Теоретичне питання з методики викладання англійської мови та

літератури:

1.Dwell on peculiarities and usage of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBL)

as an effective approach in Modern Methodology.

The task-based teaching approach is one of many modern ESL teaching methods and focuses on
setting a goal for students.

Why is task-based learning important?

 During task-based learning, students solve tasks that are relevant and interesting to them.
In order to solve the task, they need to use the target language they’re learning to
communicate with their peers. They use authentic language instead of answering
grammar or vocabulary questions about the language. Students — especially younger
learners — don’t actually feel that they’re studying a language at that moment because
they’re engrossed in the task they’re working on.
 Task-based learning is especially conducive to group learning. Learning a language as a
group is also a very important contributor to effective retention. Collaborating with others
and becoming confident with the language within a group is a key step in acquiring that
language. Also, receiving positive feedback from peers and teachers increases confidence
and motivation to learn and to communicate with others.
 Students’ understanding of the language also deepens because the realistic context in
which they’re learning the language is relevant to their personal lives. It’s a good idea to
ask your students about their hobbies and preferences at the beginning of a course so that
you can include their interests in the tasks you set.
 In addition to the benefits for students, solid knowledge of this method will also increase
your job prospects as a teacher. Some job ads, like this one from online ESL company
Voxy, specifically ask for task-based language teaching experience!
Tipes of tasks:
1. The pre-task
During this stage, which can take up a whole lesson if needed, the teacher introduces the task to
the students and gets them motivated to solve it. Once everyone is engaged, the teacher should
explain what is expected for the task.
Verbal explanations can be supported by an example from the teacher or by showing a previous
student’s work. The teacher can then give further instructions if needed and offer advice on how
to approach the task.
2. The task
This is the main stage of task-based learning, where students start working on the task, usually in
groups or pairs. This stage is done in the target language so that students feel the need to use the
language they want to learn in order to solve the task.
The teacher doesn’t usually join in the work process. Instead, he or she will monitor the students
and offer hints if students really need support.
Find out about teaching English online to groups.
3. The review (or post-task)
Once the students have completed the task and have something to present, the review stage, also
known as the post-task, starts.
It’s a good idea to let students evaluate each other’s work and only offer a teacher review of
frequently-made errors during the task. Peer correction could be carried out in the form of
comments, feedback discussions, or a checklist with additional room for free commentary.
The review stage offers students the opportunity to reflect on their work and analyze it in order
to improve their skills for the future.

2.Dwell on the teacher’s talking time during the language lesson.

Teacher talking time refers to the amount of class time the teacher spends speaking to the class.
[Students should speak for 70% of the lesson and teachers should speak for 30% procents of the
time]
It is necessary to reduce скорочувати Teacher Talking Time conversation розмову
because:
1. Excessive Teacher Talking Time  limits the amount of Student Talking Time.
2. A large amount of Teacher Talking Time leads to loss of concentration, boredom and
reduced learning.
3. Teacher long explanations are tedious and hard to follow
4. Teacher Talking Time reduces students opportunities for developing the speaking skill.
These are some strategies to help teachers reduce their teaching talking time.
Pair Work
The use of pair work activities has been defend вістоювати by communicative approaches to
foreign language pedagogy for the many years.
Organize pair work activities so student talk to each other and the interaction in the classroom
doesn’t have to be between learner and teacher.
Elicit
Elicitation Викликання is a technique by which the teacher gets the learners to give information
rather than giving it to them. To reduce teacher-talking time, use body language, mime, gesture
to communicate.
Instructions
Giving instructions is an integral part of being a teacher. You are going to be spending a lot of
time telling students what to do and when to do it. Keep instructions simple and clear.
Silence
Sometimes we mistake silence as a sign of inactivity. Tolerate Терпіти silence and give students
enough time to reply and prepare for activities.
Student-Centered Task
Calculate how much time you spent talking and cut out some of the speaking or replace it with
student-centered activity.
Student-Centered Learning is education, broadly encompasses methods of teaching that shift
the focus of instruction from the teacher to the student.

3.Dwell on peculiarities and usage of Teaching Practice Approach (TPA) in

Modern Methodology.
The Teach-Practice-Aproach (TPA) is model for instructional improvement.
There are three general factors necessary for effective instruction:
 knowledge of content area;
 knowledge of teaching and learning theory;
 and the ability to select and use appropriate teaching strategies.

The teach component is the part of a lesson that presents students with what they need to know.
The focus is on the teacher who uses media and materials, explains, relates and demonstrates
while introducing the new topic. The teacher should take time to introduce concepts or skills in
such a way that students develop a level of understanding necessary for successfully completing
the ensuing assignment.

The Practice The second component of the lesson provides opportunities for students to
"practice" completing work related to the lesson topic. The practice component of TPA shifts the
focus of the lesson from the teacher to the students, who are more actively and productively
engaged. Thus the teacher is responsible for planning and implementing the learning tasks that
allow the students to practice skills presented during the teach component of the lesson, and the
teacher is responsible for monitoring the students' practice work. Monitoring student activities
ensures that each student is completing the task and understands the skill being practiced.

The Apply In the apply component of TPA students begin to use the skill either with less teacher
supervision or with teacher encouragement to use the skill in broader contexts. As soon as
students have demonstrated a reasonable grasp of the skill, the teacher should provide learning
activities that encourage them to apply it in related areas that is, apply what has been presented
and practiced in class. Homework assignments, too, may be characterized as an application
activity because students are functioning with considerably less teacher supervision. Also,
creative assignments requiring higher-order thinking may be classified as application activities as
students use the new skill in different ways.

4. Instructional scaffolding as a learning process designed to promote a deeper

level of learning

Instructional Scaffolding риштування схемного to Improve Learning

Instructional scaffolds are temporary support structures faculty put in place to assist students in
accomplishing new tasks and concepts they could not typically achieve on their own. Once
students are able to complete or master the task, the scaffolding is fades away—the responsibility
of learning shifts from the instructor to the student.

Why use Instructional Scaffolding?

One of the main benefits of scaffolded instruction is that it provides for a supportive learning
environment. In a scaffolded learning environment, students are free to ask questions, provide
feedback and support their peers in learning new material. This teaching style provides the
incentive for students to take a more active role in their own learning.

First, the instructor does it

In other words, the instructor models how to perform a new or difficult task.
Second, the class does it
The instructor and students then work together to perform the task.

Third, the group does it

At this point, students work with a partner or a small cooperative group. More complex content
might require a number of scaffolds given at different times to help students master the content.

Fourth, the individual does it

This is the independent practice stage where individual students can demonstrate their task
mastery and receive the necessary practice to help them to perform the task automatically and
quickly.

Types of Scaffolds
 Advance organizers - Tools used to introduce new content and tasks to help students
learn about the topic.
 Cue Cards - Prepared cards given to individual or groups of students to assist in their
discussion about a particular topic or content area: Vocabulary words.
 Concept and mind maps
 Examples
 Explanations
 Handouts
 Hints - Suggestions and clues to move students along
 Prompts Підказки- A physical or verbal cue to remind—to aid in recall of prior or assumed
knowledge.
o Physical: Body movements such as pointing, nodding the head, eye blinking, foot tapping.
o Verbal: Words, statements and questions.
 Question Cards - Prepared cards with content- and task-specific questions about a particular topic or
content area.

 Question Основи Stems - Incomplete sentences which students complete.

 Stories - Stories relate complex and abstract material to situations more familiar знайомим with students.
 Visual Scaffolds схеми - Pointing (call attention to an object); representational gestures (holding
curved hands apart to illustrate roundness.

Preparing to Use Scaffolding

1. First, the instructor provides an outline of the components of the paper
2. Then students would prepare their outline

3. The instructor then provides a rubric of how each paper criteria will be assessed
оцінюватися
 4. Students would then work on those criteria and at the same time and self-evaluate their
progress
5. The pattern would continue until the task is completed (although scaffolds might not be necessary in
all parts of the task)

Benefits of Instructional Scaffolding

 Challenges students through deep learning and discovery

 Engages Залучає students in meaningful змістовних and dynamic discussions

 Motivates learners to become better students (learning how to learn)
 Increases підвищує instructional навчальні цілі objectives
 Provides individualized instruction
 Affords the opportunity Надає можливість for peer-teaching взаємонавчання and learning
 Scaffolds can be “recycled” for other learning situations
 Provides a welcoming and caring learning environment
Challenges проблеми of Instructional Scaffolding 
 Planning for and implementing впровадження scaffolds is time consuming and demanding
вимагає великих витрат.

 Selecting appropriate Вибір відповідних scaffolds that match the diverse learning and
communication styles of students.
 Knowing when прибрати риштування, щоб учень не покладався на підтримку to remove the
scaffold so the student does not rely on the support.
 Not knowing the students well enough (their cognitive and affective abilities) to provide
appropriate scaffolds.

Summary
Instructional scaffolds promote learning through dialogue, feedback and shared responsibility.
Through the supportive and challenging learning experiences gained from carefully planned
scaffolded learning, instructors can help students become lifelong, independent learners.

5. Programming , Planning and Practice in language teaching

Programme planning is the planning of an educational programme.

‘Educational programme’ means a number of provisions and offers of teaching-learning
processes. It is the continuation of an existing programme into the next educational term, which
might be an academic year or a semester. This means that programme planning is an ongoing
activity. Programme planning and teaching do need a coherent connection to save experiences, to
improve quality, and to build on good practice.
Planning steps:
1. The first step is evaluating the running оцінка поточної programme.
2. The second step is taking into account new reliable data like the results and findings of the
needs analysis.
3. The third step is conceptualizing налаштування the continued programme, including
changes, expanding target markets new resources (e.g. new media), discontinued programmes, or
changes in the financial framework.
4. The fourth step is configuring the new programme.
5. The fifth step is putting this revised programme into practice with all its concrete and
organizational details.
6. The sixth step is the running of the programme, including its evaluation оцінювання, which
leads back to the first step again.
What is language practice in education?
Language practice is the practice of working with language. People who are language
practitioners usually work in either translation, interpreting, text-rediting, copywriting, language
planning and language management, and are often fluent in at least two languages.

6. Peculiarities of classroom interaction in language teaching

The term classroom interaction refers to the interaction between the teacher and learners, and
amongst the learners, in the classroom.

The interaction between a teacher and their students as well as students and their peers is an
important part of the language learning experience. There are various patterns of communication
that many ESL teachers observe to change the dynamics of their classes. Varying these different
patterns helps change and improve the language learning atmosphere. It is also important to
recognize that some of these patterns are teacher-centered while others are student-centered.
When patterns are teacher-centered, they are easily controlled by the teacher. Conversely, when
the patterns are student-centered, it gives students freer practice with the language. Depending on
the class, teachers vary the usage of these interaction patterns, not only to teach the materials
effectively but also to create a suitable learning environment for acquiring the target language.

 Teacher-centered interaction patterns such as monologues, close-ended questioning, and choral

responses may seem outdated. However, they still have a place in the classroom, especially in
maintaining order and structure. Student-centered interaction patterns such as group work and
pair work, open-ended questioning, and full-class interactions, provide opportune moments for
meaningful production. While individual work periods and homework assignments create
opportunities for students to develop learner autonomy. The interaction patterns should
complement one another. As a result, there is no best interaction pattern as their success in the
classroom is determined by a variety of factors. Every class is different and has its own set of
needs and challenges.

7. Teacher Talking Time in language teaching

Teacher talking time refers to the amount of class time the teacher spends speaking to the class.
[Students should speak for 70% of the lesson and teachers should speak for 30% procents of the
time]
It is necessary to reduce скорочувати Teacher Talking Time conversation розмову
because:
1. Excessive Teacher Talking Time  limits the amount of Student Talking Time.
 2. A large amount of Teacher Talking Time leads to loss of concentration, boredom and
reduced learning.
3. Teacher long explanations are tedious and hard to follow
4. Teacher Talking Time reduces students opportunities for developing the speaking skill.
These are some strategies to help teachers reduce their teaching talking time.
Pair Work
The use of pair work activities has been defend вістоювати by communicative approaches to
foreign language pedagogy for the many years.
Organize pair work activities so student talk to each other and the interaction in the classroom
doesn’t have to be between learner and teacher.
Elicit
Elicitation Викликання is a technique by which the teacher gets the learners to give information
rather than giving it to them. To reduce teacher-talking time, use body language, mime, gesture
to communicate.
Instructions
Giving instructions is an integral part of being a teacher. You are going to be spending a lot of
time telling students what to do and when to do it. Keep instructions simple and clear.
Silence
Sometimes we mistake silence as a sign of inactivity. Tolerate Терпіти silence and give students
enough time to reply and prepare for activities.
Student-Centered Task
Calculate how much time you spent talking and cut out some of the speaking or replace it with
student-centered activity.
Student-Centered Learning is education, broadly encompasses methods of teaching that shift
the focus of instruction from the teacher to the student.

8. Dwell on the usage of (ICT) Information Computer Technologies in the

language classroom

ICT has its noticeable impact on the quality and quantity of teaching-learning process. In
concrete terms, ICT can enhance teaching and learning through its dynamic, interactive, and
engaging content; and it can provide real opportunities for individualized instruction.

