The Human Image in a Changing World

Abstract

Throughout history, mankind’s depiction of humans in text and drawings has not only evolved but been
effaced and replaced with new images. Modern imaging technology has provided key information for
humanities studies of these earlier images. This paper will address our application of the latest imaging
and computer processing technologies to humanities studies of the human image. Building on
technologies developed for medicine, astronomy, and security, collaborative teams of humanities
scholars and scientists have revealed new insights into representations of the human image that are not
visible in natural light. With effective integration of advanced imaging techniques, these have been
applied to international studies of “hidden” historic texts and drawings of the human image from the
Europe to the Sinai.

Recent studies of papyrus cartonnage highlight the application of advanced technologies – from
multispectral to optical coherence tomography and x-ray imaging – to visualize texts in Egyptian
mummy masks. This builds on advanced imaging of ancient texts that had been scraped off and
overwritten as palimpsests, including the earliest works of Archimedes with diagrams citing humanity’s
mathematical relationship with the world. Multispectral and x-ray fluorescence imaging combined with
machine learning are revealing medical texts by Greek physician Galen translated into Syriac and
overwritten, which offer new insights into early perspectives on the human body’s relationship with
nature. Multispectral imaging also revealed Dr. David Livingstone’s diary descriptions of humanity from
his early explorations in Africa that had faded after he had written them on newspaper with berry juice.
Just this year multispectral imaging supported studies at the Huntington Library of sketches by
Michelangelo on the paper of a madrigal poem. These imaging technologies are also revealing changing
depictions of human images in art.

Advanced imaging technologies offer promise to further advance our understanding of how the human
image is depicted over time, with continued development of advanced computer processing techniques
and artificial intelligence to reveal more insights for the humanities.

Introduction

Advanced imaging technologies have been used to support humanities studies of human images
rendered in mummy mask cartonnage, Michelangelo sketches and those of the African explorer Dr.
David Livingstone, as well as the texts of the medical philosopher Galen of Pergamon. These
technologies now offer new insights into these and other depictions of the human image over the
centuries. Yet preserving the ephemeral digital bits and bytes of data pose additional challenges so that
they will be available for study by future generations of humanities scholars.

Egyptian mummy masks of the Ptolemaic Dynasty (305 to 30 BCE) depicted the image of the human they
encased. They were often made with a papier-mâché method using layers of papyrus manuscripts with
text on them. Features painted on the mummy image often depicted the wearer’s status with different
colors, decorations, and animals. Of equal or potentially greater importance are writings on the layers of
papyrus used to make the masks but not visible under the surface layers. Modern imaging of mummy
masks with multiple technologies now offers potential to provide unique insights into ancient Egyptian
culture by allowing visualization of both the decorations visible on the masks and the texts within the
papyrus cartonnage that are not visible.

During the Roman Empire, Greek medical philosopher Galen of Pergamon’s original writings on papyrus
and other fragile materials were lost. With changing interests and media for writing, many were
transcribed and translated onto parchment codices. One key 6th Century translation into Syriac of On
Simple Drugs offers unique insights into early perceptions and treatments of the human body. These
were subsequently scrubbed off and overwritten with a spiritual text – a book of psalms. As scholarly
interest and technologies changed, technical specialists digitally recovered these texts from beneath the
spiritual text with multispectral imaging for interdisciplinary humanities studies. Follow-on imaging with
high-powered x-ray fluorescence then provided additional new insights into key pages for further study.

When Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni painted the Sistine chapel, he used his expertise and
knowledge from working with the human image in sculpture. “The Last Judgement” rendered in 1536-
1541 as an approximately 14 x 12 meter fresco in plaster over the altar included detailed depictions of
the human image that have survived for almost five centuries. Yet his initial drawings of the human
image that he transformed into permanent works of art on plaster are but sketches on less permanent
paper that are now being revealed with multispectral imaging.

During the Victorian reign, Dr. David Livingstone took copious notes with a few sketches on old and
fragile newspaper while stranded in Central Africa. In his 1871 diary written on newspaper in a red ink
he produced in Africa, his rudimentary sketches of human heads offer his perspective of the local
people, their hairstyles and features. With his diary, these sketches survived the tropical conditions in
Africa and were transported back to England to be revealed with advanced digitization technologies
over another century later.

