent bond. This
results in the formation of a H2 molecule.
Other examples include CO2, H2O, NH3

Valence electrons not used in bonding are nonbonding electrons (when counted singly) or
lone pairs (when counted in twos)
Formation of an F2 molecule
Each F in F2 has 6 nonbonding electrons or 3 lone pairs of electrons.
Each of the fluorine atom share an electron to form a covalent bond (bonding pair). This
results in the formation of a F2 molecule.

** Only the valence electrons are shown in representations of covalent compounds and
ionic compounds

Electronegativity and Polarity (2 atoms)

There are two extremes in the spectrum of bonding:

 Non polar covalent bonds occur between atoms that share electrons equally.
 Ionic bonds occur between a metal and a nonmetal and involve ions.
 Bonds that fall between these extremes are polar covalent. In polar covalent bonds,
electrons are shared but not shared equally.

Non polar covalent bond: Neutral atoms held together by equally shared electrons
Polar covalent bond: Partially charged atoms held together by unequally shared electrons
Ionic bond: Oppositely charged ions held together by electrostatic forces of attraction

Polar covalent vs Non polar covalent

Electronegativity
It is the ability of an atom to draw shared electrons in a covalent bond
An atom of high electronegativity has a greater tendency to attract electron density than an
element with low electronegativity, vice versa. In other words, the atom of high
electronegativity has a tendency to accept e-, but little to no tendency to lose e-.

Highly electronegative atoms

 The ability to attract valence electrons is related to the proximity of the valence shell to
the nucleus and ENC. Which relates to the atoms electronegativity
E.g.

 F is highly electronegative
 With a high ENC & a few shells (occupied by e-s), the protons in fluorine can do a good
job in attracting shared electrons towards itself
 Thus the bond formed between H and F is a polar covalent bond where the electrons are
more attracted to the F atom.

Electronegativity VS electron affinity

 Electron affinity refers to an isolated atom’s ability to attract an additional electron (in
the gaseous state), this is an experimentally measurable quantity.
 Electronegativity refers to the ability of an element in a chemical bond (with another
element) to attract the shared paired of electrons, this is an estimated number that
cannot be measured directly.

Electronegativity guides

Knowing the difference in the electronegativity values of the elements allows one to deduce
the bond polarity.
**If the 2 atoms are different and is a covalent bond, the bond is usually polar. Exceptions
include C-H. Determine the electronegativity difference by referring to atom position on the
periodic table
The following general guidelines are useful to distinguish bond polarity:
 A bond between atoms whose electronegativities differ by less than 0.5 (small
electronegativity difference) is general considered purely covalent or nonpolar. (eg:
C-H bond);
 A bond between atoms who’s electronegativities differ by the range of 0.5 to 2.0 is
generally considered polar covalent. (eg: C-Cl bond);
 A bond between atoms whose electronegativities differ by 2.0 or more (large
electronegativity difference) is generally considered ionic. (eg: K-Cl bond).

Dipole Moment and Partial Charges for polar bonds

An arrow (indicating dipole moment) is used to indicate the direction of electron shift in
polar covalent molecules.
 A quantitative measure of the polarity of a bond is its dipole moment (μ).

The consequent charge separation can be represented as:

 deltas (δ) denote a partial positive or negative charge.

δ+ δ−

•• ••
H− F
••

H− F
••

•• ••
Octet Rule & Drawing Lewis structure

A Lewis structure is a representation of covalent bonding.

Shared electron pairs are shown as lines between 2 atoms
Lone pairs are shown as pairs of dots on individual atoms

 According to the octet rule, atoms will lose, gain, or share electrons in order to achieve a
noble gas electron configuration.

 Only two valence electrons participate in the formation of the F2 bond.

Steps to draw a Lewis structure

Step 1: Count the total number of valence electrons present

 An elements group number for no of valence e-
 For polyatomic ions add e- to total to account for negative charge
 Subtract e- from total to account for positive charge
Step 2: Draw the skeletal structure of the compound using the chemical symbols
 In general the least electronegative atom is usually the central atom (look at F, the
most electronegative)
 H is always on the outside, and not the central atom
 Draw a single covalent bond between the central atom and each of the surrounding
atoms
Step 3: For each bond in the skeletal structure, subtract two electrons from the total
valence electrons to determine the number of remining electrons to draw.
Step 4: Complete octets of the terminal atoms
 Complete the octets of the most electronegative atom first if there is more than one
type of atom bonded to the central atom (terminal atom)
Step 5: Place any remaining electrons in pairs on the central atom.
Step 6: Form multiple bonds (ie: double or triple bonds) if necessary
 If the central atom has fewer than eight electrons, move one or more pairs from the
terminal atoms to form multiple bonds