The popularity of the Internet and computer technologies among young people and in
society as a whole has created serious grounds for the successful integration of ICT into
educational process.
When teaching foreign languages an important place is given to ICT, which allows the
introduction of new technologies, new techniques, shifting the emphasis to the independent work
of a student, making the training diverse. This situation increases the effectiveness of the
classroom work and makes the independent work of students more efficient. There is an
opportunity to use the Internet as a teaching tool both for training all types of speech activity,
and for research work and education.
 At the lessons of foreign languages, one should integrate the linguistic, sociocultural and
communicative approaches, taking into consideration teaching a foreign language for specific
purposes. To achieve these goals, it is very important to use the whole potential of Internet
resources.
The Internet offers users various options that can be used by students and teachers: e-
mail, participation in videoconferences, publication of research articles in the on-line system,
numerous reference catalogs and search systems.
ICT assumes the use of such telecommunication technologies as computer training and
test programs, electronic dictionaries for teaching students both professional vocabulary and
reading in a special setting; telecommunication technologies, which give students the
opportunity to participate in the dialogue of cultures through audio and video conferences.
ICT combines the advantages of various technologies within a single resource placing
educational material in the form of electronic textbooks, audio and video files using hyperlinks.
Using ICT, a teacher has an opportunity to monitor the knowledge and skills of students
in the network, making the learning process more individual.
The undoubted advantage of using ICT is to achieve mobility of learning, because using
e-mails and forums, teachers and students can provide feedback, they can receive the necessary
consultations, using the time in the classroom more effectively. The use of ICT is more efficient
within the framework of a certain model of training, developed in terms of the educational goals.
Training based on ICT technologies is an important competence of a modern teacher.

9.Dwell on the types of perception in language acquisition.

The Six Stages of Second-Language Acquisition

This is also called "the silent period," when the student takes in the new
Pre-
language but does not speak it. This period often lasts six weeks or
production
longer, depending on the individual.

The individual begins to speak using short words and sentences, but the
Early
emphasis is still on listening and absorbing the new language. There will
production
be many errors in the early production stage.
 Speech becomes more frequent, words and sentences are longer, but the
Speech individual still relies heavily on context clues and familiar topics.
Emergent Vocabulary continues to increase and errors begin to decrease, especially
in common or repeated interactions.

Speech is fairly fluent in social situations with minimal errors. New

Beginning contexts and academic language are challenging and the individual will
Fluency struggle to express themselves due to gaps in vocabulary and appropriate
phrases.

Communicating in the second language is fluent, especially in social

language situations. The individual is able to speak almost fluently in
Intermediate new situations or in academic areas, but there will be gaps in vocabulary
Fluency knowledge and some unknown expressions. There are very few errors,
and the individual is able to demonstrate higher order thinking skills in
the second language such as offering an opinion or analyzing a problem.

The individual communicates fluently in all contexts and can maneuver

successfully in new contexts and when exposed to new academic
Advanced information. At this stage, the individual may still have an accent and use
Fluency idiomatic expressions incorrectly at times, but the individual is
essentially fluent and comfortable communicating in the second
language.

What is Perception?
Perception is the process by which the sounds of language are heard, assimilated
and understood.

Word-Based Perception

The native language affects a person’s study of a second language.

Categorical Perception
There are differences in perceptual differentiation. We are more prone to notice differences
between categories than sub-categories.

Sensory and Auditory Perception

The nature of our sensory perceptions and their relation to reality can be dealt with
successfully in a language learning atmosphere. Music and sound give an impact on the ear
and the brain and the cognition of rhythm, melody and structure gets embedded in the
learner’s memory.

Visual Perception

People perceive things that they see differently. Goals, wishes, sex, race and gender are
perceived as sub-categories in visual perception. Studies in visual perception look at how
you can look at beautiful faces, scenery and things and change our stress levels. It even deals
with the notion whether we would grow up differently if we live in Asia or in North
America. Visual perception becomes a factor in learning concepts of different cultures and
traditions.

10.Dwell on Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

Communicative language teaching is a learner-centered method that mainly focuses on learning

the language through communication. The significant characteristics of communicative language
teaching are:
 CLT emphasizes to engage the learners in real-life situations in the classroom so that they
can understand how to communicate in the real world.
 It gives the importance of the necessity of the learners and attempts to explain it.
 In communicative language teaching, errors are considered in a natural phenomenon.
 Normally CLT focuses on the fluency of the learners rather than the accuracy of the
grammar and learners acquire their accuracy gradually and naturally.
 CLT also believes that communication is the fundamental objectives of language and the
learners need to develop all the skills of language (reading, writing, listening and
speaking).
 It offers the opportunity to join in teacher-learner and learner-learner interaction in the
classroom.
 It focuses on the use of techniques which encourage the learners in participating in the
natural environment, for instance, group and pair work etc.
 CLT agrees with the perception of individual work.
  In communicative language teaching, grammar is the second option of the learners and
they discover and internalize the grammatical rules and functions themselves.
Classroom Activities In Communicative Language Teaching

The classroom activities of communicative language teaching (CLT) are given below:

 Learners interact with other people through pair and group work.
 Students are encouraged to concentrate on communication.
 Reading and writing may start on the first day.
 Interaction between teacher and students should be applicable.
 Teachers motivate the students so that they can easily interact with them.
 The teaching methods must be learner-centred.
 Students should be engaged in several activities so that they can be able to generate new
ideas.

Teachers Role In CLT

Teachers play a very significant role in CLT. However, the teacher’s roles in CLT is given
below:
 Teachers remain in the classroom as a facilitator to be done the communication process
among all the participants. They also encourage learners to join various activities.
 As a professor, a teacher answers the questions of the students and also care about their
performance and activities.
 The teacher also plays the role of a communicator in the learning process. He or she also
cooperates with the learning-teaching group.
 Sometimes the teacher plays the role of a guide in the classroom activities. He/she
monitors the errors of the students and delivers some positive feedback among the
learners.

To sum up, it can be said that communicative language teaching (CLT) is the most valuable and
modern method to acquire the best ways to learn a second language quickly.

Students get enough opportunities to interact with the teacher and remove their misconceptions.
The primary and exciting thing is that communicative language teaching tolerates errors as a
natural phenomenon.

11.The peculiarities of language teaching in diverse classrooms

The English language classroom provides an obvious multicultural context for learning, and
teachers need to help students understand and appreciate the differences and similarities among
the various ethnic, religious and cultural groups.
Due to the lack of understanding of ethnic, racial, social, and linguistic diversity of
students, teachers can engage themselves consciously or unconsciously in practices that may not
be suitable in the classroom. Due to the failure on the part of teachers to understand, accept, and
appreciate who these students are, students may feel that the learning environment is alien and
hostile toward them. This situation causes stress, anxiety, and a feeling of a lack of support
among students, which can affect students‟ daily academic performance.
Teaching Strategies for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students
The first step in addressing cultural and linguistic diversity is to be aware. The very act of
considering culture and language skills when developing curricula and activities makes it more
likely that lessons will be inclusive. Teaching culturally diverse students entails the following
additional steps:
 Learn about your students’ cultural backgrounds and demonstrate appreciation of those
cultures. Teachers show students how to embrace different cultures by modeling respect
and acceptance.
 Learn more about students’ lives outside of the classroom, and let that information
inform lessons. For example, try to find examples that are relevant to students with
different cultures and backgrounds.
 Embrace diversity in teaching styles. Making an effort to accommodate different
communication preferences, cognitive styles, and aptitudes results in lessons with a
greater chance of reaching all students.
 Encourage students to relate the benefit of a lesson to their own lives.
 Bring diverse guest speakers into the classroom.
Educators can also benefit from the following tips for teaching linguistically diverse
students:
 Develop a relationship and work closely with an ESL teacher or interpreter.
 Incorporate more group work. This allows students to practice their language skills in a
more personal, less intimidating setting than the front of the classroom.
 Make things as visual as possible by writing on the board, diagraming, and using
pictures.
 Allow ELL students to preview materials before a lesson when possible.
  Understand that some students may experience a silent period. Students learning a new
language commonly go through a period of several weeks or longer when they are taking
in the new language but do not yet speak it.

12.Dwell on the difference among the following methodological notions:

approach, method, technique and procedure.

Approach encompasses the whole orientation of teaching. Approach is making technique

the most specific, and the method found in between approach and technique.
The method and technique are just parts and parcels of approach. Approach gives the
overall wisdom; it provides direction, and sets expectations to the entire spectrum of the teaching
process. Approach sets the general rule or general principle to make learning possible.
A method, on the other hand, is an organized, orderly, systematic, and well-planned
procedure aimed at facilitating and enhancing students’ learning. It is undertaken according to
some rule, which is usually psychological in nature. That is, it considers primarily the abilities,
needs, and interests of the learners. Method is employed to achieve certain specific aims of
instruction. To make it as an effective instrument, it should be presented with certain amount of
efficiency and ease. More so, the teaching method aims to achieve greater teaching and learning
output, thus saving time, efforts and even money on the part of both the teacher and the learner.
It directs and guides the teacher and the students in undertaking any class lesson or activity.

To appraise that teaching method is good and effective, the following characteristics
would tell if it is so:
 good method recognizes individual differences;
 if it provides students’ learning;
 if it facilitates growth and development;
 if it achieves the desired results of the teacher as reflected in her instructional objectives.

One must remember that there is no such thing as the best method. Thus, there is no
single correct way to teach a class. Instead, there are many good ways of teaching the students.

The procedural variation of a method calls for the third term, technique. Technique
encompasses the personal style of the teacher in carrying out specific steps of the teaching
process. Through technique, teachers enable to develop, create and implement, using her
distinctive way, the procedures (method) of teaching.
And finally a technique or techniques are the strategies like exercises, tasks, activities like
didactic games, role playing among others, that can be applied in a classroom to students in order
a teacher can reach pedagogical goals. 

Procedures are the most practical aspect of language teaching. At this point, the goal is
to have various ways of actually teaching. It is at the procedure level that many teachers spend
the majority of their time.
However, to truly understand what is happening in the classroom is to know the method
and approach of a particular set of procedures Knowledge of this will help a teacher to know
why they are doing something as well as knowing how to explain this.
Three Components
There are three components to procedures that a teacher needs to keep in mind. One,
procedures involve teaching activities such as drills, discussion, etc. Second, procedures also
involve how a teaching activity is used such as cooperatively or individually. Lastly, procedures
also include how feedback is given.
To say things simply, procedures involves the presentation of information, the practicing
of new skills, and the giving of feedback. In other forms of teaching, procedures would be the
equivalent of instructional design in that it focuses on the delivery and use of content.
Examples of Procedures
Different methods have different procedures. For now, the point is just to provide
examples of various types of procedures without focusing on a particular method.
Presentation-Sharing information directly, indirectly, or some other way with students
Practice–This can take the form of any assignment that requires the students to use
something they have just learned.
Checking-Providing students with correct answers or guidance
Homework-Additional practice of class material.
All methods have some or all of the points above in one form or another. What influences
how these procedures are used is the approach that it is based on. For example, in grammar-
translation method, the presentation procedure would always be direct and deductive. In other
styles, the presentation procedure would be indirect and inductive. Despite these differences, it is
likely that all language teachers would agree that some sort of presentation happens in all
methods of language teaching.
13.Dwell on the development of receptive skills: listening and reading.

‘Receptive Skills’ (also known as ‘Passive Skills’, or reading and listening) are often
contrasted with productive skills (speaking and writing). When learning a new language learners
tend to develop their receptive skills first and then acquire productive capability. It’s a complex
relationship between the two as they all play a supporting role with developing other skills. For
example, reading skills can be a supporting factor to the development of writing, whereas
listening can improve speaking fluency.
Developing receptive skills can be particularly challenging especially when communicating
with a fluent or native speaker.  Although starting a conversation may be done with relative ease,
maintaining one poses greater challenges. Most likely learners may not recognize features of
connected speech or idiomatic language which may lead to an unsuccessful interaction.

Similarly with reading, if the language or grammar is too complicated it makes the text
unintelligible. The key difference between listening and reading is that when learners listen to
information, they have much less support than when they are working with the written word on
the page. Listening requires ‘real-time’ processing of language, and once the message has
finished, there is no easy way to go back and check for meaning, as there is during reading.

The best way to improve receptive skills is from exposure whether from an enjoyable authentic
text or a quality ESL text book. For example, television, music, books and magazines are great
ways to build vocabulary while incidentally promoting learner autonomy. Coursebooks can
provide a basic scaffold and are adapted for an ESL learner, whereas authentic materials provide
exposure to real language use.

However, authentic materials can demotivate learners if the materials aren’t appropriately graded
or applicable to their interests. It’s an important consideration to choose material which isn’t too
difficult or easy, and also which relates culturally, so adaptation is an important consideration for
teachers. Equally important are effectively staging a reading or listening lesson to maximize
output. The below staging is an effective way to teach either a listening or reading lesson.
1) Pre-teach vocabulary
As with the ‘present’ stage of a vocabulary lesson, elicit, drill and concept check any
vocabulary that you predict students will need to navigate the reading or listening material they
will work with.
 2) Gist reading/listening
When students have demonstrated their understanding of the target vocabulary, set a quick
skimming task for students to get a first contact with the text or recording. Gist tasks can be in
the form of true-false questions, paragraph matching, ordering or adding headings.

Remember: Make sure that you go through the task BEFORE you give them the reading
text. If they don’t understand the task information, they will not be able to read or listen with
purpose.

3) Detailed reading/listening
When students have got the gist of the text, they can move into some more detailed
comprehension or language work. Set questions which deal with the relationships between points
in the text, or which focus on use of specific language in the text or recording. This encourages a
closer analysis of the information being presented.

4) (optional) Response to text

A follow-up stage (which asks students to respond to what they have read or listened to)
can consolidate the ideas presented in the text and engage students with the content they have
read or listened to.

5) (optional) Vocabulary in Context

Another option for a post-reading stage is to examine the meanings of some other
vocabulary items (which were not taught in the first PTV stage) in the context of the sentences
and paragraphs where they appear in the reading or listening material.

Besides staging it’s also important to develop strategies rather than only practicing skills as
you want to equip your students to practice outside the classroom. Listed below are some
strategies to help your students improve their reading and listening skills.

Tips for making your reading and listening lessons shine

1. Encourage learners to read for enjoyment rather than just for study.
2. Avoid reading word for word, instead read an entire chunk and identify contextual clues
to establish meaning of unknown language.
3. Look for key words such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs as these words give
information.
 4. Make predictions before reading or listening. Doing so activates what is already known
about the topic. Also, this builds confidence since the learner isn’t confronted immediately with
what they don’t know.
5. Listen for key words (information words).
6. Practice reading for gist first and then detail, breaking up the reading makes the text
manageable.
7. Practice.