Modern imaging technology and digital processing now offers new insights into the human image
rendered centuries ago. With advanced multispectral imaging using optical cameras and various
wavelengths of light, researchers can now clearly see some of these images and gain new insights into
their creation. This is complemented by imaging with other energy levels, as well as advanced digital
processing and machine learning to empower researchers to create enhanced images that best meet
their unique abilities to visualize and perceive the human image. Preserving the data that makes up
these human images requires effective data planning, management and standards to ensure their
preservation for future generations of humanities researchers.
Advanced Imaging

Advanced digitization and imaging is now an important tool for the study of unseen texts, sketches and
other features for humanities studies. While humanities scholars have used non-visible light to examine
manuscripts and paintings, now multispectral imaging with multiple colors of lights captures data across
a significant part of the electromagnetic spectrum – including light from frequencies beyond the light
ranges visible to the human eye. Building on pioneering development of narrowband multispectral
imaging and digital processing to reveal the scraped off early mathematical works in the Archimedes
Palimpsest,i this type of advanced imaging enables the perception of additional information that the
human eye fails to see. Originally developed for aerial and space-based imaging and surveillance to
penetrate foliage, clouds and camouflage, and for astronomy to study celestial objects, it has proven to
be a useful tool for imaging in support of the humanities.ii This technology is enhances unseen features
and reveals not only human images like those drawn by Michelangelo and Livingstone and created by
ancient Egyptians, but also early medical, scientific and literary texts that offer new insights into early
perceptions of the human image.

In narrowband multispectral imaging, multiple images of an object are taken at different wavelengths of
light, resulting in a digital "stack" or “cube” of images. These images are then digitally combined with
computer software to enhance specific characteristics of the imaged area. These digitally processed
images can reveal the faint traces of erased under-text and sketches, artifacts such as erasures and
changes, and residues and areas of concern for preservation. This is particularly useful to reveal scraped
off texts or drawings on parchment palimpsests. Narrowband multispectral imaging and digital
processing of manuscripts, palimpsests, printed works and other objects has provided humanities
researchers with a wealth of information about features that are no longer visible to the human eye.
Current state-of-the-technology spectral imaging systems are now used for humanities studies of
objects, media, inks and colorants -- offering new opportunities for research into perceptions of the
human image. This builds upon over a decade of system integration and development of not only the
technology, but also the work processes and operational skills. These systems use a commercial-off-the-
shelf medium-format, high-pixel-count camera to take a series of high-quality digital images, each
illuminated by a specific wavelength of light with light emitting diodes (LEDs). The resulting image set is
then digitally processed and combined with open source software to reveal artifacts and features in the
object that are not visible to the eye in natural light. These processed images, generated from the
captured images, clarify and support humanities research and scholarly goals. Management, operation,
training and information technology capabilities support interdisciplinary humanities studies of the
image products from the spectral imaging system. With standardized data and metadata, standard
digital images can be integrated with data collected from other scientific equipment.iii

Other imaging technologies also support studies of the human image. Different energy levels – including
in the x-ray and terahertz bands – have been used for advanced imaging. This includes use of x-ray
fluorescence (XRF) for humanities studies of medical texts in the Syriac Galen Palimpsest that had been
scrubbed off and overwritten with a book of psalms. It also includes use of infrared optical coherence
tomography, different types of x-ray imaging and terahertz imaging to study mummy masks and the
texts contained within them.

Mummy Cartonnage Imaging

European researchers’ excavation of and research into papyri in Egypt between the end of the 19th and
the beginning of the 20th century dramatically increased knowledge of the ancient world. Papyri
manuscripts were and still are found with two methods: recycled as mummy masks and coverings, book
binding and other kinds of what scholars broadly define as ‘cartonnage’, as well as where rolls or
fragments were discarded. In the past, papyrologists had to destroy cartonnage, mummy masks and
other material to retrieve their contents on layers of papyri. The practice of pulling apart mummy masks
and cartonnage to retrieve papyri was employed by dealers and collectors trying to increase their
earnings or without recognition of the issues associated with the destruction of these depictions of
human images. These destructive studies – especially without documentation of the mummy
cartonnage before destruction – prevented further humanities studies into the original human image.iv