Guide to number of Bonds formed by some Non-metals

ELEMENT NUMBER OF BONDS

H 1
C 4 (most common); 3 (rare)
N 3 (most common); 4 (common)
O 2 (most common); 1 (common); 3 (rare)
F 1
1 (most common when they are terminal
atoms); 
Cl, Br, I
>1 (when they are central atoms)
**Sulfur, phosphorus, silicon, and chlorine are common examples of elements that form an
expanded octet. Most elements at period 3 and below have >8e-, e.g. Xe. Al and B can have
<8e-

Lewis structure

Formal charge
Formal charge can be used to determine the most plausible Lewis Structure when
more than one possibility exists for a compound
 Formal charge is the apparent electronic charge of each atom in a
molecule. Apparent means the charge that rightfully belongs to the atom in a Lewis
structure. 

To determine associated electrons (in the Lewis Structure):

1)   All the atom’s nonbonding electrons are associated with the atom.
2)  Half the atom’s bonding electrons are associated with the atom.

E.g.

C O (circled blue) O (circled red)

Valence e− 4 6 6

e− associated with atom 4 5 7

Formal charge 0 +1 −1

**Overall charge of molecule or ion = Sum of formal charges

When there is more than one possible structure, the best arrangement is determined by the
following guidelines:
1) A Lewis structure in which all formal charges are zero is preferred.
2) Small formal charges are preferred to large formal charges.
3) Formal charges should be consistent with electronegativities.
**Note: In drawing Lewis structure, the octet rule will be fulfilled (if possible) first before
determining the formal charge

better structure (based on formal charge)

Lewis structure (Exceptions to the octet rule)

3 categories:
 The central atom has fewer than eight electrons due to a shortage of electrons.
 The central atom has fewer than eight electrons due to an odd number of electrons. 
 The central atom has more than eight electrons.

Incomplete octet
 The central atom has fewer than eight electrons due to a shortage of electrons
E.g.
only 4 total valence
electrons in the system

 Elements in group 3A also tend to form compounds surrounded by fewer than less than
8 e-
 Boron, for example, reacts with halogens to form compounds of the general formula BX 3
having six electrons around the boron atom.
Odd-electron molecule
 The central atom has fewer than eight electrons due to an odd number of electrons.
E.g.

 They are also referred to as free radicals

**Note: In drawing Lewis structure with odd number of electrons, the central atom will
have the odd number of electrons

Expanded octet
 The central atom has more than eight electrons.
E.g.

 This is only possible for central atoms in and beyond the third period
 In addition to the 3s and 3p orbitals, elements in the third period also have 3d orbitals
that can be used in bonding. Hence, the central atoms in and beyond the third period
can accommodate more than eight electrons.

Recall:
Shell No. of Subshell No. of Orbitals Max. No. of
(n) Subshells in Designation th 2 th
in n Shell, n Electrons in n
th
n Shell 2
Shell, 2n

1 1 1s 1 =1 2

2 2 2s 2p 1+3 =4 8

3 3 3s 3p 3d 1+3+5 = 9 18

4 4 4s 4p 4d 4f 1+3+5+7 = 16 32
The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Model
The VSEPR Model
Molecular shape (geometry) can be predicted by using the Valence-shell electron-pair
repulsion (VSEPR) model

A is the central atom surrounded by χ B atoms

X can have integer values of 2 to 6

E.g.

 The VSEPR model can be applied to both molecules and polyatomic ions to deduce their

shapes.
 Electrons are found in various domains. We can also use the term electron pairs
 Domains are the regions of space where electrons are found.
Nucleus of terminal atom
 Electrons are found in various domains such as lone pairs and bond pairs (single bond,
double bond & triple bond)

 A double/ triple bond has essentially the same effect on bond angles
 Each double/ triple bond is treated as single bond and is counted as 1 electron pair when
predicting electron pair when predicting the geometry according to the VSEPR model.
 The basis of the VSEPR model is that electron repel each other. This is achieved when
electrons (both bonding and nonbonding electron pairs) will arrange themselves to be
as far apart as possible. Such arrangements minimize repulsive interactions.

Electron-pair geometry and molecular geometry

The electron pair geometry is the arrangement of electron pairs around the central atom.
The molecular geometry is the arrangement of bonded atoms.