14.Dwell on the development of productive skills: speaking and writing.

What are productive skills? Productive skills are skills that we use to produce a
language. It is what we use to put together the language into something that other people would
understand. In short, they are our means of communicating properly with others. Productive
skills include writing and speaking skills.
The goal of productive skills is to let people understand what we want to tell them. To let
them understand what we want to tell them.
Basically, Productive skills are what we use to produce or to give information to others.
Receptive skills are what we use to accept or to understand what others are telling us.
In language, productive skills are speaking and writing. These skills are very important
because learners need to articulate words and write to produce language.
Speaking is vital unless someone is learning English purely for academic reasons and
does not intend to communicate in English which is quite rare. Good command on speaking
skills develops a sense of progress among learners and boosts their confidence inside and outside
the classroom. Teaching writing skills is equally important because written communication is a
basic life skill that can also come in handy for students or people in general with a speaking
disability or speech impairment. Students may need to take notes, fill in forms, write letters,
reports, stories, etc. Many need to fill in detailed questionnaires relating to health, education, and
employment. Writing is a good way to practice grammar and look up new vocabulary and learn
English punctuation rules.
Some effective techniques to enhance speaking skill of learners from beginners to
intermediate ones:
Drama
This technique or activity refers to the making of conversation between two or more
students of the class. In this activity, students play a role, such as,a doctor and a patient, a
lecturer and a student. This technique is really interesting and useful not only to develop
speaking but also serve to encourage students to use the language in real.
Question and answer
Question and answer is also found as a technique in teaching speaking. This is supported
by Richards & Lockhart (1991) as follows: questioning is one of the most common techniques
used by lecturer. In some classroom over half of class time is taken up with question-and answer
exchanges (Borg & Gall, 1984). This technique can be supported with picture descriptions about
different topics. “At the restaurant”, “My hometown”, “My family “ and others.
Storytelling
Students can briefly summarize a tale or story they heard from somebody beforehand, or
they may create their own stories to tell their classmates. Story telling fosters creative thinking. It
also helps students express ideas in the format of beginning, development, and ending, including
the characters and setting a story has to have.

15.Dwell on the peculiarities of integrated skills development.

Integrating skills in the language programme is not a new idea, and most teachers today
are aware of the benefits of using the four skills as a means of presenting, practicing and
extending one and the same set of language forms and functions. Obviously there are limitations
in adopting a totally integrated approach because there are important differences between the
written and spoken forms of the language, and indiscriminate use of skill integration may lead,
for example, to learners writing in a manner more appropriate to spoken communication. Yet it is
rear for anyone I real life to use one skill in isolation for any length of time (with the exception
of reading or listening for pleasure).
If you are talking to someone about a new project, for instance, you will be both
observing their reactions and listening for their responses; as you will listen for them, you’ll be
composing what to say next or, if necessary, you will be taking notes and later read them while
preparing your project proposal. Skills should not be practiced only singly, in a vacuum.
Integrated skills are necessary to achieve task goals.
In integrated skill instruction:
· learners are exposed to authentic language and are involved in meaningful activities;
· the language becomes not just an object of academic interest but a real means of
interaction among people;
· the learning of authentic content through language is highly motivating to learners of all
ages and backgrounds;
 · teachers are given the opportunity to track learners’ progress in many skills at the same
time.
Integrating reading and writing in teaching has such advantages as:
· The reading text provides an example (a model) of the type of the text learners
themselves should produce.
· Individual language forms and functions are presented in context in a continuous piece
of discourse. Though they may be later practiced separately, their meaning is fully revealed in
the context.
· The reading text can provide the basis for reading comprehension activities that focus
on the way the text is structured and organized. An understanding of such organization is a
prerequisite for constructing a piece of coherent writing.
· The use of information transfer activities (filling in tables, making diagrams, mind maps
etc) allows the learner to take one step further from the original text and then reconstitute the
information from the visual form into a verbal form again but using their own words.
Integrating skills allows a teacher to introduce change of activity (not necessarily the
subject) at frequent intervals. By changing the pace in this way, the learners’ enjoyment,
attention and motivation are being continually renewed. The change is refreshing to them and to
the teacher.
A quieter activity, such as reading or writing, gives the learners time to reflect, to
reinforce what they have learnt orally, or the opportunity to recognize and re-use a point already
taught. It gives a sense of completeness to an activity, which is satisfying, particularly to adult
learners.
When learners get used to balance of skills within one lesson, they are often more
relaxed. For each learner, knowing their strengths and weaknesses, realizes that they will be able
to participate in some way during the lesson. They will have time to reflect upon the points
which cause difficulty and also seek the teacher’s advice. The latter will have also been freed to
help by allotting part of the lesson to learner controlled activities.

16.Dwell on the case-study method application for integrated skills development.

The method of case-study or specific situations is a method of active problem-situation

analysis based on learning by addressing specific problems — situations.
The method of case studies refers to the non-gaming simulation active training. The
immediate objective of the method of the case-study consists in the following: a group of
students work together to analyze the situation — case, which occurs in a particular situation,
and work out a practical solution, the end of the process is evaluation of the proposed algorithms
and the selection of the best one in the context of a given problem.
Case-studies are training specific situations specially developed on the basis of factual
data for subsequent analysis in the classroom. In the case study students learn to work in «a
team», to analyze and to make management decisions.
A case is a complex phenomenon and it should contain the most realistic picture and the
specific facts and have a stable set of characteristics. Each case should include the following
aspects: the problem, conflict, role, event, and activity, temporal, and spatial. The students’ task
is to understand the proposed situation, a description of which reflects not only the practical
problem, but also updated previously digested complex knowledge, articulates and characterizes
the problem and develops an algorithm of activity that leads to the problem solution.
There is a wide range of educational challenges and opportunities of the case-study
method:
                   acquisition of new knowledge and development of general ideas;
                   development of students' self-critical and strategic thinking, the ability to
listen to and consider the alternative views, express their points of view;
                   development of skills which are necessary for the analysis of complex and
unstructured problems;
                   development of common sense, responsibility for the decision-making
process, the ability to communicate;
                   skills development activities and their implementation;
                   the ability to work in a team;
                   the ability to find the most efficient solution to the problem.
                   The advantages of the method of case-study include:
                   use of the principles of problem-based training — development of the real
problems-solving skills, the ability to work in a single group of the problem field;
                   development of team-building skills;
                   development of skills of simple generalization;
                   development of presentation skills;
                   development of skills of press-conference, the ability to formulate
a question, reason a response
17. Modern approaches to teaching vocabulary and developing learner's
speaking and writing skills.

While traditional methodologies such as the audio-lingual and direct methods still offer
useful elements, they’re clearly outdated in the modern classroom. The communicative approach,
which was in vogue in the late ’90s, is still widely considered as the latest advancement in
modern language teaching. Most TESOL/TEFL training programs still live and swear by it.

1.The task-based approach represents a significant paradigm shift since the focus on
content has shifted to skills and competencies. This approach isolates individual skills and
competencies in order to teach material students actually need to know to meet their goals and
objectives.
Sample tasks could be ordering in a restaurant, booking a hotel room, or perhaps more
advanced tasks like critiquing a movie or voicing their opinions about politics. In this approach,
the language taught revolves around the task itself, not the other way around.
For this method to work, teachers must understand their students’ needs and expectations
in order to design lessons that help their students succeed. Grammar, vocabulary and language
skills are just the vehicles that enable students to achieve their final outcomes.
Before adopting the task-based approach, educators must ask themselves, “Why are my
students learning English?”
Educators must then look at ways to help their learners achieve their personal and/or
professional goals.
The answers to these questions will help create a program that’s relevant to your students.
2. Project-based Approach
The project-based approach is meant to address students’ real needs by adapting language
to the skills and competencies they truly need personally and/or professionally.
The application of this approach begins by determining the one, global objective that the
individual or group of students have.
For example, if you’re teaching a business English class, you should look at why students
are in the class to begin with and plan accordingly.
If you have a class full of teenagers who don’t want to be in class to begin with? Start by
doing a needs assessment, looking at what they’re interested in and what topics they really need
to know.
This assessment will lead to the design of one overarching project that will become the
end result of the class, term or course. This project can be anything from an oral presentation to a
large-scale production such as a class play. Whatever the case, the project must be comprised of
individual tasks that lead students to the goals in the assessment.
Think of the project as their final, comprehensive assessment. Whereas small tests or the
completion of individual tasks are cumulative assessments. Just remember, your evaluation
criteria must be clear so students know what they’re being graded on.
3. Lexical Syllabus
While the previous two approaches focus heavily on the skills and competencies that
students need to develop, this approach focuses on what language students actually need to
produce. In particular, the actual words that students need to understand in order to conduct
specific tasks.
This approach is based upon the core language that students need to know given their
needs.
Since this approach focuses on content, tasks and homework assignments should focus on
students’ true needs. Therefore, assessment should be based upon what students actually
achieved. Examples of these assessments include writing an email for a job application or
arranging a time for an interview.
This approach requires teachers to understand what students really need right away, focus
on that, and then expand students’ horizons as their communication skills develop. This is where
technology can be a teacher’s best friend. Since this method focuses on learning the right
vocabulary, there are plenty of classroom programs and apps that can help students learn in an
engaging way.
This is a great way to reinforce their learning and help them understand how to actually
use their vocabulary words.
You can upload a list of words for your students to study, which will create flashcard
decks. Each flashcard is equipped with audio pronunciations, grammar information, example
sentences and even video clips from FluentU videos where the word appears.
Students can also search for a word to see it in a video or watch videos they’re interested
in and pick up new words from the interactive subtitles. Assign vocabulary lists or videos for
homework and you’ll be able to see the questions each student got wrong. This will help you
assess each individual student’s needs, allowing you to adapt your lesson accordingly.
4. Using Smartphones in the Classroom
Smartphones provide many useful tools for students such as dictionary, translator and
grammar reference apps. Much like computers, students need to understand that their phones
aren’t for play or personal use, but to be used as learning tools.
 A good example of how smartphones enhance classroom learning is the scavenger hunt
exercise. Here, students must go through websites to find the information they need to fill out a
worksheet. Students can also use their devices to access free, online exercises that reinforce
language and/or skills seen in class.
The key issue here is to be creative with the use of smartphones. Other uses for
smartphones in the classroom could be polling apps, surveys or even recording, yes, recording!
Students can record themselves in action, which is perfect helping them receive feedback on
specific tasks and activities.
Survey Monkey is another fun app to add to your English classroom. It lets you create
surveys, which students can conveniently access from their phones and answer right away. This
can be used as an assessment tool or as part of a portfolio of activities. For example, students
could even design survey questions, fill them out, analyze results and then create a presentation
of those results.
One other use that I personally find appropriate for smartphones and tablets is going
paperless. If there are PDF versions available for the textbooks or materials you’re using, this
could allow you to simplify students’ lives while being environmentally friendly.
Again, it’s important to make sure that students use their technology for classwork and
not becoming distracted by it.
Bringing It All Together
While traditional approaches do provide a solid foundation for effective language
teaching, it’s important to understand that these techniques don’t always address students’
current needs. In fact, the communicative approach, still widely preached as the latest and
greatest approach, is already due for a makeover of its own.
Next time you’re preparing for a new group of students, or want to change the way you
teach your current ones, consider the following:
● The task-based approach focuses on the skills and competencies students actually need.
● The project-based approach builds on the task-based approach using specialized
activities.
● The lexical syllabus provides students with the content they will need straight out of the
gate.
Combine that with effective use of technology in the classroom, and you’ve got a
winning formula no teacher can ignore.
18. Modern approaches and challenges in teaching phonetics factors that affect
pronunciation learning.

English pronunciation training helps learners speak more clearly and communicate more
smoothly. However, teachers need to apply appropriate pedagogical methods to ensure the
effectiveness of online pronunciation instruction
There are three approaches to pronunciation instruction: the intuitive-imitative
approach, the analytic-linguistic approach, and the integrative approach.
First, the intuitive-imitative approach is used to teach pronunciation based on the
learner’ ability to listen and imitate the sounds and rhythm of the target language without giving
any explicit information. According to this approach, it is assumed that there are always native
listeners in the process. Second, the analytic--linguistic approach uses the charts of vocal
tracks, the phonetic alphabet in imitation, listening, and production as supplementary materials.
In this approach,the teacher should make clear different aspects of pronunciation such as the
position of the tongue, manner of articulation and place.
Last, the integrative approach mainly focuses on rhythm, intonation and the
suprasegmentals of stress, as it is necessary to practice them in a discourse beyond the word
level and phoneme.
The pronunciation in the scope of the approach is integrated into meaningful task-
based activities. In other words, pronunciation is considered as an integral component of
communication rather than an isolated drill. Thus, pronunciation is practiced in meaningful
task-based activities that may facilitate learning pronunciation.
To sum up, in the intuitive-imitative approach, technological devices (such as
videotapes, web sites) are used to facilitate learning, whereas in the analytic-linguistic
approach the pronunciation is learned explicitly with the help of vowel charts and the
phonetic alphabet. Apart from these two, in the integrative approach, pronunciation is
viewed as an integral component of communication.

Students and educators face when studying and teaching English pronunciation with
some of the challenges.
Mouth positioning
From saying words with th to different diphthongs, ESL learners may find it tricky to
articulate certain sounds simply because they don’t exist in their native language. Thai speakers,
for instance, struggle with pronouncing consonant clusters like dr and sm. Meanwhile,
Portuguese speakers pronounce the letter r differently. As a result, they struggle with finding the
right mouth positions to make these sounds.
You can introduce your students to new phonetic sounds by using the International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) chart and showing how the mouth, tongue, teeth, and other speech
organs work to produce each sound. For instance, you can show them how you expel air every
time you make voiceless sounds like with f and s. Then, you can have them repeat the sounds
through pronunciation drills or even fun activities like tongue twisters!

