PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

SIGMUND FREUD (1856 – 1939)

The earliest psychological theories of crime were based on the work of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939).
Freud argued that human nature includes a great reservoir of instinctual drives that demand
gratification.

Perspective:

Psychological theories of crime say that criminal behavior is a result of individual differences in thinking
processes. There are many different psychological theories, but they all believe that it is the person’s
thoughts and feelings that dictate their actions. As such, problems in thinking can lead to criminal
behavior.

The Psychological theory is focused on how an individual’s early experiences affect their propensity to
commit crime. It pays particular attention to how family and personal variable affect criminal behavior.
In addition, psychological theories focus on the individual’s perception of the outside world, and how
these perceptions are express.

Psychological theories are typically developmental in nature, attempting to explain how criminal
behavior changes from childhood to adulthood. As a result, they are built on longitudinal studies that
monitor people over time. Such ideas place more emphasis on continuity than on change from
childhood to maturity. One typical presumption is that people are ranked according to an underlying
construct, like criminal potential, fairly consistently throughout time.

Offending is seen by psychologists as a behavior that shares many characteristics with other forms of
antisocial behavior. So, it is possible to research crime using the theories, techniques, and knowledge of
other forms of antisocial behavior.

The correlation between antisocial behavior and the distress brought on by parental punishment, the
conscience is frequently believed to develop during a conditioning phase or during the learning process,
where the probability of behavior increases or decreases according to parental rewards or punishments.

Cognitive (thinking or decision-making) processes that explain why people choose to offend in a
certain circumstance are frequently included in psychological theories. One prevalent misconception is
that people will offend if they believe the advantages will outweigh the expenses, which is exactly the
rationale behind offending.

There are four basic ideas when it comes to psychological theories of crime. These general
assumptions are that crime is a result of:

1. Failures in psychological development

Some people run into trouble because they didn’t develop, or grow, the way that others normally do.
Underdeveloped conscience.

2. Learned behaviors of aggression and violence

If someone is surrounded by violence and aggression, they are more likely to become violent and
aggressive themselves, because they have learned that those behaviors are okay.

3. Inherent personality traits

There are some characteristics that criminals tend to share with each other, and some psychologists
believe that there are certain personality traits that predispose someone towards criminal behavior.

4. Relationship of criminality to mental illness

Some people with psychological disorders end up committing crimes.

Theories Under Psychological theories of Crime Causation:

After decades of study on the criminal mind, the three main theories of crime have been identified. The
psychodynamic theory is focused on how an individual’s early experiences affect their propensity to
commit crime. The focus of behavioral theory is on how perception of the outside world affects conduct.
Additionally, cognitive theory focuses on how individuals express their perceptions, which can result in a
criminal existence.

1. Psychodynamic Theory (Sigmund Freud)

• Freud argued that everyone has irrational urges (also known as the “id”) that call for
fulfillment.
•These urges are governed by moral and ethical principles (referred to as the “superego”), and
as people grow, they also acquire a logical personality (referred to as the “ego”) that acts as a
mediator between the id and superego.
•This theory interprets criminal behavior as essentially the result of the superego failing.

In a broader sense, psychodynamic theory views criminal behavior as an id, ego, and superego
conflict. Conflict might encourage people to engage in risky or criminal action.

Within the psychodynamic theory of crime are mood disorders. Criminal offenders may have a
number of mood disorders that are ultimately manifested as depression, rage, narcissism, and
social isolation.
One example of a disorder found in children is conduct disorder. Children with conduct disorder
have difficulty following rules and behaving in socially acceptable ways.
Conduct disorders are ultimately manifested as a group of behavioral and emotional problems in
young adults.
It is important to note that children diagnosed with conduct disorder are viewed by adults, other
children, and agencies of the state as “trouble,” “bad,” “delinquent,” or even “mentally ill.”
It is important to inquire as to why some children develop conduct disorder and others do not.
There are many possible explanations; some of the most prominent include child abuse, brain
damage, genetics, poor school performance, and a traumatic event.

2. Behavioral Theory (John Watson, 1913)

•The primary tenet of this theory is that experience shapes human behavior.
 •John Watson believed that one could predict and even control human behavior based on the
behavior patterns observed in his patients and society. He believed that the mind was a tabula
rasa, or a “blank slate.” Watson believed that the environment was the only force shaping
personality and behavior.
•People learn behaviors based on systems of reward and punishment and that a person’s
behavioral development is due to external forces. This reward system is called conditioning, and
it defines human behavior as a response to one’s environment and not a product of the
unconscious or unobservable mind.

In particular, behavioral theory emphasizes the notion that people form their behavior based on
how others react to them when they exhibit it. This is an instance of conditioning, in which
actions are picked up and strengthened by rewards and punishments.
So, if someone is among others who support and even encourage criminal activity, especially if
they are in positions of authority, they will also continue to do so. For instance, social learning
theorist Albert Bandura contends that people do not naturally possess the capacity for
aggressive behavior. He proposes as an alternative that people pick up aggressive behavior by
watching others. Family, environmental experiences, and the media are the three main sources
of this.