With the development of advanced imaging techniques, humanities scholars now can potentially study
both the mummy cartonnage itself as well as the text on the papyri layers. Effective imaging tools could
eliminate the need for invasive, destructive research into the remains of Egypt’s ancient past. An
exploratory pilot project across 16 international institutions and collections between November 2015
and July 2016 tested the feasibility of imaging of multi-layered papyri in Egyptian mummy cartonnages
without destroying the early human images on the masks. An international team imaged Egyptian
Ptolemaic mummy cartonnage and fragments in collections in the United States and the United
Kingdom, using multiple nondestructive systems at multiple institutions for analysis and imaging of the
papyrus. These included optical spectroscopy and multispectral narrow-band light, Synchrotron Rapid-
Scanning X-ray Fluorescence (SRS-XRF), micro-Computed Tomography (microCT) and phase contrast x-
ray, Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT), and Terahertz (THz) imaging.v
The team began its imaging research began with optical multispectral imaging, followed by OCT used in
ophthalmological research. They then performed experimental imaging with the higher energy levels of
x-rays and finally the addition of THz imaging. In addition to this imaging, the team also analyzed the
chemical and elemental makeup of the papyrus cartonnage spectrally and with x-rays. This research
indicated that none of the individual techniques yielded complete images of features in the papyrus
layers of sufficient quality for all types of humanities studies. Multispectral imaging could penetrate up
to three layers of papyrus with narrowband light to detect text, but could not penetrate thick layers of
gesso and paint used to depict the human image on the surface. X-rays could penetrate all the
materials, but not detect the lighter carbon ink used to write the text. Terahertz could reveal some inks
in multiple layers and offers potential for further research. These preliminary studies indicate that
integration of data from multiple imaging technologies and techniques could offer improved results over
those from just an individual technology and technique.
All the data produced from this study are now available online for free access to support humanities and
technical studies.vi This was only possible since all participating institutions agreed to all data freely
available with sharing of their intellectual property under Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 International.vii
This allowed the free exchange of all data for digital processing, analysis and research with it hosted
online for public access. The results of this digital humanities research highlight the current destructive
techniques being used to study mummy masks and provides the impetus and basis for at least
documenting the original state of objects and the human image they depict for future humanities
research and analysis.

Galen Medical Texts

In addition to revealing depictions of human images across time and space, advanced technologies have
also been used to reveal descriptions of the human body. Multispectral imaging revealed a 6th-century
translation of Galen’s critical medical treatise On the Mixtures and Powers of Simple Drugs was erased
and overwritten with an 11th-century Syriac religious text.viii This and additional imaging of the Syriac
Galen Palimpsest (SGP) with a more advanced multispectral system and with x-ray fluorescenceix
combined with global access on the internet enabled interdisciplinary humanities studies of these
previously unseen texts about the human body. International teams of scholars studied the open access
multispectral images with advanced software tools to gain new insights into the transmission of
Western ideas on the human body’s functions into the Middle East during the medieval period.x They
cited the SGP as an extremely important Syriac text. As Dr. Peter Pormann noted: “It’s likely to be a
central text once it’s fully deciphered. We might discover things we really can’t dream of yet.”xi

Humanities scholars worked with technical specialists to develop new tools for identifying and reading
the previously unseen medieval texts of Galen in Syriac. This included not only the more traditional
image processing tools, but also computational machine learning tools “trained” by the scholars. These
tools and methodologies offer potential for the study of a variety of medieval text beyond just advanced
imaging of complex texts.

The success of the Syriac Galen Palimpsest imaging program highlighted not only the need for integrated
imaging systems with advanced cameras and illumination panels, but also the need for effective
program and data management. This required new management techniques and work processes to
provide useful results efficiently and quickly for humanities scholars and preservation of the data for
future generations of scholars. Management of the SGP imaging and processing focused on integration
of the people, processes and technology into an efficient imaging system. This included planning and
managing the data flow, data replication, image processing and production of the image product with
efficient and standardized work processes. Good communication with the scholars and effective
feedback from them proved critical to interdisciplinary success. This ensured the images were
optimized to meet scholars’ ability to perceive the texts when they were rendered digitally on a screen
for their humanities research.
The methodology and interplay of scholarship and science studies of the SGP serves as model for best
practices in interdisciplinary research into new methodologies and tools for humanities studies. This
manuscript has now been fully imaged and digitally reconstituted, with all images and metadata now
hosted in simple flat files for free access on digitalgalen.net. With over 300 GB of data hosted for open
access online, this project provides opportunities for further study and collaboration based on advanced
imaging technologies and work processes.xii

Michelangelo Sketches

The narrowband multispectral imaging system used for this project includes commercial-off-the-shelf
hardware and software for digital spectral image capture and viewing with the integrated system. It
also includes customized image processing software for processing and exploitation of the spectral
images, utilizing techniques from other cultural heritage studies. The medium-format, high-pixel-count
camera takes a series of high-quality digital images, each illuminated by a specific wavelength of light.
The resulting image set is then digitally processed and combined to reveal residues and features in the
manuscript or book (or artwork) that are not visible to the eye in natural light. These processed images
(generated from the captured images) clarify and maximally inform research into residues.
Study of a left leg of a male figure for the Resurrection of dead in the Last Judgement and Draft of a
madrigal (part), mss HM 36088, The Huntington Library, Art Collections and Botanic gardens, San
Marino, California
Resurrection of dead in the Last Judgement, 1537-1541, Vatican, Sistine Chapel