Using correct sentence stress and intonation

Learning which words to emphasize and where your voice rises and falls in a phrase or
sentence can be a challenge to students, especially if the intonation in their mother tongue differs
a lot. Because of this, learners may encounter problems getting their message across.
There are many ways teachers can help students improve their sentence stress and
intonation. For example, you can use Total Physical Response (TPR) techniques, which use
physical motions alongside speech, to guide learners while speaking. Activities like animated
texts, storytelling, and roleplays can also get them used to shifting intonations and expressing
emotions in English better.
Speaking speed
Even with the correct pronunciation of words, English students may either speak too
slowly because they’re conscientious of making mistakes or too quickly because they’re nervous
or desire to sound more fluent. While slowing down their speech may hamper overall
communication, speeding up too much may make them mispronounce words.
You can help dispel your students’ jitters by pointing out that speaking clearly should be
their ultimate goal. Assigning tasks that will get them talking, like class presentations, are also
useful for developing a good speaking pace. Aside from these, encourage them to learn from the
best speakers. Have them watch news reports or TED Talks so they can get an idea of what
comprehensible speech sounds like.

19. Dwell on the classroom management strategies for different age group

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES Proactive classroom management

strategies focus on implementing strategies emphasizing how students should behave in the
classroom, the expectations in the classroom, and how to make the classroom as structured and
predictable as possible to avoid disruptive behaviors.
Class-wide strategies are implemented with all students within the class and address the
needs of most students in terms of behavior. The classroom management strategies work to keep
the students engaged, connected, and keep students on-task as much as possible and therefore
less likely to be disruptive or exhibit challenging behaviors during class time.

Create a classroom management plan -the classroom management plan is a short

activity it is crucial in establishing how the classroom with function. It should be posted during
every lesson, reviewed often, and referred to when challenging behaviors arise.

• Understand the power of day 1 – Day 1 is the most important day you will spend with
students because you set the tone for the classroom and the rules and class norms are established.
Work to create a classroom that is warm, inviting, and inclusive. Show enthusiasm for the
lessons you are teaching and show students you are excited about being able to spend time with
them.
Access a seating chart ahead of time – Young people want to be addressed by name. If
at all possible access a seating chart ahead of time so you can make name tents for each student
to grab on their way into class and take to their desks or arrange with the classroom teacher a
time before your lesson starts for students to create their own name tents on a piece of paper.
• Greet students as they enter the classroom – Even in the beginning when you aren’t
certain of student’s names, it is important for students to feel a sense of belonging and to know
you are excited about being at school and are happy they are a part of the class. Simple phrases
like, “I am glad you are here today” or “welcome to class” can help students feel connected and
engaged. Also, to show students you enjoyed your time with them and look forward to seeing
them again, always say good bye and reference when you will see them again for the next lesson.
• Create an agenda for each day – Start each lesson on time and quickly review what is
listed on the agenda for the lesson. Check off agenda items as they are completed to build on a
sense of accomplishment and to help students know what is coming up next. This helps students
understand there is a routine followed during your class time and a predictability of what is
coming up next.
• Be genuine and sincere with praise – While praise is very important and is often times
a great prompt to the class acknowledging appropriate behavior, empty praise or praising for
small tasks or less than adequate work can actually cause students to disengage and lose interest
in your feedback.
Balance teaching and facilitating – While maintaining fidelity to the curriculum, look
for ways to balance teaching and facilitating. Teaching is typically the class listening to the
information being shared by a teacher or facilitator, while facilitating involves sharing
knowledge and including the audience in the lesson. Look for opportunities to have students
actively respond and participate. Offer opportunities for students to read aloud, write on the
board/smart board, answer questions out loud, and assist you during the lesson. Depending on
the student’s learning style they may learn best when reading, listening, writing information
down, or maybe even moving around the classroom a bit.
• Circulate the room – Facilitators should circulate the room as a way to keep students
engaged and attentive. Not only do students have to pay attention and follow where you are, but
it allows you the opportunity to check to make sure students are on-task
. • Find a seating arrangement conducive to learning – While during some lesson
activities you may have students working in groups with desks connected, typically when
student’s desks are arranged in rows students tend to stay on-task, focus, listen, and complete
more work. During activities promoting or encouraging student engagement a u-shape or circle
might be effective, but overall other arrangements may help with managing disruptive behaviors.
• Be effective when giving instructions – It is important when giving instructions to
provide information in a way that is clear and concise. Once we have gained the student’s
attention it is important to: 1. Wait until students are seated and not moving around the room. 2.
Give one instruction at a time. 3. Use a clear firm voice and repeat each instruction. 4. Wait for
student compliance. 5. Provide an opportunity for students to acknowledge understanding of the
instruction given. This can be by done asking for thumbs up or thumbs down and answering
questions or concerns of the students with their thumbs down.
Avoid answering too many questions and stalling the lesson – Always have a way
students can get questions answered, even when there isn’t time in class. You can provide a
“parking lot” flip chart sheet that is posted in a certain location in the classroom during each
lesson and post-it sheets with pens near the paper and students Classroom Management Resource
Guide • Handle disagreements with respect – Let students know throughout your lessons
information may be presented that a student might disagree with. Create a classroom atmosphere
were students know it is ok to disagree, but disagreements are always to be respectful.
• Integrate students’ interests when appropriate – During activities, such as role plays,
try to use language youth can connect with and names they connect with as part of their culture.
It is important to remember the goals and messages of the role play must remain unchanged and
prioritize curriculum fidelity.
• Be willing to give a little to get a lot – Some days students enter the classroom and you
can tell the energy level is high and it is going to be an enormous challenge to keep students
focused and on-task.

20. Dwell on the role of the lesson plan, its components and the principles in
planning.

A lesson plan serves as a guide that a teacher uses every day to determine what the
students will learn, how the lesson will be taught as well as how learning will be evaluated.
Lesson plans enable teachers to function more effectively in the classroom by giving a detailed
outline that they ad here to during each class. This helps to make sure that every moment spent
in class is used to teach meaningful concepts and have worthwhile discussions rather than
figuring out what you are supposed to do as time goes on.
Lesson plans generally consist of essential components such as objectives, requirements,
resources, procedures, and evaluation techniques. Since every part of an effective lesson plan has
an impact on the learning process for students, it is crucial to handle them by taking a strategic
approach..
There are five main components of any successful lesson. You need to rethink your
lesson plan if you miss one of them. These five components are as follows:
1- Objectives:
Write what you expect your students will do by the end of the lesson e.g. by the end of
the lesson, students will be able to ” pronounce, identify, put words in sentences, change into
passive, compare, answer, use, match, …. etc ” or any verbs that can be observable and
measurable in the classroom.
2- Warm-up:
Revise the previous lesson, check homework orally, correct common mistakes, … etc or
any other activity that can activate students and prepare them to receive the new material.
3- Presentation:
Present the new material using the suitable techniques, and write the procedures that you
will follow to explain the new material.
4- Practice:
It is the work done by the students whether it is controlled, guided, or free. Students
answer some exercises based on the material presented. These exercises are often there in the set
book.
5- Assessment:
Write some sentences on the board or distribute printed papers to see whether the
objectives were achieved or not and to check whether students learned or not according to the
objectives. If not, you should reteach the lesson using different techniques.
PRINCIPLES OF LESSON PLAN
1. Preparation/Instruction:
It pertains to preparing and motivating children to the lesson content by linking it to the
previous knowledge of the student, by arousing curiosity of the children and by making an
appeal to their senses. This prepares the child's mind to receive new knowledge. "To know where
the pupils are and where they should try to be are the two essentials of good teaching."
Lessons may be started in the following manner:
a. Two or three interesting but relevant questions
b. Showing a picture/s, a chart or a model
c. A situation Statement of Aim: Announcement of the focus of the lesson in a clear,
concise statement such as "Today, we shall study the..."
2. Presentation/Development:
The actual lesson commences here. This step should involve a good deal of activity on
the part of the students. The teacher will take the aid of various devices, e.g., questions,
illustrations, explanation, expositions, demonstration and sensory aids, etc. Information and
knowledge can be given, explained, revealed or suggested.
The following principles should be kept in mind.
a. Principle of selection and division: This subject matter should be divided into
different sections. The teacher should also decide as to how much he is to tell and how much the
pupils are to find out for themselves.
b. Principle of successive sequence: The teacher should ensure that the succeeding as
well as preceding knowledge is clear to the students.
c. Principle of absorption and integration: In the end separation of the parts must be
followed by their combination to promote understanding of the whole.
3. Association comparison:
It is always desirable that new ideas or knowledge be associated to daily life situations
by citing suitable examples and by drawing comparisons with the related concepts. This step is
important when we are establishing principles or generalizing definitions.
4. Generalizing:
This concept is concerned with the systematizing of the knowledge learned. Comparison
and contrast lead to generalization. An effort should be made to ensure that students draw the
conclusions themselves. It should result in students' own thinking, reflection and experience.
 5. Application:
It requires a good deal of mental activity to think and apply the principles learned to new
situations. Knowledge, when it is put to use and verified, becomes clear and a part of the
student's mental make-up.
6. Recapitulation:
Last step of the lesson plan, the teacher tries to ascertain whether the students have
understood or grasped the subject matter or not. This is used for assessing/evaluating the
effectiveness of the lesson by asking students questions on the contents of the lesson or by giving
short objectives to test the student's level of understanding; for example, to label different parts
on a diagram, etc.

21. Dwell on the types of syllabuses and the procedure of designing them.

What is a syllabus?
Teachers came up with wonderful and various definitions of syllabus, all of them
revealing its practical applications to real life teaching or how real life teaching defines and
shapes the nature of syllabuses.
● A syllabus is intended for the teacher or academic supervisor and it’s a statement of
intentions.
● Desired results, evidence of understanding and language and learning progression.
● It ensures some continuity in the program.
● It helps the teacher to build a foundation where he/she could plan lessons more
effectively.
Structural - A 'traditional' syllabus, listing formal language items to be learned. The
ordering of items usually depends on a judgement concerning their complexity rather than
communicative utility. Simple forms are handled first, more complex ones later. Such a syllabus
will usually contain lists of grammar, lexis and phonological features to be covered. For
example, First conditional, Gerunds after verbs, going to for future intentions/plans, have got
(possession) Imperatives, let's + bare infinitive
● Skills-based This kind of syllabus targets language abilities rather than the formal
aspects of language. Usually a list of skills to be demonstrated and taught. For example,
Delivering a short talk Writing a letter of complaint Understanding a lecture Reading an
academic article
● Situational - This kind of syllabus will cover the settings in which learners will have to
 deploy appropriate language. A key distinction is made in such syllabuses between
structural or functional words and content words (by, be, which etc. vs. house, table, gasp
etc.) Typical content will include items such as: At the doctor's In the post office
Topic-based This is a syllabus organised around topic rather than language structure
which has similarities to both a lexical and a situational syllabus (with both of which it is often
combined). Typical topics in such a syllabus might include: lifestyles personal relationships
school technology
Lexical This kind of syllabus focuses on lexical patterns and common ways to express
meaning. It usually draws on corpus research to discover patterns and frequencies in the
language Typical items would include: Collocational patterns: adjective + noun, adverb + verb,
etc. Delexicalised verb patterns by: expressing who, how, when, where would: expressing past
habit, unlikelihood
Notional A syllabus which focuses on learning the language to describe universal
concepts, notions such as size, temperature, frequency, likelihood etc. Typical content will cover
lists such as: adequacy/inadequacy desirability/undesirability texture delay/earliness frequency
speed
Functional / Communicative A syllabus which focuses on learning the language to
perform certain functions in the language such as asking for and giving information, apologising
etc Typical content will cover lists such as: asking about/expressing likes and dislikes greetings
and introductions offering/accepting/declining refreshment expressing forgetfulness expression
political opinion
Task-based / Procedural This kind of syllabus focuses on using tasks to help learners
deploy language communicatively. It is important that the tasks represent real-world language
Task types are usually listed and sometimes particularly tasks are prescribed. For example,
Negotiation tasks: reaching a consensus Forward planning tasks: planning an excursion
Judgement tasks: writing a review of a film
Learner-generated This relies on learners knowing what they need to do in English and
what they need to learn to achieve the skills they need. The syllabus is then negotiated between
the students and the teacher/institution. Typically, these syllabuses end up as lists of concepts,
topics, skills and structures such as: Using the present perfect Writing an email Interacting
informally Giving a presentation at work
Mixed This is possible the most common type of syllabus and focuses on combining
elements of all syllabus types so that each lesson or series of lessons focuses on different aspects
of what is to be learnt. Typical content will include items from any of the areas above.
 The syllabus can be much more than a contractual document, serving as an expression of
our personal teaching philosophy, a way to motivate our students, and a reflection of our
expertise in course design. In fact, there are a multitude of purposes for syllabi in university
coursework (O’Brien, Millis & Cohen, 2008). A well-written syllabus has benefits for both
faculty and students, and can:
● Provide a way to reach out to students before the course starts
● Establish a positive tone for the course
● Define student and instructor responsibilities
● Help students assess their readiness for the course
● Situate the course in a broader context for learning
● Communicate the ways technology will be used in the course
● Enable students to see the scope of learning as well as its ordered sequence
Engage the instructor in setting clear student learning outcomes, which helps clarify the
purpose of the curriculum to students
Features of a well-designed syllabus
● It should include very good and clear measurable objectives.
● It should reflect students’ needs and be realistic about what they can achieve.
● A syllabus needs variety, i.e. focusing on all skills and systems, language areas,
functions, tasks, materials, input and output.
● It should be flexible, informative and informing.
● It should allow space to adapt lessons or deviate from the initial syllabus but factors like
the school should be considered.
What to take into account when designing a syllabus.
● The needs, wants, interests of the students.
● The learners’ learning styles.
● The time available and other stakeholders.
● Setting out achievable objectives, which should provide a clear focus for the course and
be laid out in achievable steps.
● Having a clear idea/statement of global goals, i.e. why the course is being run and what
the end goals are.
 ● The physical constraints of the environment you’ll be teaching in.
● The nature of the course, e.g. if it’s a Business English course.
● The demands of the institution and maybe government framework.
● The order of the syllabus elements.
● What you expect students to produce, the subskills needed and the assumptions
underpinning them.
● Students would like to know the main objectives of a lesson (in terms of skills/language),
this is a good motivator.
● To know how to balance skills/ systems.
What to include
● The rules, course descriptors, textbooks used, a calendar, grading policy, your goals, how
you plan to achieve them, in what order and how to evaluate them.
● Needs, purpose, syllabus type, language to be used, testing, methodology, evaluation,
teacher training, recycle stage.
● Outcomes or expressive objectives, possible learning objects, expectations, rubrics, key
assessment or performance tasks.
● The instructor’s personal goals of what is to be taught.
● A list of what the students could expect from the teacher.
● Development of teaching, learning and testing approaches.
● Teaching methodology and micro planning.
● The phrase ‘By the end of the {…}the students will have learnt…

22. The peculiarities of classroom management

Classroom management is the use of procedures and teaching techniques that promote a
safe and efficient learning environment. For primary school teachers, disciplinary method and
behavioral expectations are central to this system. As students age, the managerial style of
instructors may change to assist students in the development of self-guided learning. Although
every teacher will have a unique style of management to meet each class' needs, the same
elements can be found consistently.