In an ABx molecule, a bond angle is the angle between two adjacent A-B bonds.
 Steps to determine the electron-pair and molecular geometries:
1. Draw the Lewis structure of the molecule or polyatomic ion.
2. Count the number of electron pairs on the central atom
 Count the no. of bond pairs and lone pairs on the central atom
 Treat double/ triple bonds as though they were single bonds
3. Determine electron-pair geometry by applying the VSEPR model.
 2 electron pairs – linear
 3 electron pairs - trigonal planar
 4 electron pairs – tetrahedral
 5 electron pairs - trigonal bipyramidal
 6 electron pairs - octahedral
4. Determine the molecular geometry by considering the positions of the atoms only.

Molecules can be divided into 2 categories:

1. Molecules in which the central atom has no lone pairs (or non-bonding pairs)
2. Molecules in which the central atom has one or more line pairs.

Geometry of Molecules & ions where Central Atom Has No Lone Pairs

When the molecule or ion has a central atom with no lone pairs, the molecular geometry
will be as predicted. AKA:
Diagrams
No. of 2 3 4 5 6
electron
pairs
Electron-
pair
arrangeme
nt

Electron- Linear Trigonal planar Tetrahedral Trigonal Octahedral

pair Bipyramidal
geometry
Bond 1800 1200 109.50 900, 1200 900
angles

Geometry of Molecules & ions where Central Atom Has One or More Lone
Pairs
Angles are always between BP NOT LP

There are 2 types of valence shell electron pairs:

1) Bonding pairs (BP)
2) Nonbonding pairs or Lone pairs (LP)
There are 3 types of repulsive forces:
1) Between bonding pairs (BP vs BP)
 2) Between lone pairs (LP vs LP)
3) Between bonding pairs and lone pairs (BP vs LP)

 Some electron pairs are better than others at repelling neighboring pairs.
 Lone pairs are takes up more space than bonded pairs of electrons
 A lone pair on a central atom is attracted only to the nucleus of that atom while a
boding pair of electrons is simultaneously attracted by the nuclei of both binding
atoms.
 Therefore, LP vs LP > LP vs BP > BP vs BP. (This affects the bond angles)
When the central atom in an ABx, molecule bears one or more lone pairs, the electron-pair
geometry and the molecular geometry are no longer the same.
 ⸫ The lone pair of electrons always occupies the equatorial position. (For a Trigonal
Bipyramidal/ 5 e- pairs)

 For octahedral geometry, a lone pair can be placed in any position as the electron pairs
are equally spaced out
 However, the electron pairs must be opposite each other if there are more than one
electron pairs, as this will prevent LP-LP repulsion, and thus easing electron-electron
repulsion.

 The geometry of more complex molecules can be determined by treating them as

though they have multiple central atoms.
Valence Bond theory & the concept of hybridisation
VSEPR Model – Used to predict shapes of molecules, doesn’t explain why bonds exist
between atoms

Valence bond (VB) Model – Used to explain chemical bonding in VSEPR model, Explains why
and how bonding occur

VB theory

According to valence bond theory, atoms share electrons when atomic orbitals overlap.
 A bond forms when singly occupied orbitals on 2 atoms overlap
 The 2 electrons shared in the region of orbital overlap must be of opposite spin
 Formation of a bond results in a lower chemical potential energy for the system. The
greater the orbital overlap is, the greater the decrease in energy of the 2 electrons, and
the stronger the bond is

**Recall S orbitals are circular, p orbitals are dumbbell shaped

F-F  overlapping singly occupied 2p orbitals H-H bonds  overlapping 1s orbitals

 A covalent bond will form if the chemical potential energy of the molecule is lower –
greater stability

As atoms come
very close together,
PE ↑s rapidly.

When atoms from

As atoms come far away approach
closer, PE ↓s. one another, PE is
Nearly 0.

• When atoms are even closer,

PE reaches a minimum.
• Min PE @ optimal
internuclear distance
= observed bond length
Hybridisation of atomic orbitals

Hybridisation or mixing of atomic orbitals can account for observed bond angles in
molecules that could not be described by the direct overlap of atomic orbitals. These new
orbitals have new shapes and new directional properties.

**For info: Hybridization occurs when an atom bonds using electrons from both the s and p
orbitals, creating an imbalance in the energy levels of the electrons. To equalize these
energy levels, the s and p orbitals involved are combined to create hybrid orbitals.

