3-5 Flow Rule:

The strains that result from elastic deformation are

described by Hooke’s law.
There are similar relations for plastic deformation, called
the flow rules. In the most general form the flow rule may
be written as:
 f 
dij  d  
  
 ij 
where f is the function of σij that describes yielding (i.e., the
yield criterion.)
 For the von-Mises criterion, differentiation
results in:
d1 = d [ 1 – (1/2) (2 +3)]
d2 = d [ 2 – (1/2) (3 +1)]
d3 = d [ 3 – (1/2) (3 +1)]

It can be shown that the ratio of the plastic

strains remains constant:
d1 : dd=

= [ 1 – (1/2) (2 +3)] : [ 2 – (1/2) (3 +1)] : [ 3 – (1/2) (1 +2)]
 Flow-rule:
d1 : dd=

[ 1 – (1/2) (2 +3)] : [ 2 – (1/2) (3 +1)] : [ 3 – (1/2) (1 +2)]

Another form of the flow-rule can be:

d1 d 2 d 3
 
     
 
1
 1 2 2   
3   2 
1
 3   
1   3 
1
 1   
2 
  2   2 

If we take the power of two for all the equalities

and add them together one can get:
d1 d 2 d 3 d
  
      
 
1
 1 2 2   
3   2 
1
 3   
1   3 
1
 1   
2 
  2   2 
Finally the flow-rule can be written in terms of
the deviatoric stresses:

d1 d 2 d3 3 d
  
 1  2  3 2 
 Example 3.3:
A circle 1 cm diameter was printed on a sheet of metal prior to a complex
stamping operation. After the stamping, it was found that the circle had
become an ellipse with major and minor diameters of 1.300 and 1.100 cm.
a) Determine the effective strain.
b) If a condition of plane stress (σ3 = 0) existed during the
stamping, and the ratio  = σ2/σ1 remained constant,
what ratio σ1/  must have existed?

Solution:
a) 1= ln (1.3/1) = 0.2624
2 = ln(1.1) = 0.0953
3 = -2 - 1 = -0.358


3

2 2
1   22  32  = [(2/3) (0.2622 + 0.09532 + 0.3582)]1/2 = 0.3705

Note that this is larger than 0.358 the highest principal strain.
b) From the flow rule with σ3 = 0, 2/1 = (2σ2 − σ1)/(2σ1 − σ2)

Solving for  = σ2 / σ1 = (22 / 1 + 1)/( 2 / 1 + 2 )

= [2 (0.0953) / (0.2624) + 1] / [0.0953/0.2624 + 2]

  = 0.946


since    1   2   1 2
2 2

1/ 2
 1 1   2   for plane stress condition

1
then  1/ 1  2  

 1/  
1  0.946  0.946
2

1
 1.027

3-6 Normality Principle:
Differentiating von-Mises
equation for 2-D with respect v
3
to 1 gives: 1

1
3
 Y2     v
   2 1  2 3 3   3   1 3 
 1   1  1 

Since Y is instantaneously a
constant value, then one can
write:
 3
2 3   1   2 1   3  
 3

2 1   3     1
 1  1 2 3   1   3
 3
Hence, the outward normal is  1
Using last equation with the flow rule
leads to the result that the vector sum of
the plastic strains is normal
to the yield surface.
This result which is also valid in the 3-D
is called the principle of normality.

v
2

1 3
 Example 3.4:
A cube of annealed low-carbon steel with   100 ( ) 0.1 MPa is forged with a
hydraulic press reducing its height from 100 mm to 70 mm. The forging
process is performed in such a way to keep the dimensions of one side of
the cube unchanged. Friction at contact surfaces is to be neglected and
deformation is assumed to uniform. Calculate:
a) The forging load P1 at the end of the process.
b) The load on the side platens, P2
c) The total work done per unit volume at the end of this deformation.

Solution: P1
a)
Defining the direction system 1-2-3:
We have a plane strain condition,
then: 1
l  70  2
1  ln   ln   0.357 3
 l0   100 
2  0
 Since the volume is constant: P1

1   2  3  0
1
3  1  0.357 3 2

For linear strain path:


2 2
3

1   22  32    0.412

And since   100 ( ) 0.1 MPa   91.5 MPa

To calculate the loads at the end of the process, we get the
final dimensions:
 l3 
3  ln  or l3 l 0 e3
 l0 
 P1
 l3  100 e 0.357  142.9 mm

As 2 = 0 & 3 = 0 1
3 2

Then from the flow-rule (Levy-Mises equations):

3 p 3 p  
*  2   1   3 
1
2  0  *  2 
2  2   2 
hence 2 = 1/2 1


       1 2
2
1
2
2  1/ 2

2
3
1
 P1
  1  105 .66 MPa &  2  52.83 MPa

P1 = 1 * l3 * l2 = 1509.88 kN 1
3 2
b) P2 = 2 * l3 * l1 = 528.46 kN
c) total plastic work / unit volume:


    d
p
dw
0
0.412
 100 1.1 
0.412
w   100  d    
p 0 .1

0  1.1 0
wp = 34.28 N m / m3

Integration is important since the  &  changes

during the process.
3-7 Methodology of Calculation:
Important notes while performing calculations for
the forming operations:
1- If not stated identify the material of your product.
2- get the flow curve for the used material.
3- Suggest an appropriate forming operation.
4- Get the stress state at every point ( for simple
operations).
5- Calculate the equivalent stress and equivalent
strain involved in the operation.
6- Verify the execution possibility of the forming
operation.
7- Calculate the required work, force and space.