Classroom Design
Although often overlooked, the first element of classroom management is intentional
design. Use the positioning of your desks, displays, storage and equipment to create a warm and
welcoming room. This should be done during summer vacation prior to the arrival of students.
Make sure you have removed all unnecessary and distracting items from your classroom. This is
also a good time to check your room for safety hazards.
2 Rules
Develop rules that foster respect, caring and community in your classroom. Make your
expectations for behavior clear at the beginning of the year by reviewing these rules with
students. Continue to reinforce your rules throughout the course, and post them in a visible
location. Consider having students sign a contract that shows they have read the rules with their
parents and understand how to behave properly.
3 Discipline
Classroom rules must have concrete consequences. Students will test the limitations of
each teacher from the very first day of school. Be firm, fair and consistent. Begin by warning a
student and having them confirm their knowledge of the classroom rules. Follow-up continued
disruption by issuing demerits, detention, or other official reprimands. Never, hit, harass,
embarrass or yell at students-this is counterproductive, unprofessional and often illegal.
4 Scheduling
Keep your class in order by staying on time and on task. Do classwork during class time,
leaving plenty of room for in-class assignments. Cramming work and instruction too close to
other activities can lead to disruptive behavior and poor comprehension. There should be space
before and after every room change, lunch, and recess for students to settle down. Having a
regular daily schedule helps you and your kids prepare for upcoming tasks. Be firm but fair with
due dates. Always leave room for extenuating circumstances. Never leave room for
procrastination.
5 Organization
Stay organized inside and out. Keep your student files, assignments, lesson plans and
administrative paperwork in order. It sets a good example for your students and keeps you from
wasting instructional time looking for materials. Share this system with your students. Post the
classroom calendar, homework schedule and assignments on the board. Allow students to see
how you take notes. It helps them distinguish irrelevant information from essential details.
Encourage self-directed learning by providing students with their own agenda (notebook). You
may require students to have their notebooks checked at home or during class.
6 Instructional Technique
Although you may not have flexibility over the content of your curriculum, teachers are
able to convey information as they see fit. Tailoring your instructional technique to the grade
level, subject area, and students is very important. A hands-on demonstration of electricity will
keep 8th graders engaged, but may prove chaotic in a 3rd grade classroom. Vary the style and
intensity of your lessons. Follow-up lecture-style sessions with relaxed group activities. Consult
your colleagues for ideas for new lessons. Learn about each of your student's learning style.
(What is their learning curve? How do they learn best? Do they work well in groups?) These
observations are crucial when fitting your teaching style to your students needs.
7 Communication
Communication is the most important aspect of classroom management. It is essential to
have clear and consistent lines of communication with your administration, colleagues, students
and parents. Without it you will lose the respect of peers, the attention of students, and the
cooperation of parents. Be responsive to the concerns of others. Be flexible and willing to
accommodate reasonable requests.

23. Dwell on the types of assessment in language acquisition: formative and

summative evaluation and peer reviewing.

Assessment allows both instructor and student to monitor progress towards achieving
learning objectives, and can be approached in a variety of ways.
Formative assessment refers to tools that identify misconceptions, struggles, and
learning gaps along the way and assess how to close those gaps. It includes effective tools for
helping to shape learning, and can even bolster students’ abilities to take ownership of their
learning when they understand that the goal is to improve learning, not apply final marks It can
include students assessing themselves, peers, or even the instructor, through writing, quizzes,
conversation, and more. In short, formative assessment occurs throughout a class or course, and
seeks to improve student achievement of learning objectives through approaches that can support
specific student needs
In contrast, summative assessments evaluate student learning, knowledge, proficiency,
or success at the conclusion of an instructional period, like a unit, course, or program.
Summative assessments are almost always formally graded and often heavily weighted (though
they do not need to be). Summative assessment can be used to great effect in conjunction and
alignment with formative assessment, and instructors can consider a variety of ways to combine
these approaches.

Examples of Formative and Summative Assessments

 Formative Summative

In-class discussions Instructor-created

exams

Clicker questions Standardized tests

Low-stakes group work Final projects

Weekly quizzes Final essays

1-minute reflection writing Final presentations

assignments

Homework assignments Final reports

Surveys Final Grades

Formative Assessment Ideally, formative assessment strategies improve teaching and

learning simultaneously. Instructors can help students grow as learners by actively encouraging
them to self-assess their own skills and knowledge retention, and by giving clear instructions and
feedback.

Summative Assessment Because summative assessments are usually higher-stakes than

formative assessments, it is especially important to ensure that the assessment aligns with the
goals and expected outcomes of the instruction.

24. Dwell on the requirements for organizing self-study and independent work
in terms of blended learning.

Blended learning is a combination of traditional classroom learning forms with e-learning

methods and with using the distance educational technologies which is of especial importance
and prospects for the development of the contemporary education as a whole and for a certain
academic process in particular.
Blended learning allows organizing a flexible academic environment which ensures self-
regulated learning – one under which students can determine the parameters of learning
independently and in accordance with the requirements of the academic environment. With
regard to this, students have to have an opportunity of independently evaluating the scope of
performed work on solving a selected task of learning, the skills obtained, and using the
evaluation for selecting a new academic task. Therefore learning independently can be
challenging, even for the brightest and most motivated students. I would like to share 4 key
components of four key stages to successful blended learning: being ready to learn, setting
learning goals, engaging in the learning process, and evaluating learning.

Step 1: Assess readiness to learn

Students need various skills and attitudes towards learning for successful independent
study. This step involves students conducting a self-evaluation of their current situation, study
habits, family situation, and support network both at school and at home and also involves
evaluating past experiences with independent learning. For a detailed Learning Skills
Assessment Tool, read our Readiness to Learn Teaching Tip. Signs of readiness for self-directed
learning include being autonomous, organised, self-disciplined, able to communicate effectively,
and able to accept constructive feedback and engage in self-evaluation and self-reflection.
Step 2: Set learning goals
Communication of learning goals between a student and the advising instructor is critical.
We've developed a set of questions for students to consider as they map out their learning goals:
our Unit Planning Decision Guide). Also critical in developing a clear understanding of learning
goals between students and instructors are learning contracts. Learning contracts generally
include:
● Goals for the unit of study
● Structure and sequence of activities
● Timeline for completion of activities
● Details about resource materials for each goal
● Details about grading procedures
● Feedback and evaluation as each goal is completed
● Meeting plan with the advising instructor
● Agreement of unit policies, such as a policy on late assignments
Once created, contracts should be assessed by the advising faculty member and questions
about feasibility should be raised (e.g., What could go wrong? Is there too much or too little
work? Is the timeline and evaluation reasonable?).
Step 3: Engage in the learning process
Students need to understand themselves as learners in order to understand their needs as
self-directed learning students — referring students to our resource on learning preferences may
be helpful. Students should also consider answering the following questions:
● What are my needs re: instructional methods?
● Who was my favourite teacher? Why?
● What did they do that was different from other teachers? Students should reflect on these
questions throughout their program and substitute “teacher” with “advising instructor”
Students also need to understand their approach to studying:
● A deep approach to studying involves transformation and is ideal for self-directed
learning. This approach is about understanding ideas for yourself, applying knowledge to
new situations and using novel examples to explain a concept, and learning more than is
required for unit completion.
● A surface approach involves reproduction: coping with unit requirements, learning only
what is required to complete a unit in good standing, and tending to regurgitate examples
and explanations used in readings.
● A strategic approach involves organization: achieving the highest possible grades,
learning what is required to pass exams, memorizing facts, and spending time practicing
from past exams.
Earlier academic work may have encouraged a surface or strategic approach to studying.
These approaches will not be sufficient (or even appropriate) for successful independent study.
Independent study requires a deep approach to studying, in which students must understand ideas
and be able to apply knowledge to new situations. Students need to generate their own
connections and be their own motivators.
Step 4: Evaluate learning
For students to be successful in self-directed learning, they must be able to engage in self-
reflection and self-evaluation of their learning goals and progress in a unit of study. To support
this self-evaluation process, they should:
● regularly consult with the advising instructor,
● seek feedback, and
● engage in reflection of their achievements, which involves asking:
○ How do I know I’ve learned?
○ Am I flexible in adapting and applying knowledge?
 ○ Do I have confidence in explaining material?
○ When do I know I’ve learned enough?
○ When is it time for self-reflection and when is it time for consultation

25. Dwell on the advantages and the disadvantages of the change “From
Grammatical to Communicative approach” in FLT (foreign language teaching)
methodology in the local teaching context

The Grammatical is the method that is used for teaching a second language. As the
name suggests, both translation and grammar play an important role in this method. It originated
in Germany and became popular in the 1840s and 1940s. Being one of the oldest methods of
teaching in English, it is also referred to as the classical method. It focused on the translation of a
language pattern and grammatical explanation. The medium of instruction in this method is the
mother tongue which is used to cite the explanatory situation. Learners must memorize the
grammatical rules and translate the passage from their mother tongue to English.

Advantages
1. The meaning of English words, phrases, sentences, and more can be learned easily by the
students.
2. It enriches the vocabulary of learners in English as learners may consult the Dictionary to
learn the meaning of new words.
3. Students can learn English with the help of their mother tongue.
4. It promotes the skill of reading and comprehension because the textbook is the main
component of this method.
5. This method does not require many teaching and learning materials due to which it is
cost-effective.
Disadvantages
1. It is an unnatural method as it does not follow the natural order of learning which
includes listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
2. It neglects the oral approach to language learning so they may not be able to develop
proper expression in the foreign language.
3. It does not offer pattern practice due to which students may read or write poorly despite
knowing the grammar rules.
4. This method is also considered to be mechanical and dull as it promotes rote
 memorization.
5. This method also includes learning through translation which can delay the natural
speech development of the learners while learning a foreign language.
Despite being one of the most condemned teaching methods, the Grammar Translation
Method of teaching is also the most popular and is regarded to be an economic approach too.

1. or instructor.
The communicative approach in teaching English comes from the view that a language
is successfully learned when learners have to communicate real meaning. When the learners are
involved in real communication, they can use their natural strategies for language acquisition and
this encourages them to learn to use the language naturally.
The main principles of the communicative approach in teaching English are as follows.
2. The target language is used to communicate for language learning.
3. The learner must be able to differentiate between a formal and informal style.
4. The activities performed should have a communicative purpose.
5. Learners must be exposed to and interact constantly in the target language.
6. The development of the four skills, listening, speaking, reading, and writing must be
incorporated from the very beginning.
7. The topics being taught must suit the needs and interests of learners.
8. The teacher acts as a guide and a facilitator
ADVANTAGES
● Communicative approach is much more pupil-orientated, because it is based on pupils’
needs and interests.
● Communicative approach seeks to personalise and localise language and adapt it to
interests of pupils. Meaningful language is always more easily retained by learners.
● Seeks to use authentic resources. And that is more interesting and motivating for
children.
● Children acquire grammar rules as a necessity to speak so is more proficient and
efficient.
DISADVANTAGES
● It pays insufficient attention to the context in which teaching and learning take place
● The Communicative Approach often seems to be interpreted as: “if the teacher
understands the student we have good communication” but native speakers of the target
language can have great difficulty understanding students.
 ● Another disadvantage is that the CLT approach focuses on fluency but not accuracy. The
approach does not focus on error reduction but instead creates a situation where learners
are left using their own devices to solve their communication problems. Thus they may
produce incoherent, grammatically incorrect sentences.

Теоретичне питання психолого-педагогічної спрямованості:

1.Age differences in language acquisition.

The language learning processes in adults and children have advantages and
disadvantages. However, age is an important but not overriding factor. All people, regardless of
age, perceive a language learning process differently and individually. Personality and talent can
influence this process significantly: there are shy children and very communicative adults.
My (the author’s) conclusion? It is advisable to encourage language learning at an early
age. The younger the child is, the more they can take advantage of neuromuscular mechanisms
that promote language learning and thus reach a native-like level with less effort and time. Other
advantages, such as increased communication abilities, better articulation, tolerance to foreign
cultures and personal cognitive development, are among the benefits of early language learning.
Yet this does not exclude effective language learning in adults. Under ideal learning situations,
with motivation and a positive attitude, everybody can reach an excellent language level!

First of all, adults have an important advantage: cognitive maturity and their experience
of the general language system. Through their knowledge of their mother tongues, as well as
other foreign languages, not only can they achieve more advantageous learning conditions than
children, but they can also more easily acquire grammatical rules and syntactic phenomena.
According to Klein Dimroth , language learning is an accumulative process that allows us to
build on already existing knowledge. Children cannot acquire complex morphological and
grammatical phenomena so easily.
It would be useful to point out that sometimes incorrect pronunciation is not a matter of
capability but of good will. According to different surveys, adults do not feel like themselves
when they speak a foreign language and they consider pronunciation an ethno-linguistic identity-
marker. A positive or negative attitude towards a foreign language should not be underestimated.
Another factor to consider is the adults’ motivation to learn a foreign language. When an adult
learns a foreign language there is always a reason behind it: education, social prestige, profession
or social integration. The latter is considered a very strong one, especially in the case of
immigrants.