David Livingstone Sketches

British explorer and missionary Dr. David Livingstone spent 5 months in 1871 in the eastern Congo
village of Nyangwe. At this point on his travels Livingstone had depleted most of his supplies, so he
made ink from the seeds of a native plant to write on sheets of paper from the 1869 The Standard
newspaper. The text and drawings in the diary written on top of the printed newspaper text faded to
the point of illegibility over the years. His field diary from this period is of significant value for
humanities studies because it describes a violent massacre of the African people by Arab slave traders.xiii
In addition to his descriptions of the humans he encountered in Nyangwe, his diaries included three
crude sketches of human figures, as well as a sketch of a structure, several maps and calculations.
As with many depictions of human images, the presence of these sketches prompted additional interest
in the many pages of diary text, and played a key role in advancing the technology for the multispectral
imaging project. Because of their distinctive form and unique record, these sketches were the first
examples of Dr. Livingstone’s work studied during October 2009 tests of the utility of multispectral
imaging to support humanities studies of the diaries at the David Livingstone Center in Blantyre,
Scotland. During an initial review, the sketches stood out from the pages of text, offering a quick and
compelling case study of the ink, imaging and processing techniques, and fading. An initial team quickly
mounted them on a table for a rudimentary multispectral imaging experiment with a small consumer
camera taped to the arm of a projector and a small LED light panel. Despite the limited data available
from the low-resolution color camera and jury-rigged mounting hardware, these initial images of the
human figures and associated text on the newsprint demonstrated the suitability of multispectral
imaging and digital processing to fully reveal Dr. Livingstone’s original work from 1871.
With these preliminary images, a team of scholars and technical experts developed a full program for
digital humanities studies of Dr. Livingstone’s entire 1871 diary. The newspaper pages were imaged and
the resulting stack of images processed to enhance the legibility of Livingstone’s writings and sketches,
as well as suppress the original newsprint under the diary. These images and transcriptions of the dairy
are now all available online, where they have served as the foundation for additional Livingstone
manuscripts and digital humanities research.xiv

The four sketches were found on page 160 of the diary (871f:CLX) with the diary entry for 2 August
1871.

A color image (left) and processed spectral ratio image with newsprint suppressed (right) of Folio 160 of David Livingstone’s
1871 Field Diary (Livingstone 1871f:CLX), with his hand-drawn sketches of human heads in the right margin.
David Livingstone Centre, Blantyre. Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported.

These few sketches of the human image amidst the many pages of text by Dr. Livingstone highlight a
challenge faced in humanities studies of primary works. In transcription of the text encoded under the
guidelines of the Text Encoding Initiative, each sketch is described in its appropriate location in the text
with the note “[Drawing of the head of an African individual.]”xv
Realizing the inability to fully describe these drawings of the human image, in a separate paper
describing “additional textual elements”, Dr. Adrian Wisnicki, the digital humanities scholar leading the
Livingstone research project, describes the sketches in some detail as follows:

“The first three, of the heads of three African individuals, appear in a vertical column along the
upper right-hand side of the page. The first two heads are in profile, the third looks straight
ahead. Livingstone makes no textual reference to these sketches, but it appears that he is trying
to illustrate two to three distinct local hairstyles. The last sketch on this page, which appears in
the middle of the left-hand side of the page, represents a local foundry, as the accompanying
text indicates: ‘about thirty smithies or rather foundries in the villages we passed’ (2 Aug.
1871).”xvi