E.g. 1, Hybridisation of s and p atomic orbitals (sp hybrid orbitals)

BeCl2
 Lewis theory and VSEPR theory predict Cl−Be−Cl bond angle of 180°

2 electron pairs
Electron pair geometry: linear

 A ground state beryllium atom cannot form two bonds; there are no unpaired
electrons.

 An excited state configuration for Be has two unpaired electrons for bonding.

 If Be uses the s and p subshells for bonding, the two bonds formed would not be
equivalent as s and p orbitals are of different shapes. However, experimentally, the bond
in BeCl2 bonds are identical in length and strength.
 To account that experimentally bond length and strength in BeCl 2 bonds are identical,
the s and p orbital must mix to form orbitals that have new shape & new directions.
 Mixing of one s orbital and one p orbital yields two sp hybrid orbitals.

 The 2s orbital and one of the 2p orbitals on Be combine to form two sp hybrid orbitals.
 The hybrid orbitals on Be each overlap with a singly occupied 3p orbital on a Cl atom.
 The energy required to form an excited state Be atom is more than compensated for by
the energy given off when a bond forms.
**Note: other examples include sp2, sp3…. The subscript indicates the number of orbitals
used to form the hybrid
E.g. 2 Hybridisation of s and p atomic orbitals (where central atom has lone
pairs of electrons)

E.g. Ammonia, NH3

H N H
4 electron pairs
3
4 hybrid orbitals required (sp )

H
 Not all of the hybrid orbitals of the central atom must be used for bonding.
 Lone pairs of electrons must be accommodated as well.

 Hybrid orbitals of central atom can hold lone pairs too.

 3 of the sp3 hybrids overlap with 1s orbital of each H. The other hybrid orbital is
occupied by lone pairs.
Hybridisation in Molecules containing multiple bonds

2 types of bonds are formed from the overlap of s, p, or hybrid orbitals

  bond (Pi bonds)
  bond (sigma bonds)

 bonds can be formed by:

(a) Overlap of s orbitals

(b) End-end overlap of p orbitals

(c) Overlap of s orbitals and p orbitals

(d) Overlap of hybrid orbitals

In  bonds, the electron density is concentrated symmetrically about the line that connects
the nuclei (the internuclear axis).

 bond

 Sideways overlap of p orbitals produces a  bond (i.e. the overlap region lie above and
below the internuclear axis).
Strength of  bonds and  bonds
• Since overlap in  bonds < overlap in  bond,
 bonds are weaker than  bonds.
• Single bond =  bond
• 1 double bond = 1  bond & 1  bond
• 1 triple bond = 1  bond & 2  bonds

 Valence bond theory and hybridization can be used to describe the bonding in molecules
containing double and triple bonds.
E.g.

 Each carbon atom requires 4 unpaired electrons. ⸫ Promotion of electron is required.

 Only one 2s and two 2p orbitals under hybridization to form three sp2 hybrid orbitals.
Steps to predict the hybrid orbital used by an atom in chemical bonding

1) Draw the Lewis Structure

2) Determine the number of electron pairs of the central atom.
3) Specify the hybrid orbitals needed to accommodate the electron pairs based on the
number of electron pairs:
2 electron pairs – sp hybridisation
3 electron pairs – sp2 hybridisation
4 electron pairs – sp3 hybridisation
4) Draw the ground state valence shell orbital diagram for the central atom.
**For ions, take note of formal charge, if + , minus one e- from central atom

5) Draw excited state valence shell orbital diagram of central atom (if needed)

6) Draw hybridised state valence shell orbital diagram of central atom

Sample question:
For NO3-
Write ground state
Using the formal charge remove the electron which requires less energy/ eases e - to e-
repulsion
Then hybridise.
Chemical Bonding Part 2
Continuation of electronegativity in part 1

Bond polarity for diatomic molecules

For diatomic molecules,
if it contains a polar bond, it is a polar molecule.
if it contains a non-polar bond, it is a non-polar molecule. 

Example: H-F is a polar bond, therefore, HF molecule is polar.

Polyatomic molecules

Molecules with more than or equal to 3 atoms.

Based in the molecular geometry (determined from VSEPR model), we are able to deduce
the molecular polarity. This is important as molecular polarity influences the physical,
chemical and biological properties of molecules.

 A molecule with  3 atoms can either be

 Polar or
 Nonpolar
 A molecule can be nonpolar even though polar bonds are present.