2.The differences between learning a foreign language and acquiring the mother
tongue.

Language is the most significant aspect which makes us different from all other species.
Accordingly, language acquisition is the most impressive aspect of human development both in
psychological and cognitive perspective. However, all the normal human beings acquire the
language they first encounter as children. Then they might learn multiple languages but those
languages will always be different from the first language they acquired by being exposed to. So,
it is evident that there are a lot of differences between the first language and the second language
of a person.
Let’s explore the differences:
 A first language is the mother tongue or native language of a person while a second
language is a language a person learns in order to communicate with the native speaker of
that language.
 The first language is like an instinct which is triggered by birth and developed with the
experience of being exposed to it. A second language is a personal choice of a person.
 There is no other alternative to a first language. A person cannot decide his/her first
language. It comes to him/her as an inheritance/legacy/birthright. On the other hand, a
second language is always fixed by the person. There are many alternatives to a second
language. A person/community can choose a second language among other languages.
 The acquiring process of the first language is very rapid while the learning process of the
second language can vary from language to language and from person to person, but can
never be as rapid as the first language acquisition.
 The first language is ‘acquired’ and the second language is ‘learned’. The difference
between these two words describes the qualities of the two languages. ‘Acquire’ means
 “to come into possession or ownership of” which indicates that the first language is like a
dynamic and abstract property which comes into possession of a person. On the other
hand, ‘learn’ means “to gain knowledge or skill by study, instruction, or experience”
which indicates that there is nothing passive in second language learning.
 A first language is completely acquired with 100% proficiency within 6 years from the
birth. However, a second language can never be learned as efficiently as a first language;
though good competence can be achieved in the second language, the process is slow.
 The first language acquisition is always natural and there is no need for instruction in
acquiring it. But a second language learning is not natural and it needs continuous
guidance and instruction.
 The first language acquisition begins with telegraphic speech. The term 'telegraphic
speech' deriving from the word ‘telegram’ was coined by Roger Brown, an American
psycholinguist, in 1963. It refers to the two-word a child can utter when s/he is 18 to 24
months of age. Examples of telegraphic speech: Mom see, Dad go, No ball, Daddy walk,
Mommy milk, etc. On the other hand, the second language acquisition begins with a full
sentence. A child cannot start learning the second language without being fully efficient
in the first language.
 The first language is a natural part of a person’s everyday life. But the second language is
a new aspect of the person’s life if s/he chooses it to be.
 The first language does not require any conscious effort; the acquisition process of the
first language is subconscious. The second language requires constant conscious effort so
that the learners can internalize the structures of the second language.
Some factors of difference for the first language and the second language.
Age:
It is the most important factor that makes a second language totally different from the first
language. Children of the age of 6 who have already acquired full proficiency in their first
language are most capable of learning a second language. Adults usually find it difficult to learn
a new language when they become too accustomed to their first/native language.
Personality:
A child’s personality does not usually make that much of difference in the acquisition of the first
language. But it makes a huge difference in the learning process of the second language. In the
second language learning process, the learners with an introvert personality usually make slow
progress than the learners with an extrovert personality.
Culture:
The first language is one of the most important factors of a person’s culture. But a second
language is not that important in anyone’s culture. However, the second language has some
effects on the culture of a person but not significant enough to be counted as an element of that
culture.
Motivation:
It is an important factor for the second language learning. A learner with good motivation to
learn a second language is likely to learn that language faster. But the acquisition of the first
language does not require any motivation because it is a natural phenomenon. The first language
is acquired subconsciously and there is no need for motivation to acquire it.
Mother Tongue:
The first language is the mother tongue of a person. The second language learning depends a lot
on the structures of the first language. If the structure of the first language is similar to the
second language, it will be easy and fast for the learners to internalize it. For instance, an English
native speaker will find Dutch easier to learn than Hindi as a second language.
A first language and a second language both have their effects on each other. However, as we
have learned that the first language is natural and has a solid base in a person’s intellectual and
psychological development, the first language is not affected by the second language as much as
the second language is affected by the first language. Finally, we can say that the relationship
and the differences between a first and a second language are complex but constant.    

3.Web based tools that are used for developing speaking and listening skills.

Traditionally, listening skills have been developed in the classroom by the teacher using audio
files and graded listening activities. The audio file is usually played by the teacher and the
students work through the activities in lock-step together. Although this model may be easy to
manage for the teacher it doesn’t allow much differentiation for the students or give them much
choice or autonomy regarding what they listen to or how many times they listen.
This, however, is an area of language learning where digital technology and mobile devices can
have a significant impact. There are now a great many websites and apps that students can use to
develop their listening skills independently and which teachers can use to create interesting
learning and support materials for their students.
LyricsTraining
This app has long been a favourite of mine as it combines listening to songs with learning a
language. Students can choose songs in a variety of languages then watch the video of the song
and try to reconstruct the lyrics. Students can choose the level of difficulty by selecting either to
reconstruct the whole of the lyrics or to just have a few of the words taken out. The app is
gamified, so as they listen to the song, the music stops at the end of each line and they then have
a time limit to fill in the missing words. If they don’t complete the line they have to start from
the beginning of the song again. Using songs in this kind of text reconstruction activity helps
students to listen multiple times without getting bored. The app works in the web-browser, but
there is also a free app for both Android and iOS. The app gives a much better user experience in
my opinion. Students and teachers can register on the site and the app will then track student
scores. As a teacher you can also add videos and lyrics to songs you want to use with your
students and so add to the LyricsTraining collection.
This is a great app to get students listening intensively, but remember they can successfully
recreate the lyrics of the song without necessarily understanding them so it’s good to follow this
up in class.
Listen Notes
This is a podcast search engine with a huge collection of podcasts on a wide range of topics.
Podcasts are a great source of listening materials for students and can easily be downloaded onto
mobile devices for replay at any convenient moment. Listen Notes can help teachers or students
to find listening materials that fit their interests. If they log in, students can start to ‘curate’
collections of different podcast episodes that they like and keep working on their listening skills
while listening to them whenever is convenient.
The site also provides an embed code for each episode so if you are designing online learning
materials for your students, this makes it easy to embed the podcast into your site, materials or
blog.
Most of the podcasts are authentic so these are more suited to higher levels, although there are
some made for ESL/EFL podcasts available too.
Accent Rosie
This is a great app for any of your students who use Facebook. It is a simple free app that works
with Facebook Messenger and sends students short audio clips. The students have to listen to the
audio clip and write down what they hear. They can then send their text back and get instant
feedback on how much they got correct. This is a great way for students to regularly work on
developing their listening skills.
TeachVid
This is another app that combines listening with watching videos. TeachVid uses video from
YouTube and builds a range of different activities around them, varying from text reconstruction,
translation, multiple choice, jumbled sentences and many more. One of the nice things about
TeachVid is that students can choose the types of exercise they want to do for improving specific
listening skills. If you register as a teacher you can also create activities using the videos of your
choice and create ‘classrooms’ so that you can share assignments with students and track their
results. This is a great way to set listening for homework and know that your students have done
it.
Read Aloud
This is a text to speech voice reader that can be plugged into the Google Chrome or Firefox
browser. Adding the plug-in takes a couple of seconds and once added students can go to any
webpage and simply click on an icon on the tool bar of the browser. The app will then open and
read the text of the page to them. As it reads, it highlights the text so students can see the words
as they hear them. It’s also possible to pause and rewind if they feel they have missed something.
The quality of the voice isn’t perfect, main problem being with intonation, but it is very good and
synthetic speech is getting better all the time. This is a great way to help develop both students’
listening and reading skills at the same time.
Synth
Synth is an interesting way to make podcasts more interactive and engaging for students. You
can record your podcast, a message, a question or an audio file for your students to listen to and
they then have to record a reply, or add to your message. This is a great way to either collect
knowledge together or create dialogue with students while developing their listening skills. It can
be used on iOS or in the web-browser.
Fluid Data
This is a really interesting tool for anyone who is interested in improving their listening skills
and learning how different lexical items appear in authentic speech. It is a little like a corpus, but
has a wide collection of audio files that can be searched for specific language items. You do this
by typing the word or phrase you want to find into the search field. Fluid Data then shows you a
list of audio clips with the part of the clip that contains the example phrase highlighted by an
orange bar. When you click on the orange bar you can hear the specific part of the clip. This is
great for finding listening materials when you want to teach a specific item and can also help
students to review words or phrases they are learning and find authentic example sentences that
show how they are used.
Listen and Write
This app is similar to LyricsTraining, but has a wider variety of source materials. Again it is
based around listening to what you hear and writing it down and like LyricsTraining you can
select the level of challenge by deciding how many of the words of the script you need to type in.
Generally, the texts used are of a higher level and have more complex vocabulary than those in
LyricsTraining, so this would be better for higher level students who would like to specifically
develop their listening skills or ones practicing for Cambridge exams. This is a great tool for
motivated students who want to work on their own and improve their listening vocabulary and
spelling.
SpeakPipe
This app allows you to create your own short video files, upload them to server and get a link
that you can share with your students. This is a great tool for helping students who have specific
problems with remembering pronunciation of words or phrases or for recording example
sentences or very quick listening activities for students. Just click on the record button record
your text and then click on ‘Save on sever’. The recording will be saved on the server for three
months and you’ll get a link that you can share with students so that they can listen. This is a
great tool for backing up the work you are doing in class on listening and pronunciation.
Video Converter
This is a really useful tool for separating audio from video or for converting files for uses in
different formats on different devices. Although the combination of video and audio can be
really useful, sometimes it’s also great to split the two, so that students can focus silently on what
they can learn from the body language and expressions of the characters and then see how that
corresponds to the actual words they are saying in the sound track. Video converter makes it easy
for you to either upload a video or add a link to the video and then save the file as either an audio
file or a silent video file.
I hope this article gives you some idea of the range and variety of resources that are now
available for helping you develop your students’ listening skills.

4.The ways to create a beneficial environment for a teacher and students.

A positive classroom environment is one in which students feel comfortable sharing their
thoughts, taking risks, asking questions and confronting challenges in their learning. An educator
can create this type of environment by presenting clear classroom expectations, providing
opportunities to improve social skills, building relationships with their students and offering
relevant content. In this type of classroom setting, students feel as though educators value their
input. From here, students can become more active participants in the learning process, which
makes for a more productive learning environment.

13 components of a positive classroom environment:

1. Build positive relationships
Building positive relationships with your students helps them feel as though they can come to
you with questions on assignments or when they are facing a challenge. Many of them may
appreciate knowing they have someone they can trust and to whom they can confide. You can
build rapport with your students by taking time to interact with them individually, listening to
their comments or concerns and showing enthusiasm when they come to you to share their
experiences and stories.
2. Arrange the physical environment
The physical environment of a classroom provides structure for students, which can decrease
stress levels and help them feel more comfortable in class. Consider keeping your classroom
organized by assigning seats to students, establishing routines for passing out and collecting
work and ensuring all desks face the front of the room so they can see the board.
Another important aspect of the physical environment is classroom aesthetics. You may add
some extra soft lighting, hang some paintings or photos and add some of your own personal flair
to your room. Students may be able to get a better understanding of your personality or
preferences based on the visuals in your classroom and you can set the tone based on your
classroom decor.
3. Set high academic expectations
It is important to set high academic expectations for your students early in the school year.
Explain your expectations by letting them know you are going to do your best to help them learn
and are always available if they need assistance, but in return, you expect them to do their best
on their work.
It can be beneficial to elaborate on your grading policy so they understand what you permit in
terms of grading. For example, you can tell them if you allow them to redo tests if they didn't do
well the first time or how much time you permit them to turn in late work.
4. Provide positive reinforcement
Providing positive reinforcement helps to promote a strong classroom culture. One method of
positive reinforcement is through providing extrinsic motivators. Extrinsic motivators are
external factors that motivate students to behave positively, such as giving students candy for
doing well on a test or allowing them five minutes of free time at the end of class. Providing
students with public praise is also a good extrinsic motivator. You can compliment a student's
behavior or academic performance in front of their classmates or take the time to contact their
parents and let them know the positive behaviors their child has been exhibiting.
5. Be open to feedback
Throughout the school year, teachers usually provide a lot of feedback regarding students' work
and behavior. It can be beneficial to consider asking for feedback from your students as well.
Receiving feedback from your learners about how you manage your class, the content you're
teaching and your general mannerisms can give you insight into what you're doing well and how
you can improve. In addition, many students appreciate when you value their opinion, which can
strengthen your positive classroom environment.
6. Encourage collaboration
Collaboration among students can lead to a more engaged class of students. In order to have
collaboration that is productive, consider clarifying the expectations and reasons for
collaboration before you allow them to work in groups or pairs. It's beneficial for them to
understand their objective and why they're working together. You may want to create groups
based on the different skills and interest levels of each group's members so that all students
working together can contribute to the overall objective of the assignment or project.
7. Use current curriculum and teaching methods
Most students find learning more engaging and easier to comprehend when the curriculum and
lessons are relevant to them. They can become more emotionally invested in the content they're
learning if they understand how they're connected to it culturally, socially and personally. As the
school year progresses and you begin to learn more about each individual student, you can adapt
your teaching methods or strategies to make the curriculum more meaningful to them.
8. Be there for them
A simple, yet effective component of creating a positive classroom environment is to provide
support for your students when they need it. Some students face academic challenges or need
someone to talk to about a personal situation they're handling at home. With this, students often
appreciate having someone they can trust listen to them and give advice when appropriate. It
reassures many students to know they have someone that listens to them and comforts them.
9. Give students a voice and a choice
When students feel their opinion matters in class discussions, they're more likely to feel
encouraged to speak in front of their peers. Promoting student empowerment begins with
providing opportunities for students to share their opinions, take risks and decide how they learn
best. This builds self-confidence , which supports a more positive learning environment.
Student-centered learning focuses on allowing learners to share in class decisions and gives them
more opportunities to learn in a way that feels most comfortable to them. Offering them more
choices in how they learn helps them to be involved in decisions that impact their learning. If
they feel that their input matters, they may seem more connected and put in greater efforts in
their classwork.
10. Establish a routine
A lot of children thrive on having a dependable daily routine in some aspects of their lives.
Knowing what to expect when they walk into your classroom can create a sense of normalcy for
students. Classroom routines can consist of starting each day with a bell ringer, reviewing the
day's objectives or ending each class with an exit ticket.
You may also consider doing the same activities on the same day each week. For example, you
can go to the library to use technology every Tuesday and have a reading day in class each
Friday. Establishing a routine allows students to know what to expect each day when they enter
your classroom.
11. Create rules and expectations
Setting guidelines such as classroom rules and expectations is an important way to let students
know what is acceptable behavior. If your students are old enough, you may consider letting
them discuss one or two rules they would like to add to the classroom rules so they feel they
have input on an important aspect of your class.
Setting expectations helps maintain the daily structure of your classroom and can aid
significantly with classroom management. When students know that you intend to follow
through with consequences if they disobey your rules and expectations, they tend to behave more
positively.
12. Review classroom procedures
Creating classroom procedures can be a beneficial way to create a routine and help establish a
pattern of predictability for your students. Procedures can be academic, such as how you collect
student work or grade their assignments. They can also be more general routines such as how to
come into your classroom, what materials they need for your class or when they can use the
restroom.
13. Provide flexibility
While it's beneficial to provide students with routines and procedures, it's important to know
when to be flexible with your expectations. Adjusting your expectations to each particular
situation that arises gives students the opportunity to see that you can encounter challenging
situations and provide them and yourself with flexibility if needed. You can be flexible during
unexpected situations such as when a student has a crisis and needs to use their phone to call a
parent, in case of a fire drill or if a rule needs to be changed for one class because it doesn't apply
to their behavior.