3. Cognitive Theory (Jean Piaget)

•The cognitive theory definition asserts that the way people behave is a product of the
information they gather externally and the way they interpret that information internally.
•Cognition refers to the mental process of absorbing and retaining knowledge. It encompasses
the ability to understand through thought, experience and sense.
•Individual’s way of thinking and decision-making might lead to a commission of crime.

There are two sub discipline of this theory:

1. The first sub discipline is the moral development branch, the focus of which is
understanding how people morally represent and reason about the world.

A pioneer of cognitive theory, Lawrence Kohlberg believed that individuals pass through stages
of moral development. Most important to his theory is the notion that there are levels, stages,
and social orientation.
The three levels are Level I, pre-conventional; Level II, conventional; and Level III, post
conventional. With respect to the different stages, Stages 1 and 2 fall under Level I. Stages 3 and
4 fall under Level II, and Stages 5 and 6 fall under Level III.

Stage 1 is concerned about obedience and punishment. This level is most often found at the
grade levels of kindergarten through fifth grade. During this stage, individuals conduct
themselves in a manner that is consistent with socially acceptable norms (Kohlberg, 1984). This
conforming behavior is attributed to authority figures such as parents, teachers, or the school
principal. Ultimately, this obedience is compelled by the threat or application of punishment.
Stage 2 is characterized by individualism, instrumentalism, and exchange. Ultimately, the
characterization suggests that individuals seek to fulfill their own interests and recognize that
others should do the same. This stage maintains that the right behavior means acting in one’s
own best interests.

The conventional level of moral reasoning is often found in young adults or adults. It is believed
that individuals who reason in a conventional way are more likely to judge the morality of
actions by comparing those actions to societal viewpoints and expectations.
Stage 3, the individual recognizes that he or she is now a member of society. Coinciding with this
is the understanding of the roles that one plays. An important concept within this stage is the
idea that individuals are interested in whether or not other people approve or disapprove of
them.
Stage four, the premise is based on law and order. In this stage, individuals recognize the
importance of laws, rules, and customs. This is important because in order to properly function
in society, one must obey and recognize the social pillars of society. Ultimately, individuals must
recognize the significance of right and wrong. Obviously, a society without laws and
punishments leads to chaos. In contrast, if an individual who breaks the law is punished, others
would recognize that and exhibit obedience. Kohlberg (1984) suggested that the majority of
individuals in our society remain at this stage, in which morality is driven by outside forces.

Stages 5 and 6 exist at the post-conventional level.

Stage 5 is referred to as the social contract. Here, individuals are concerned with the moral
worth of societal rules and values, but only insofar as they are related to or consistent with the
basic values of liberty, the welfare of humanity, and human rights. Fundamental terms
associated with this stage are majority decision and compromise.
Stage 6 is often termed principled conscience. This stage is characterized by universal principles
of justice and respect for human autonomy. Most important to criminal justice and criminology
is the notion that laws are valid only if they are based on or grounded in justice. It is important
to recognize that justice is subjective. Thus, Kohlberg argued that the quest for justice would
ultimately call for disobeying unjust laws. He suggested that individuals could progress through
the six stages in a chronological fashion. Important for criminology is that Kohlberg suggested
that criminals are significantly lower in their moral judgment development.

2. The second sub discipline is information processing. Here, researchers focus on the way
people acquire, retain, and retrieve information.

•This area is predicated on the notion that people use information to understand their
environment.

1. When an individual makes a decision, he or she engages in a sequence of cognitive thought

processes.
2. These individuals search for the appropriate response, and then they determine the
appropriate action.
3. They must act on their decision.

•There are some vital findings regarding this process.

1. Individuals who use information properly are more likely to avoid delinquent or criminal
behavior.
2. Those who are conditioned to make reasoned judgments when faced with emotional events
are more likely to avoid antisocial behavioral decisions.

•An explanation for flawed reasoning is that the individual may be relying on a faulty cognitive
process; specifically, he or she may be following a mental script that was learned in childhood.

•Second reason that may account for flawed reasoning is prolonged exposure to violence.

•A third possibility of faulty reasoning is oversensitivity or rejection by parents or peers.

Contemplating the consequences of long-lasting rejection or dismissal is likely to produce
damage to an individual’s self-esteem.

Personality and Crime

Personality can be defined as something that makes us what we are and also that which makes
us different from others. Personality traits of hostility, impulsivity, and narcissism are correlated
with delinquent and criminal behavior.

Psychopathic Personality

Antisocial personality, psychopathy, or sociopath are terms used interchangeably. Sociopaths

are often a product of a destructive home environment. Psychopaths are a product of a defect
or aberration within themselves.