How do you determine if a polyatomic molecule with more than 2 atoms is polar.
1. Make sure it is a molecule
2. Draw a Lewis structure
3. Determine the molecular shape/geometry
 Determine if the geometry is symmetrical.
 Determine if terminal atoms are all the same
What is a “symmetrical” molecular geometry
 All bond angles are the same
 With a few exceptions, molecules without lone pairs of electrons around central atom
have symmetrical geometry.
 **Recall: Lone pairs of e- on the central atom distort ideal bond angles
E.g. of Symmetrical molecular geometry:

 Non-symmetrical molecules
 Electrons distributed unevenly around molecule resulting in polar molecule
 Symmetrical molecule with different terminal atoms
 Electrons distributed unevenly around molecule resulting in a polar molecule
 Symmetrical molecule with same terminal atoms (external atoms besides central)
 Electrons distributed evenly around molecule resulting in nonpolar molecule
Non Polar polyatomic molecules example

 CO2
 The geometry of CO2 is linear.
 There are two polar bonds in the molecule and the bond dipole are pointing in opposite
directions (electron density pointing in opposite direction). With the same magnitude
and bond the bond dipole cancels out each other. There is no net molecular dipole
moment.
 ⸫CO2 is a non-polar molecule.

Polar polyatomic molecules example

 For example CHCl3, the bonds are not all identical and thus, there is a net molecular
dipole moment.
 ⸫ CHCl3 molecule is polar.

** As long as you can determine that the molecule has a net molecular dipole moment, the
molecule is polar.

PCl5

Molecule is symmetrical. The dipoles for each atoms on the axial positions will cancel each
other. The dipoles for the atoms on the equatorial positions will cancel each other. Overall,
there is no net molecular dipole moment

H2CO
Molecule is non-symmetrical. The dipoles will not cancel each other as the
electronegativities of O and H are different. Overall, there is a net molecular dipole moment.
There for the molecule is polar

SO2
Molecules is non-symetircal
Difference between intramolecular and intermolecular forces of attraction

Intramolecular (within molecule) forces of attraction:

 Within molecules in covalent substances e.g. covalent bonds
 Within ionic substances e.g. ionic bonds

Intermolecular (between molecules) forces of attraction:

 They are forces of attraction between molecules that hold molecules together in a liquid
or solid state.
 Intermolecular forces of attraction is responsible for the existence of the condensed
states of matter i.e. liquids and solids
Molecular polarity and intermolecular forces of attraction

Molecular polarity allows us to predict the type of intermolecular forces of attraction

between covalent molecules.

Covalent compounds (Intermolecular forces of attraction)

 Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between neighbouring molecules. Attraction

involves partial charges, thus weaker than ion-ion & ion-dipole.
 These forces are known collectively as van der Waals forces of attraction.
 Van der Waals forces of attractions includes 
 Dipole-dipole interactions (or dipole-dipole forces of attraction)
 Hydrogen bonding
 Dispersion forces of attraction

Intermolecular forces of attraction affects boiling points, melting points of simple

molecules
 The boiling points and melting points of covalent compounds reflect the strengths of
intermolecular forces of attraction operating among molecules.
 A substance in which the particles are held together by stronger intermolecular forces of
attraction will require more energy to separate the particles and result in a higher
boiling temperature.
 Boiling points and melting points increases with increasing strength of intermolecular
forces.

1. Dipole-dipole forces of attraction

 attractive forces acting between polar molecules
 The partial positive (+) is attracted to the partial negative () of a neighboring molecule,
resulting in dipole-dipole interaction (or permanent dipole-dipole interaction).
 The larger the dipole, the stronger the forces of attraction

2. Hydrogen bonding
 Hydrogen bonding is a special type of dipole–dipole interaction.
 Hydrogen bonding only occurs in molecules that contain hydrogen atom bonded to a
small, highly electronegative atom such as N, O, or F.
Example: In HF, the large partial positive charge on H is able to attract strongly to the large
partial negative charge on F of neighboring HF. This results in an especially strong dipole-
dipole  Hydrogen bonding.
 ⸫ The strength of hydrogen bonding is stronger than dipole-dipole forces of attraction of
similar size molecules
 Due to hydrogen bonding, H2O, HF and NH3 have higher than expected boiling points
compare to those in their respective groups.

3. Dispersion forces of attraction

 Primarily for non-polar molecules but can also occur in polar molecules
 Non-polar molecules such as N2, O2, F2, Cl2 have their electron density distributed
equally and symmetrically, therefore, they have no net dipole moment.
 However, the electrons in these non-polar molecules have the freedom to move, as a
result, they have instantaneous (temporary) dipole.
 An instantaneous dipole in one molecule can induce dipoles in neighboring molecules.
 For example, the temporary partial negative charge on a molecule repels the electrons
in the molecule next to it.