5.Pros and cons of FL learning in case of the disabled children.

As every language educator will be well aware each classroom and each student is different. All
learners flourish in response to a carefully tailored teaching approach that is specifically suited to
their needs and requirements. This is particularly true of students with learning disabilities or
special educational needs (“SEN”). The problems they face in their native language will still be
present, or may even be magnified, when learning a new foreign language. These can adversely
affect their ability to acquire language-based skills such as listening, reading, spelling and
writing. 
TYPES OF LEARNING DIFFICULTIES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING
Broadly speaking, speech and language disabilities fall into two main categories. A learner may
have difficulty with speaking or writing – these are expressive language difficulties. Or learners
may have challenges with understanding language, which is known as a receptive language
difficulty.
In either case, students may have physical barriers to learning but might also suffer from so-
called ‘pragmatic language difficulties’. In these cases, learners are able to communicate but
cannot understand the messages being passed to them. Some language learners with such
challenges also struggle to learn and recall vocabulary, express their thoughts and feelings
and / or find it difficult to interact with other learners. It is therefore vital to take the time to
understand the problems the student is facing and the need that the learner is trying to express.
Expressive language difficulties
Some learners may have problems making the muscular movement necessary to form words with
their mouths or their hands – these are common types of expressive language difficulties.
They may also be unable to produce certain words or sounds making it difficult to understand
what they are trying to communicate. Furthermore, such difficulties make it difficult for them to
put words or events in the right order and grammatical rules / structures may be difficult for them
to follow.
 
Receptive language difficulties
Other students experience difficulties with how they are able to hear and process language – this
directly impacts on their ability to understand what is being said / written and respond
accordingly. Learners affected by receptive language challenges typically also struggle to
understand many of the non-verbal cues involved in language and sometimes take words and
phrases too literally.
LANGUAGE TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH LEARNING
DISABILITIES
1. Be flexible
Students with learning difficulties may need more help and support than others in their class.
Where possible, help them by creating the learning environment they need to succeed. This
might mean giving them extra time to communicate their answers or running extra individual /
small group sessions to master key concepts. Students with dyslexia may also wish to record or
photograph the lesson content on their phone, given the challenges they may face in taking notes.
Alternatively, learners might need you to provide additional resources to support guardians with
learning at home. Running lessons in classrooms with specific resources, furniture or equipment
may also be needed. As always, ask the learner and those around them (parents, carers and
friends) to be clear about what they need and how you can best support them.
 
2. Make language learning multisensory
When teaching language students with learning difficulties, try to use as wide a variety of input
and output approaches as possible – make the lesson material relevant for visual, auditory, tactile
and kinesthetic learners. Simple visual aids can also be highly effective, including picture clues
to illustrate new words or hand / mouth movements to communicate sound / noises.
The British Council also emphasise the role of “multisensory activities like clapping and
stomping out syllables in new vocabulary or colour-coding the different groups of phonemes.
Rhyming bingo and card games where the learner can match the same sounds can be really
helpful.”
But be careful not to overload or overstimulate learners with too much information in one go.
When teaching new sounds or words, it’s most effective to teach one or two at a time and
encourage students to imitate the mouth or letter shape if they are able. Similarly take the time to
divide lessons into digestible bite-size chunks with slower learning steps to ensure that everyone
can keep up.
3. Communication is key
It’s vital to ensure that you only use clear and positive classroom language. Prioritise what you
want students to do and not what you don’t want them to do. This helps avoid confusion and
keeps your expectations front of mind. Linked to this, keep your instructions clear, concise and
try to ensure that they follow on from each other in an obvious progression.
 
4. Repeat and repeat
It’s important to try and provide learners with more than one opportunity to both grasp a concept
and to demonstrate that they have understood it. As part of this, give students time to develop,
practice and use mnemonics or songs to build memory and fluency. Both can be powerfully
paired with a recap of what’s been taught at the end of each lesson and at the beginning of the
next.
There is also opportunity for pair work to help weaker students to make progress. Team them
with a stronger student to practice and reinforce concepts. Both students can grow and develop
their skills as a result!
 
5. Be well-organised
All students need a clear understanding of expected progress and the overall direction of
learning, but this is absolutely key for students with learning difficulties. Ensure that students
start by understanding the words, phrases and sounds that they will encounter most frequently
and that they progress from simple concepts to more complicated ones. This helps build
confidence and momentum in their learning.
Also provide a clear overview of the material you intend to teach in every lesson / week. Provide
them (in an accessible format) with a study guide and / or learning resources that they can access
and learn from.
 
6. Focus on fluency
It is key to support progress and encourage learners with speech and language difficulties to
exceed expectations. Try not to highlight incorrect words, phrases or grammar but rather
celebrate what they have been able to communicate and then model the correct version in your
response. Building their fluency (and by extension their confidence) is far more important than
accuracy for this group of learners. 

For the student unencumbered by a learning disability, foreign language study is indeed an
enriching and rewarding experience. For the learning disabled student, however, it can be
an unbelievably stressful and humiliating experience, the opposite of what is intended.

6.The principles of CLIL approach

In CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning), where learners have to learn the content
and the language simultaneously, there are some basic principles that we have identified in order
to use them as guidelines for the creation and implementation of the playingCLIL methodology.
These main principles are:
4 Cs
CONTENT:
the matter of the subject
COMMUNICATION:
the language learnt and used
COGNITION:
the learning and thinking processes
CULTURE:
the development of intercultural awareness and global citizenship
Types of language
LANGUAGE OF LEARNING:
the language learners will need to access the new knowledge of the subject
LANGUAGE FOR LEARNING:
the language learners will need to use during the lessons
LANGUAGE THROUGH LEARNING:
the language that will ’emerge’ through the learning process
Cognitive and linguistic demands
They can be either high or low. The combination of both types of demands
and their degrees give different learning contexts in CLIL.
Scaffolding
The process through which the teacher helps the learner get a challenge. Games can be
scaffolders of the learning process in CLIL.
Interactional competence
The capacity to recognize and use unwritten rules for interaction in different communication
situations and in a specific speech community or culture.
According to Mehisto, Marsh and Frigols, the basic principles of any CLIL model are
Cognition, Community, Content, and Communication. These principles can also be seen as
starting points in CLIL lesson planning.
Coyle, Hood and Marsh talk about the 4Cs Framework. Their Framework includes and
integrates the following aspects of CLIL: content, communication, cognition and culture.
Content is the subject matter, by communication they mean language and language use, and
cognition signifies the learning and thinking processes. The cultural aspect of CLIL means the
development of intercultural understanding and global citizenship. This Framework integrates
content and languages learning in a variety of contexts.
7.The peculiarities of teaching young learners.

Young learners differ from older ones in language learning.

1. Young learners get bored quickly.
If the activities are not interesting and engaging enough, young learners get bored easily. This is
because they have a limited attention span. Generally, after ten minutes, they can get
disinterested in the activity at hand, especially if it is taught directly and is devoid of the
elements of play.

2. Young learners are meaning-oriented

They may understand what is being said without necessarily understanding every individual
word. They may not only guess and interpret what is being uttered but they also respond to it
with whatever language resources they have at their disposal.

3. Young learners like to discover things

They are characterized by curiosity and enthusiasm. They like to make sense of the world around
them through engaging and motivating activities where they have to discover by themselves
rather than being told. They also often learn indirectly from everything around them – not
necessarily focusing on the topic being taught.

4. They prefer concrete activities

According to Piaget’s cognitive development theory, young learners are still developing. That is,
they are still making their way from concrete to abstract thinking. Unlike adults who are more
analytical, they are not yet well equipped to learn abstract concepts such as grammar rules. In
addition to that, they are more inclined to understand based not only on explanation but more
importantly on what they hear, see and touch .

5. They are more egocentric

They prefer to talk about themselves. Activities that focus on their lives are their cup of tea. In
addition to that, children under the age of 12 need individual attention and approval from the
teacher.

6. They are imaginative

Young learners are imaginative. Activities that are full of imagination is a source of enjoyment
for them. It is sometimes difficult for them to distinguish reality from imagination.
7. They imitate
They learn by imitating adults. It is amazing how humans imitate and discover things from a
very young age. Children acquire communication skills through social interactions.
Consequently, because imitation functions as a learning tool, it is rewarding to use it to teach
children new skills and knowledge.

Activities shouldn’t normally take more than ten minutes to complete. Asking children to make
an effort to concentrate more than that is counterproductive. They will get bored and
disinterested easily.
The content should be interesting and motivating. The topics of activities should preferably focus
on the students’ lives.
Praising the children’s performances is of paramount importance.
Since children try to imitate the teacher, the latter should be a good model of language use and
social behaviors. The teacher’s pronunciation, for instance, matters enormously. Children
imitate it perfectly well.
Children respond to meaning and are better at picking up the language through listening and
speaking.
Since children like playing, discovering and using their imagination, the activities that focus on
making things, drawing, problem-solving (e.g. riddles), singing, playing games can be very
helpful.
The classroom should be ideally colorful and spacious enough to be able to move around
without any problem.
Children should work in groups and the activities should be taking place in stress and anxiety-
free atmosphere.

One of the reasons why teaching young learners requires highly skilled teachers is that these
learners have difficulty understanding abstract concepts. Moreover, while teaching them, an
appropriate learning atmosphere should be provided, where the children may move and interact
in a stress-free environment. Young learners are, however, more imaginative. They also like
discovering things, and easily respond to meaning-based activities. Finally, children are also
good at imitating the teachers’ language use (e.g.pronunciation) and social behaviors.

8.The qualities of a good language teacher

The qualities and characteristics that make a good language teacher.

1. COMPETENCE AND PATIENCE

The requirement of any teacher is to know his or her subject well. However, in most cases, it is
vital to remember that, as a teacher, you are guiding a learner to new knowledge and helping
them discover the subject you are teaching. Doing is learning.

This is especially important in language teaching as many students may enter the course as
complete beginners, false beginners, or have little knowledge of the language but lack
confidence. As a teacher, recognizing what the learner knows and doesn’t know is paramount.
The learning doesn’t always happen quickly. Give it space and time to happen. Patience with the
learning process is one of the greatest qualities of a good teacher. Patience inspires confidence in
the learner. Vulnerability is a hindrance to the learner. Having patience gives the learner the
courage to learn.
2. PERSONALIZED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Every individual learns differently. Changing the classroom environment in a manner to
customize learning can be extremely beneficial to students and lead to increased motivation.
Language learning can be a taxing task in itself – imagine trying to learn when the activities used
to learn are not exciting or not personalized. Connecting with your students to figure out what
manner of learning – whether it is visual, audio, or even kinesthetic – works best for them will
undoubtedly help.

3. HOPEFULNESS
The best way to accomplish this is to remain hopeful and encouraging yourself. Your level of
hopefulness is contagious and inspires students to learn and believe that they can pick up the
language. In addition to using appreciative or constructive cues in the classroom (“Nice job!”;
“Great point, can you further clarify?”; “Stick with it!”; “You’ll get it!”; “You learned that
fast!”; “Well said!”), effective language teachers are sensitive to the learners’ discouragement
and readily appease and validate learners’ feelings.