Antisocial personality is characterized by low levels of guilt, superficial charm, above-average

intelligence, persistent violations of the rights of others, an incapacity to form enduring
relationships, impulsivity, risk taking, egocentricity, manipulativeness, forcefulness and cold-
heartedness, and shallow emotions. The origin may include traumatic socialization, neurological
disorder, and brain abnormality.

Other dynamics that may contribute to the psychopathic personality is a parent with pathologic
tendencies, childhood traumatic events, or inconsistent discipline. It is important to note that
many chronic offenders are sociopaths.

The fact that psychopaths lack the essence of self-control in theory means that they are
inclined towards delinquency and criminal behavior (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990), therefore
psychopathy being a direct predictor of crime and criminality.

Thus, if personality traits can predict crime and violence, then one could assume that the root
cause of crime is found in the forces that influence human development at an early stage of life.

OTHER SAMPLE THEORIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION:

1. Broken homes and attachment theories

(by John Bowlby in the 1950s and expanded upon by Mary Ainsworth and countless other
researchers in later years.)
 •children who are separated from a biological parent are more likely to offend than children
from intact families.
•Children of broken families generally are more likely to be resource deprived, especially in
female-headed households, and receive less intense and less consistent monitoring, all of
which have been associated to mental development and academic success of a child.
•Parents plays a major role in developing the ego and super ego of a child. Children would
only develop a strong ego if they had a loving relationship with their parents. The superego
developed out of the ego, and contained two functions, the conscience and the ego-ideal.
The ego-ideal contained internalized representations of parental standards, and its
formation depended on children having loving relationships with their parents.
•According to these theories, offending resulted from a weak ego or a weak superego, both
of which followed largely from low attachment between children and parents.

2. Child-rearing methods and learning theories

(One of the first theories about children’s development was proposed by Sigmund Freud,
1856–1939)
•The most important dimensions of child-rearing are supervision or monitoring of children,
discipline or parental reinforcement, and warmth or coldness of emotional relationships.
•This refers to the degree of monitoring by parents of the child’s activities, and their degree
of watchfulness or vigilance.
•Of all these child-rearing methods, poor parental supervision is usually the strongest and
most replicable predictor of offending, typically predicting a doubled risk of delinquency.
•Parents who do not know where their children are when they are out of the house, and
parents who let their children roam the streets unsupervised from an early age, tend to
have delinquent children.
•Parental discipline refers to how parents react to a child’s behavior. It is clear that harsh or
punitive discipline involving physical punishment—sometimes approaching physical abuse—
predicts a child’s delinquency. Erratic or inconsistent discipline also predicts delinquency.
•Cold, rejecting parents also tend to have delinquent children.

Hence, poor supervision, erratic discipline, and inconsistency between parents were all
conducive to delinquency in children. It was also important for parents to explain to children
why they were being punished, so that they could discriminate precisely the behavior that
was disapproved.

3. Intergenerational transmission theories (Cavalli-Sforza and Feldman, 1973)

•Criminal and antisocial parents tend to have delinquent and antisocial children.
•Although crime cannot be genetically transmitted because it is a legal construct, but some
more fundamental construct such as aggressiveness could be genetically transmitted. And
children can learn criminal behavior by copying their parents.

4. The Eysenck personality theory (Hans Eysenck, 1916-1997)

•behavioral consistency depends primarily on the persistence of individuals’ underlying
tendencies to behave in particular ways in particular situations. These tendencies are
 termed personality traits, such as impulsiveness, excitement seeking, assertiveness,
modesty, and dutifulness.
•Under the Eysenck theory, the people who commit offenses have not built-up strong
consciences, mainly because they have inherently poor conditionability.

Eysenck’s three dimensions of personality:

•Extraversion (E)
•Neuroticism (N)
•Psychoticism (P)

5. Impulsiveness theories (Dickman, 1990)

• referring to a poor ability to control behavior, these include impulsiveness, hyperactivity,
restlessness, clumsiness, not considering consequences before acting, a poor ability to plan
ahead, short time horizons, low self-control, sensation-seeking, risk-taking, and a poor
ability to delay gratification.
• acting without thinking.
• Persons with these neuropsychological deficits will tend to commit offenses because they
have poor control over their behavior, a poor ability to consider the possible consequences
of their acts, and a tendency to focus on immediate gratification.

Conclusion
The relationship between psychology and criminal behavior is significant. The first major
theory of psychosocial theories of crime causation explained how the imbalance in the
development of our id, ego, and super-ego, negatively affects our values and principles
depriving us from acting in accordance to the norm of our society.
The second major theory of psychosocial theories of crime causation gave us a
comprehensive thought on how we develop our behavior overtime through the process of
conditioning. This theory explains that nobody is born criminal instead, criminal behaviors
are learned.
The third major theory of the psychological theories of crime causation emphasizes how
our collective thinking prowess affects our decision-making, and how our personalities
affect our actions.