 This repulsion polarizes the second molecule

 This polarization process continues, leaving behind a collection of ordinarily non-polar
molecules with partial positive and negative charges.
 Are called London dispersion forces. (or instantaneous dipole-dipole forces of attraction
or temporary dipole-dipole forces of attraction).

 The magnitude of dispersion forces depends on how mobile the electrons in the
molecules are.
 In small molecules, such as F2, the electrons are relatively close to the nuclei and cannot
move about very freely.
 Thus, electron density distribution in F2 is not easily polarized.
 In larger molecules, such as Cl2, electrons are somewhat further away from the nuclei
and they are more easily polarized.
 As a result, Cl2 will have larger instantaneous dipole compared to F2 and a stronger
intermolecular attraction overall, leading to higher boiling point.
 In general, the larger the molar mass (bigger and heavier the atom), the stronger the
dispersion forces between the molecules  higher boiling point.
 FYI: In a larger atom or molecule, the valence electrons are, on average, farther from the
nuclei than in a smaller atom or molecule. They are less tightly held and can more easily
form temporary dipoles.

General Comparison of strengths of forces of attractions

 Such comparison is only valid if we are comparing simple molecules of about similar
sizes or molar mass.

Forces of attraction involving Ionic compounds

 An ionic compound is formed when cations and anions are brought together. Most of
the ionic compounds are binary compounds, substances that contain 2 different ions
derived from 2 different elements.
 Typically, ionic compound consist of metal cations and non-metal anions held together
by ionic bonding, which refers to the electrostatic forces of attraction between
oppositely charged particles.

Ion-ion forces of attraction

 Ion-ion forces of attraction is known as the electrostatic attraction between the resulting
cation (eg: Na+) and anion (eg: Cl-) in an ionic compound.

Ion-dipole forces of attraction (ionic compounds in water)

 Ion-dipole interactions are attractions between ions (both positive and negative
charged ions) and polar molecules.
 These interactions occur in mixtures of ionic and polar species such as an aqueous
solution of sodium chloride.
 The water molecule is extremely polar, and there is attraction between
 +ve ion (Na+) & slight −ve end of water molecule
 −ve ion (Cl−) & slight +ve end of water molecule
 When a solid or liquid dissolves, ions or molecules separate & the space is occupied by
the solvent. (ions or molecules are stripped away and surrounded by ion/polar
molecule)
 A new intermolecular attraction is formed.
 An ion-dipole force exists between an ion & the partial charge on the end of a polar
molecule.
 This explains why some ionic compounds are soluble in polar solvents.
 Other ionic solids such as MgO, CuO, AgCl, BaSO 4 are insoluble in water because their
ionic bonds are too strong to allow the ions to separate and mix with the water
molecules.
 The magnitude of ion-dipole forces of attraction depends on factors such as:
 the charge and size of the ion & (larger charge and smaller size as the particles will
be closer together)
 the dipole moment and size of the polar molecule. (larger dipole moment and
smaller size of particle)
General Comparison of strengths of forces of attractions
 Such comparison is only valid if we are comparing simple molecules or ions of about
similar sizes or molar mass.

Intermolecular forces of attraction affects solubility of compounds

 When intermolecular forces of attraction are similar between particles (atoms,

molecules or ions), they tend to be soluble with each other.
 Polar substances dissolve polar substances.
 FYI the polar substances will attract one another and mix
 Non-polar substances dissolve non-polar substances
 FYI the non-polar substances experience entropy whereby they mix
 As the non-polar portion of the molecules increases, the solubility of the molecule in
water decreases.
Summary

Ionic compounds
Ion-ion forces of attraction (or ionic forces of attraction)
Ion-dipole forces of attraction (ionic compounds in water)

Covalent compounds

Polar molecules
1) Dipole-dipole forces of attraction
2) Hydrogen Bonding (For compounds with H bonded to N, O, F)
3) Dispersion forces of attraction

Non-polar molecules
ONLY Dispersion forces of attraction

NOTE: we should determine if the bond is ionic or covalent through electronegativity.

E.g. Titanium fluoride is covalent due to lower difference in electronegativity.
 Overview of bonding and structure
Bonding and structure explains the properties of a substance!