Visualization and Perception

Visualizing the human figure over time has been dependent not just on its representation, the medium
of its rendering or the technology used to recover it, but the ability to perceive it with the human eye.
Perception and research into sketches, paintings and descriptions of the human image has evolved due
to natural deterioration, man-made alterations, and lighting and enhancement tools used to capture the
image for the human eye. Natural deterioration limits our ability to perceive images and text on
papyrus, paper, parchment and plaster that fade from or become obscured by exposure to light and
oxidation, water and mold damage, chemical corrosion and changes in relative humidity. Man-made
alterations can range from inadvertent damage due to mishandling and transportation to smoke and
candle wax buildup, as well as conscious efforts to alter an image or text and/or obscure the prior work.
Advances in lighting and viewing technology over the years have changed perceptions of the human
image – from illumination with the sooty flames of early candles and lamps to today’s LED illumination
and x-rays, complemented by visualization tools from early magnifying glasses to today’s high
resolutions screens displaying images from 100 megapixel cameras. Ultimately, whether viewed with a
handheld magnifier or in digital form on screen, perception of the human image is dependent on the
ability of nerves in the human eye to change photons of light into nervous impulses that are perceived
by the brain. Given that many people have different perceptions due to differences in color vision,
visual acuity and ocular issues, with our current technologies a digital image that can be changed and
adjusted by the viewer may offer the best opportunity to perceive new insights into objects. Machine
learning tools have the potential to allow humans to train digital processing tools to produce images
that best meet their needs, instead of having to rely on scientific formulas in a trial-and-error method.xvii

The ability of digital imaging equipment to produce a standard image output for a viewer and/or
humanities researcher offers important advances in the visualization, storage of and access to the
human image. Standardized procedures and image output now allow independent imaging of the same
object with multiple technologies, with subsequent integration of images to leverage the strengths of
each technology and technique. Digital image processing software now empowers the viewer and/or
researcher to use their own computer(s) without technical or scientific support to produce refined
images that meet their visual acuity and research needs. This is particularly true with multispectral
imaging, where a stack of images taken with narrow bands of colored light can be combined and
manipulated with digital processing software to yield images in a myriad of colors (or greyscales for
those with limited color perception) that offer new insights to the image based on the spectral response
of the original inks, colorants and media.xviii

Data Preservation

Although the human image and textual descriptions have survived on various media – including paper
and parchment – over the centuries, continued preservation on digital media is at higher risk. All digital
storage media, even the most robust, must be considered vulnerable to data loss. This requires a
systems approach to digital storage, in which the storage media is but one component of the overall
storage system. Other factors that must be addressed for digital storage media preservation include the
storage environment, data formats, standards, access and hardware, storage system management,
operation and maintenance, and data migration (and conversion when appropriate).xix

With a systems approach to digital data storage and preservation, institutions can identify risks and look
at the full range of data preservation issues. A broader systems approach needs to include the digital
storage media in the context of the data formatting, migration and conversion, data and systems
management, continuity of storage, and other risk factors. These should be based on industry best
practices and standards, both for quality and technical robustness. In addition to considering systems
performance and processes, the system operations also must be considered in the context of its
integration into the organizational work environment & cultures. What works well for fast-paced and
well-resourced Google may not work at the pace and resources of a humanities research institution. In
addition to addressing technology issues, this approach also needs to take into account needed work
processes and personnel skills. As key users of digital data, humanities researchers should play a role in
regularly reviews of risk status.

Institutions with collections on digital media need to apply effective risk management to their digital
preservation planning and capabilities. This would include development of a risk management plan for
digital data and actively managing risk and incorporating risk responses into budgets, schedules and
performance plans. The institution should then analyze and manage risks to storage of digital data with
a standardized approach to rapid identification and mitigation of risks.

As digitization and digital storage programs have matured and grown in duration and the amounts of
data collected, standard work processes have become critical to the ability to store, preserve and access
data. In the commercial sector, influential industry standards and certification programs, such as
ISO9000 quality standards, have propelled organizations to standardize work processes for improved
quality and increased efficiency. Large organizations are defining and using best practices in process and
project management for continual technology improvement, including with online cloud storage
systems. Systems design and management have become as important as the hardware and software
used for digital storage and potentially preservation in the cloud. Only a comprehensive approach to
digital storage and access will support the preservation of depictions of the human image that survived
much of the last millennium on parchment and paper digital objects for 21st Century humanities scholars
to study in digital form.xx

Acknowledgements

The successes of the advanced imaging programs cited in this paper rely on the expertise and dedication
of multidisciplinary teams of professionals. All have contributed to advancing humanities studies of the
human image and texts: scholars, engineers, conservators, data administrators and managers, librarians,
digitization professionals, curators, scientists, interns, and many others.

Biography

Mr. Michael B. Toth is an Honorary Research Associate at University College London and President of
R.B. Toth Associates. He and his teams provide the research tools and images needed for humanities
research and access around the globe. Mike has provided programmatic and technical support for
numerous cultural heritage projects. From the Sinai Desert and Vatican to the Library of Congress and
UK National Archives, he and his teams support institutions across the United States, Europe and the
Middle East as they try to reveal the previously unseen. With them, Mike provides the planning,
integration and systems engineering needed for advanced digital imaging research and access.
rbtoth.com

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