DATA COMMUNICATION: Data communications are the Topology - In computer networking, a topology refers to the Multiplexing is the sharing
ultiplexing is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth. It is
exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data
communications to occur, the communicating devices
must be part of a communication system made up of a
combination of hardware (physical equipment) and
software (programs). The effectiveness of a data
communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct
destination. Data must be received by the intended device
or user and only by that device or user. Accuracy: The
system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have
been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are
unusable. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a
timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the case
of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as
they are produced, in the same order that they are
produced, and without significant delay. This kind of
delivery is called real-time transmission, Jitter: Jitter refers
to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven
delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example,
let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If
some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others
with 40-ms delay. an uneven quality in the video is the
result.
DATA FLOW: Communication between two devices can be
simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. Simplex: In simplex
mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-
way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can
transmit, the other can only receive Keyboards and
traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The
keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only
accept output. The simplex mode can use the entire
capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.half-
duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit
and receive, but not at the same time.When one device is
sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. Walkie-
talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex
systems. The half-duplex mode is used in cases where
there is no need for communication in both directions at
the same time, the entire capacity of the channel can be
utilized for each direction. Full Duplex: in full-duplex mode
(also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously. full duplex: in full-duplex mode, signals
going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with
signals going in the other direction This sharing can occur
in two ways: Either the link must contain two physically
separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other
for receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided
between signals travelling in both directions
The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol) protocol suite is the set of communication
protocols that allows computers to connect and exchange
information over a network. It is the foundation of the
internet and is used by nearly all modern networks,
including the internet, local area networks (LANs), and wide
area networks (WANs). | TCP is a transport-layer protocol
that ensures reliable delivery of data packets between
computers. It does this by providing error checking,
retransmission of lost packets, and flow control to prevent
overloading the receiving computer. | IP is a network-layer
protocol that is responsible for routing data packets from
the source computer to the destination computer. It does
this by providing a unique address for each device on the
network (an IP address) and routing data packets based on
these addresses. | Together, TCP and IP provide a reliable,
efficient, and flexible way for computers to communicate
over a network. They are the foundation of the internet and
have played a crucial role in the rapid growth and
development of the internet over the past several decades.
In Guided media, signals are transmitted through a physical
path. The features of guide media are high speed and
security. Guided media also known as Wired or Bounded
transmission media.There are three types of Guided
media:Twisted pair,Coaxial cable,Optical fiber cable
Unguided media does not use physical medium to transmit
the data from source to destination. We already know that
the Guided media uses physical medium such as cables
and wires to transfer the data from source to destination.
However unlike guided media, the Unguide media uses air
as a transmission medium to transfer the data. Thus, it is
called wireless transmission media.Types of Unguided
media:Microwave,Transmission,RadioTransmission
,Infrared Transmission
layout or arrangement of connected devices on a network. the process in which multiple signals coming from multiple
The topology of a network determines how data is sources are combined and transmitted over a single
transmitted between devices, and can have a significant communication/physical line
impact on the performance and reliability of the network.
There are several common types of network topologies,
Types ofMultiplexing - 1. Frequency Division Multiplexing
including: Star topology: In this type of topology, all devices
:Frequency division multiplexing is defined as a type of
are connected to a central hub or switch. The hub acts as a
multiplexing where the bandwidth of a single physical
central point of communication for all devices on the
medium is divided into a number of smaller, independent
network, forwarding data packets between them as needed.
frequency channels. Frequency Division Multiplexing is
This topology is easy to set up and manage, but can be
used in radio and television transmission. In FDM, we can
vulnerable to failure if the hub goes down. Bus topology: In
observe a lot of inter-channel cross-talk, due to the fact that
this type of topology, all devices are connected to a single
in this type of multiplexing the bandwidth is divided into
cable, called the bus. The bus acts as the central
frequency channels. In order to prevent the inter-channel
communication channel for all devices on the network, and
cross talk, unused strips of bandwidth must be placed
data is transmitted by sending a signal down the bus. This
between each channel. These unused strips between each
topology is simple to implement and can be cost-effective,
channel are known as guard bands. 2. Time Division
but is vulnerable to failure if the bus is damaged or
Multiplexing : Time-division multiplexing is defined as a
experiences congestion. Ring topology: In this type of
type of multiplexing wherein FDM, instead of sharing a
topology, all devices are connected in a circular
portion of the bandwidth in the form of channels, in TDM,
configuration, with each device connected to two other
time is shared. Each connection occupies a portion of time
devices. Data travels in a single direction around the ring,
in the link. In Time Division Multiplexing, all signals operate
with each device acting as a repeater to amplify the signal
with the same frequency (bandwidth) at different times. |
as it travels. This topology is relatively resilient to failure,
There are two types of Time Division Multiplexing :
but can be slower than other topologies due to the need for
Synchronous TDM : Synchronous TDM is a type of Time
data to travel around the entire ring before reaching its
Division Multiplexing where the input frame already has a
destination. Mesh topology: In this type of topology, every
slot in the output frame. Time slots are grouped into
device on the network is connected to every other device.
frames. One frame consists of one cycle of time slots.