Bonding refers to the way the particles are held together. Examples: Ionic bonding;
Covalent bonding or Metallic bonding

Structure refers to the way the particles are arranged relative to each other. Examples:
Giant ionic lattice structure; Simple molecular; Giant molecular; Giant metallic structure

Ionic substances Simple Giant covalent Metals

molecular/covalent substances
substances
Structure and Ionic compounds Simple covalent Giant molecular have a Metal atoms lose
Bonding have giant ionic substances with giant covalent valence electrons to
lattice structure that simple molecular structures which form positive ions.
consists of a large structure consists of consists of a large The delocalisation
number of positive simple covalent number of non- of the valence
ions and negative molecules held metallic atoms (___ electrons of the
ions held tightly together held atoms and ___ atoms) metal atom forms a
together by strong together by weak held together by an sea of mobile
electrostatic forces intermolecular forces extensive network of valence electrons.
of attraction (or ionic of attraction. strong covalent bonds
bonds) Metals have giant
In each molecule, the E.g. metallic structures
E.g. atoms are held SiO2, diamond, that consists of
Na2O, MgO, Al2O3 together by strong graphite positive metal ions
covalent bonds. in a sea of
delocalised
E.g. electrons, held
SO3, P4O6, Cl2O7 together by strong
metallic bonds

A metallic bond is
the strong
electrostatic forces
of attraction
between the
positive metal ions
and negatively
charged delocalised
electrons
 A giant structure is a three-dimensional network that contains a large number of particles
 A lattice is a regular arrangement of particles
 Ionic substances Simple Giant covalent Metals
molecular/covalent substances
substances
Melting and  They have a high  They have low  Giant covalent  Metals have high
Boiling points melting point and melting and substances have melting and
boiling points due boiling points. The very high melting boiling points
to strong weak and boiling points due to strong
electrostatic intermolecular as the ___ atoms electrostatic
forces of forces of are held together forces of
attraction attraction by an extensive attraction
between the ions between the network of strong between the
throughout the molecules only covalent bonds positive metal
giant ionic lattice need a small that needs a large ions and the sea
structure that amount of energy amount of energy of delocalised
require a large to be loosened. to overcome. electrons that
amount of energy require a large
to overcome. amount of
energy to
overcome

Melting refers to the ability of the compound to transform from a solid state to liquid state.

Ionic substances Simple molecular Giant molecular Metals

substances structures
Electrical  They do not  Molten simple  Does not  Metals are good
conductivity conduct electricity molecular substances conduct conductors of
in the solid state. (SiO2, P4O6, SO3 & electricity electricity when
The positive and Cl2O7 ) do not (except graphite) solid and molten
negative ions are conduct electricity as
held in fixed they do not exist as  There are no  The conduction
positions by strong ions, but as mobile ions or of electricity is
electrostatic forces uncharged molecules delocalised due to the
of attraction in the and cannot conduct electrons to act movement of the
giant ionic lattice electricity as charge sea of
structure and are carriers delocalised
immobile  Some simple electrons
molecular substances through the
 They only conduct can dissolve in water metal lattice.
electricity when to form aqueous
molten or solutions that
dissolved in water conducts electricity.
because there are They dissociate in
mobile cations and water to produce
anions that act as mobile positive and
charge carriers. negative ions that act
as charge carriers
Electrical conductivity refers to the ability of the compound to carry charges and move.

Group IIA Observation for reaction with acids Observations with water
metals Reactivities of alkaline earth metals with
water vary

Beryllium The surface of beryllium metal is covered with Beryllium does not react with cold water.
an thin layer of insoluble beryllium oxide which
acts as a barrier and helps protect the metal
from attack by acid

Powdered beryllium metal dissolves readily in

dilute acids such as sulphuric acid, H2SO4,
hydrochloric acid, HCl, or nitric acid, HNO3, to
form solutions containing the aquated Be(II) ion
together with hydrogen gas, H2.

Be(s) + H2SO4 (aq)  Be2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) +

H2(g)
Magnesium Has a very slight reaction with cold water.
Apart from beryllium, down the group the group Reaction soon stops
IIA metals (alkaline earth metals) react with Magnesium hydroxide produced forms an
aqueous acids with increasing vigour down the insoluble thin layer over magnesium which
group, liberating hydrogen gas. acts as a barrier preventing further reaction.

E.g. Mg (s) + 2H2O (l)  H2 (g) + Mg(OH)2 (s)

Calcium Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq)  MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) Reacts with cold water with increasing vigour
down the group to give metal hydroxide and
Reactivity of the alkaline earth metals with the hydrogen
Strontium acids increases down the group
E.g.
Valence electrons are further away from the Ba (s) + 2H2O (l)  Ba(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Barium nucleus and are more readily lost for reactions
to occur Reactivity of alkaline earth metals with water
increases down the group
Radium --
 Covalent Compounds
Property Ionic Compounds
Giant Covalent Simple Molecular

 Strong Covalent Bonds

Within Molecules
Strength & Type of Strong Covalent
Strong Ionic Bonds  Weak Intermolecular
Attractive Force Bonds
Forces Between
Molecules
Structure Giant ionic lattice Giant Covalent Simple Molecular

Melting Point Usually high High Low

Gas, Liquid or Low Melting

Physical State Solid Solid
Point Solid

Solubility in Water Some are Soluble Insoluble Many are Insoluble

Electrical Good when in

Nil or Poor Nil or Poor
Conductivity Solution or Molten
 Oxides and Chlorides of Period 3 elements
Oxides of period 3 elements
Formula Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O6 SO3 Cl2O7

Bonding Ionic Covalent Covalent

Giant
Simple Molecular
Structure Giant ionic Structures covalent
Structures
Structure

Melting Point High High Low

Electrical
Conductivity Good Nil
when Molten

Weakly
Nature Basic Amphoteric Acidic
Basic

Acidic, Basic, Amphoteric

Most oxides are acidic depending on:

 They give acids or bases when dissolved in water
 Whether they react with acids or bases to give salts

Some oxides are amphoteric as they display both acidic & basic properties
Acidity of period 3 oxides increases across the period

**Recall:
Basic: Red litmus paper turns blue
Acidic: Blue litmus paper turns red
Most non-metal oxides are acidic oxides, most are soluble
Most metal oxides are basic oxides, most are insoluble
Amphoteric oxides “ZAP” ZnO, Al2O3, PbO

Oxide Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O6 SO3 Cl2O7

Basic Weakly Basic Amphoteric Acidic

Period 3 Nature Chemical reactions
oxides
Na2O Basic Soluble in water, reacts with water to form a base
Na2O (s) + H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq)
MgO Weakly Insoluble in water
Basic Is basic as it reacts with steam and acids
MgO (s) + H2O (g) → Mg(OH)2 (s)
MgO (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
Base acid salt water
Al2O3 Amphoteric Insoluble and does not react with water,
Acts as a base as it reacts with acids
Al2O3 (s) + 6HCl (aq) → 2AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2O (l)
It also acts as an acid since it reacts with hot and
concentrated bases
Al2O3 (s) + 2NaOH (aq) + 3H2O (l) → 2NaAl(OH)4 (aq)
Thus aluminium oxide is an amphoteric oxide as it behaves
as an acid & base
SiO2 Acidic Insoluble and does not react with water
Acidic as it reacts with very concentrated bases
SiO2 (s) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2SiO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
This is why concentrated strong bases should not be stored
in Pyrex glassware which is made of SiO2.
P4O6 Soluble in water, reacts with water to form acids
P4O6 (s) + 6H2O (l) → 4H3PO3 (aq)
tetraphosphorus phosphorous
hexaoxide acid

SO3 Soluble in water, reacts with water to form acids

SO3 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4(aq)
Sulfur Sulfuric acid
trioxide
Cl2O7 Soluble in water, reacts with water to form acids
Cl2O7 (l) + H2O (l) → 2HClO4(aq)
Dichlorine Perchloric
Heptaoxide acid
Chlorides of period 3 elements

Formula NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3 SiCl4 PCl3 SCl2 Cl2

Bonding Ionic Covalent

Giant ionic
Structure Simple Molecular Structures
Structures

Melting Point High Low

Electrical
Conductivity Good Poor Nil
when Molten

Weakly
Neutral
Nature Acidic Acidic
(pH =7)
(pH ≈ 6)

Acidity of period 3 chlorides increases across the period.

Chlorides NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3 SiCl4 PCl3 SCl2 Cl2

Neutral Weakly Acidic Acidic

 Sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolves in water to give a neutral solution.

 But magnesium chloride (MgCl2), aluminium chloride (AlCl3), silicon chloride (SiCl4),
phosphorus trichloride (PCl3), sulphur dichloride (SCl2) & chlorine (Cl2) dissolve in water
to give acidic solutions.

MgCl2 (s) + H2O (l) → [Mg(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2Cl− (aq)

[Mg(H2O)6]2+(aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ [Mg(H2O)5(OH)]+ (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

Ionic MgCl2, dissolves in water to from the individual ions and Mg ions due to its strong
charge attracts 6 molecules of water, ion dipole reaction

The ion dipole reaction causes one OH ion to break off from one water molecule and one H +
ion is released.