This creates multiple paths for data to travel, making the
Synchronous TDM is not efficient because if the input
network highly resilient to failures. However, the large
frame has no data to send, a slot remains empty in the
number of connections required in a mesh topology can
output frame.In synchronous TDM, we need to mention the
make it more complex and costly to implement. Tree
synchronous bit at the beginning of each frame. |
topology: In this type of topology, the network is organized
Statistical TDM : Statistical TDM is a type of Time Division
in a hierarchy, with a central hub or root node connected to
Multiplexing where the output frame collects data from the
multiple levels of nodes. This topology is often used in
input frame till it is full, not leaving an empty slot like in
large networks where it is important to organize devices
Synchronous TDM. In statistical TDM, we need to include
into logical groups. It offers some of the benefits of both
the address of each particular data in the slot that is being
bus and star topologies, but can be more complex to set up
sent to the output frame. Statistical TDM is a more efficient
and manage.
type of time-division multiplexing as the channel capacity is
fully utilized and improves the bandwidth efficiency. 3.
ISO - is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide Wavelength Division Multiplexing : Wavelength Division
agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that Multiplexing is used on fiber optics to increase the capacity
covers all aspects of network communications is the Open of a single fiber. It is an analog multiplexing technique.
Systems Interconnection model. | Purpose - •To show how Optical signals from the different sources are combined to
to facilitate communication between different systems form a wider band of light with the help of multiplexers. At
without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying the receiving end, the demultiplexer separates the signals
hardware and software. •The OSI model is not a protocol; it to transmit them to their respective destinations.
is a model for understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable. •The
Cryptography - Cryptography is the practice of using
OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network
mathematical techniques to secure communication. It
systems that allows communication between all types of
involves the use of algorithms, or "ciphers," to encrypt and
computer systems. It consists of seven separate but
decrypt data. The main goal of cryptography is to protect
related layers | LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL: Physical Layer:
the confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of information.
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to
carry a bit stream over a physical medium. It deals with the
There are several different functionalities of cryptography:
mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface
Confidentiality: This refers to the ability to keep
and transmission medium. It also defines the procedures
information private and prevent it from being accessed by
and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to
unauthorized parties. Cryptography can be used to protect
perform for transmission to Occur. Data Link Layer: The
the confidentiality of sensitive data, such as financial
data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw
information or personal identification. Integrity: This refers
transmission facility, to a reliable link. It makes the physical
to the ability to ensure that information has not been
layer appear error- free to the upper layer (network layer).
altered or tampered with during transmission.
responsibilities of the data link layer: Framing Physical
Cryptography can be used to ensure the integrity of data by
addressing Flow control Error control Access control.
using techniques such as message authentication codes
NETWORK LAYER: The network layer is responsible for the
(MACs) and digital signatures. Authentication: This refers
source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly across
to the ability to verify the identity of a sender or receiver of
multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link layer
information. Cryptography can be used to authenticate the
oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems
identity of a sender or receiver by using techniques such as
on the same network (links), the network layer ensures that
digital certificates and public key infrastructure (PKI). Non-
each packet gets from its paint of origin to its final
repudiation: This refers to the ability to prevent someone
destination. If two systems are connected to the same link,
from denying that they sent or received certain information.
there is usually no need for a network layer. However, if the
Cryptography can be used to provide non-repudiation by
two systems are attached to different networks (links) with
using techniques such as digital signatures and PKI.
connecting devices between the networks (links), there is
often a need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-
destination delivery.TRANSPORT LAYER: The transport Cryptography is used in a variety of applications, including
layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the secure communication over the Internet, protecting data
entire message. A process is an application program stored on computers and devices, and securing financial
running on a host. Whereas the network layer oversees transactions.
source-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it does
not recognize any relationship between those packets. It
treats each one independently, as though each piece
belonged to a separate message, whether or not it does.
The transport layer,on the other hand, ensures that the
whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both
error control and flow control at the source-to-destination
level. SESSION LAYER: The services provided by the first
three layers (physical, data link, and network! are not
sufficient for some processes. The session layer is the
network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and
synchronizes the interaction among communicating
systems.