A learner noticing your hopefulness is crucial as it propels further learning, even when they feel
demotivated themselves.
4. BE PASSIONATE AND GENERATE PASSION
You are obviously passionate about learning the language and communicating in it – it is
important however that you bring this passion in full force when teaching it as well. If classes are
drab and uninspiring they leave students in the same state. Sparking an interest in the language is
imperative and this can be done by understanding motivations for learning the language in the
first place or even communicating the benefits of learning the language. Every language or
culture is super exciting.
5. CONNECT
The division between your knowledge of the language and your teaching skills is the ability to
connect and form relationships with your students. Many of our least memorable teachers are
usually those with whom we had no personal connection or not felt understood or appreciated by
them.
As a good language teacher, your job is to put aside the specialized language and learn to explain
key language concepts, patterns, and ideas in ways that students can relate to, enjoy, and apply in
real-life situations. You can try using apps/websites that have learner-friendly activities that
connect personally. It’s important to take the time to understand why a student wants to learn the
language and try to cater to that purpose.
6. MISTAKES = LEARNING HAPPENING
Studies have shown that stimulating student participation directly leads to more successful
language acquisition. Passive, quiet students most likely aren’t learning as much as those who
participate actively and regularly. However, a more reserved student need not be a cause for
concern – implementing a more collaborative approach of asking, understanding, and
encouraging can be enough. Again, the importance of being relatable cannot be stressed enough,
as students will participate more when they feel respected by you, and that it’s safe to make
mistakes. They will quickly realize that they learn the most from their own mistakes. 
7. LANGUAGE LEARNERS’ DEVELOPMENT STAGES
Language learning environments are unique in that different learning stages will look very
different from one another. Younger students, for example, will need more visual tools and
playful activities rather than written ones. Language learning is challenging and can result in a
lot of frustration during certain frustrating stages. Understanding the language development
stages of your learners, therefore, offers you a better idea to customize teaching to suit the
individual needs effectively.
8. EXPLORE DIFFERENT TEACHING METHODS
With technology permeating all aspects of life and the incorporation of eLearning in classrooms
(blended classrooms) methods of language teaching have changed considerably. As an effective
teacher, including the use of technology in your lesson plans, is invaluable to create an enhanced,
more relatable, and a multimedia classroom.
9. TEACHER TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
To be the best teacher you can, you also need to be a learner. One cannot stress enough the
importance of teachers continuously improving their own teaching and language abilities. Ways
to do so include analyzing one’s own practices, learning from peers, staying current with the
latest teaching methodologies. Teachers ultimately also remain lifelong students, and effective
tutors share what they are learning as well as show what it looks like to be a learner.
10. HOLD STUDENTS ACCOUNTABLE
Finally, it is essential to remember that everyone can learn anything. It is innate in all of us. The
teacher’s responsibility is to find all the ways to facilitate that learning. Also, a good teacher
would make sure that all learners take responsibility for their learning right from the start.

A learner can only learn so much through teaching. Bringing a positive attitude and having the
motivation to learn themselves is just as crucial to their learning process.

9.The peculiarities of teaching teenagers.

In so many ways, teenagers are like all learners. They respond to different forms of motivation,
they take in language and try to make sense of it, and they struggle with pronunciation and
remembering vocabulary……. Still, there are some very important differences (mostly in the
affective realm) that need to be highlighted and noted so that teachers can adjust their
curriculum.
Teenagers are ego-driven. They are becoming adults and want more control over the learning
situation.
Teenagers learn language because it is meaningful to them. Children learn language because they
have a natural affinity and also there is evidence of a deep need. Adults learn languages for many
intrinsic reasons (and this may be a reason why they can be so good at learning languages, all
things considered). Teenagers learn a language not only for marks but because it is meaningful.
Relating the rationale and purpose of language learning is a must with teenagers.
As well, a thematic curriculum should be developed that centers on their interests and
their world. Presentations, role plays, and projects are all language activities that give learners
more autonomy.
 It should be noted here that it is very difficult to learn a second language in “a class”.
There just aren’t enough hours in the school year and the classroom is also a very artificial and
many times “wasteful” language learning environment. Giving students more autonomy also
means giving them more opportunity to become independent learners. Teachers should direct
students to resources for learning outside the classroom and provide them with these
opportunities. In the present age of telephony, this will become increasingly the case with
successful language classrooms. Students can learn much more efficiently by themselves through
input and the classroom can be time for more social and instructional focus on language.
Teenagers along with control, want to learn in and by their peer group. Social networking
and Web tools are a big help for computer literate language teachers in this area. Teachers need
to move toward more richly interactive language use and more cooperative learning.
The social nature of learning will only grow in importance. Teenagers are much more “social
learners” and networking will become a larger focus of the learning paradigm.
The downside of the “cool factor” is learner anxiety. Language learning can be traumatic and
frustrating. Learners very often suffer from acute anxiety which affects acquisition and leads to
fossilization. Many studies have concluded that anxiety and achievement are negatively
correlated.
Teenagers respond to the “humanistic” learning environment.

They are very idealistic and emotions seem to dominate their character. The success of a
language teacher is partly in being a good, empathetic role model. Learners will respond to a
teacher that cares, especially teenage learners who carry a romantic spirit and crave authenticity,
personality and presence over content. The affective filter can be reduced by giving students an
emotional attachment to language and words. Language is best retained when it has personal
relevance and teachers can foster this. “Learners need to feel what they are learning is personally
relevant to them, that they have to experience learning and that their self-image needs to be
enhanced”.

10.The peculiarities of teaching adults.

Adult students are completely different from children. Compared to younger group of

students, adults do not need that much demonstration but ask for more explanation and
formulation of principles. They are matured, their intelligence has already developed. They went
through a whole educational system and they dispose of rich personal experience.
 They have also developed specific habits and have specific expectations. Adults are in many
cases not really interested in language, but in what they do through it. That is to say, adult
students view language as an instrument for doing other things. It is not always easy for them to
make a decision of enrolling to a language course. They know they need to learn English for
some reasonthey dispose of a high degree of extrinsic motivation. But they also know that they
will be in the same class with other students. This fact can be quite stressful for some of them.
They are sure that “others’” level of English will be different from theirs, that they might not be
good enough and the “others” might see it. It is not a pleasant idea and can play a key role in
their final decision to “go for it” or not [4].
– Adult learning is purposeful, specific, and highly pragmatic. They want to learn content
knowledge that can be immediately applied to work, or life.
– Adult learning is completely voluntary, they learn without any imposition of any
administrative measures
– Adults only really participate in learning when they feel it is necessary (for example, they
learn English to facilitate their communication with foreign colleagues, to get an English
qualification as a condition to apply for a more well-paid position, or for a promotion
opportunity in their workplace).
– Adults always compare and contrast what they learn with their own knowledge and
experience. These experiences can help or facilitate their perception. In contrast, their
conservatism or their “Know it all” attitude are often considered as significant psychological
challenges to the process of learning.
Advantages
– Unlike children, adults are highly independent and proactive. In learning as well as in life,
adults want to be able to make their own decisions about the purpose, content, and time of
learning. 
– Unlike children, adults have rich knowledge and experience in different fields. This
experience has profound implications for adults. So, if that life experience or skill is
underestimated or not recognized, there is a high probability that they will feel frustrated and
uncooperative. 
– When teaching adults, teachers need to respect and create contexts for learners to share
experiences and learn from each other.
Teaching principles for adults
Choosing the right approach and teaching method for adults is indeed important, as well as
choosing the right teaching content that’s related to their experiences and needs. To do this, the
following principles should be applied in the development and implementation of adult learning:
 First impression: To capture the attention of adults right from the start, it is important to
know how to select the suitable yet impressive instructional method so that they can
follow and do it at the first try. This will help break down the doubts and worries of their
first session with you and spark a lasting interest in the long run.
  Relevance: Adults are only really interested in content and issues that are practically
related to their work and life. The use of content, methods, and practices tailored to the
needs of adults is critical to effective and successful teaching. 
 Motivation (motivation): Adults actually learn and are motivated when they see the
benefits of participating in learning. Adults want to engage in learning when their
investment of time and effort pays off. It is really necessary to motivate learners by
showing them that learning will make up for what they need and lack when teaching
adults.
 Active/active: Adults learn more when they actively participate in the learning process
thanks to “hands-onexperience”. The message from this principle is to make use of
exercises, to ask lots of questions, and give experiential situations… so that they can
acquire knowledge in the most self-conscious and effective way
 Two-way communication: Teaching adults cannot be understood merely as a process of
“one-way information transmission” but a “two-way communication” one. Two-way
communication in teaching is the giving and receiving of knowledge from both
sides,teachers to students and students to students. This is also a way to appreciate and
show your respect to the student’s points of view knowledge as well as practical
experience
 Using multiple senses: Not only adults but any types of age groups learn more
effectively when using senses simultaneously, such as hearing, sight, touch… It is
recommended to use a combination of different teaching methods to help students can
both listen, speak, read, write or all at the same time to increase their learning ability to
the fullest.
  Practice: Adults learn best when repeating over and over through practice. The use of
practice creates opportunities for students to understand the knowledge more effectively.
 Feedback: When adults learn, they want to get feedback on their task performance and
learning results. Regular and timely feedback helps adults better comprehend their
abilities and be able to create specific future development plans on their own.
 Latest information: In the process of teaching, there is a lot of information, knowledge,
experience given to discuss and adults remember most what was exchanged at the most
recent time. Summarizing important main ideas, conveying at the end of class time lesson
 is really necessary.

11.The peculiarities of foreign language teaching in primary schools

A foreign language is one of the main subjects in modern education, usually starting from
primary school. At first glance, teaching English to kids might seem a very simple task, since no
deep knowledge of the language is required. However, teaching a foreign language is not just
about knowing grammar patterns or advanced vocabulary, but about having appropriate skills,
being aware of the most efficient methods and techniques to teach learners. 
Usually, primary school children start learning English with great enthusiasm, they
initially have high motivation and are interested in listening to a foreign language, and speaking
it themselves. They tend to learn how to greet and say goodbye, name the objects they see
around them in English. However, this sometimes does not last long. 
Learners lose their concentration
In spite of the fact that children may be really interested in language learning, there are
lots of things that distract their attention — mobile phones, games, classmates, and sometimes —
candies. The problem, however, is soluble. Here are several things that can be done in this
situation:
— Take short breaks during the lesson which will make the tasks more manageable.
— Split tasks into smaller chunks.
— Ask students to change seats during the lesson. In this way, they will get a chance to
work with different classmates.
— Remove any unnecessary notices and posters from the walls because they may be a
great source of distraction.
— Include visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic activities.
— Play memory/concentration games with kids to help them focus better and longer.
New words are learned quickly and then forgotten easily
Yes, it is true that children learn new words quite quickly, but this is not always kept in
their memory and they forget the words quickly as well. If you face this problem you can:
— Use flashcards. 
— Play vocabulary games.
— Make learning new words interactively. For example, you can ask the learner to eat
ice-cream while learning flavors.
Since children usually are not afraid of making mistakes, they do not care to correct and
work on them.
It is really very good that your young learners do not hesitate to speak because of not
knowing the words or grammar. Being afraid of making mistakes may hinder their fluency.
However, they usually do not pay attention to their mistakes even when the teacher corrects
them. One of the most useful techniques to use here is to ask them to correct their classmates’
mistakes after you have said the right version. This will help them concentrate their attention on
the peers’ speech and mistakes, thus doing their best not to make them themselves.
Young learners get bored of the same type of activities and do not feel like doing
them
If you see that your students are really bored of the activity and consequently they lose
motivation and enthusiasm of learning the language, change the subject by going to recreational
conversations, ask them to talk about anything that concerns them freely so as to get out of the
atmosphere. You can also ask them to offer what they want to do, maybe there is an activity that
they desire to do. It is much better to spend some more 5 minutes on their favorite task than to
torture them with the ‘boring’ ones.

12.The peculiarities of foreign language teaching in secondary schools

Teaching secondary school students is different from teaching adults.  Young learners
tend to change their mood every other minute, and they find it extremely difficult to sit still. On
the other hand, they show a greater motivation than adults do to do things that appeal to them.
Since it is almost impossible to cater to the interests of a number of young individuals, the
teacher has to be inventive in selecting interesting activities, and must provide a great variety of
them.
Good support is tuned to the needs of the child and adjusted as the child became more
competent. Wood (1998) suggests that teachers can scaffold children’s learning in various ways:
 Teachers can help secondary school students to attend to what is relevant by suggesting,
praising the significant, and providing focusing activities.
 Teachers can help secondary school students to adopt useful strategies by encouraging
rehearsal and by being explicit about organization.
 Teachers can help secondary school students to remember the whole task and goals by
reminding, modeling, and by providing part-whole activities.
The notion of helping secondary school students attend to what is important will recur
in various topics. In directing attention and in remembering the whole tasks and goals on behalf
of the learner, the teacher is doing what children are not able to do for themselves. When they
focus on some parts of a task or the language, they want to use, secondary school students may
not be able to keep in mind the larger task or communicative aim because of limits to their
antinational capacity. Between them, teacher and students manage the whole task, but the way in
which the parts and aspects are divided up varies with age and experience. The teacher does most
of the managing of joint engagement on a task.
The central characteristics of secondary school students’ foreign language learning lie
in the amount and type of exposure to the language: there will be very little experience of the
language outside the classroom, and encounters with the language will be through several
hours of teaching in a school week. In the case of a global language like English, however, even
very young children will encounter the language in use on video, TV, computers and film. What
they might not be exposed to is “street” use, i.e. people using the language for everyday life
purposes all around them. In foreign language teaching, there is a responsibility on the teacher to
provide exposure to the language and to provide opportunities for learning through classroom
activities

13.The main features of classroom research (action research, exploratory

practice and reflective practice).

Classroom-based research is a teacher-driven activity that aims to find out what works
best in our classrooms, so that we might improve our practice, and – ultimately – make
learning more effective for the benefit of our students.
Benefits of doing classroom-based research Classroom-based research can involve an
investment in time and effort, but it’s time and effort well-spent, for several reasons. Firstly,
classroom-based research can have a direct impact on teaching, because we can use the
findings of our research projects to inform our teaching decisions. For instance, we can find
out more about our student’s needs and aspirations, about what motivates them and what
they find challenging, and more; this information can help us plan our courses more
effectively, and it can also be used to inform teaching interventions whenever necessary. In
addition, classroom-based research can help us to become better teachers on the long run, by
highlighting our strengths and opportunities for development. By trying out new teaching
methods, and then collecting data on how effective these were, we can continue to develop
professionally.
Action research
 Action Research is a form of disciplined inquiry that aims to understand, improve and
reform practice. It has become an umbrella term subsuming a broad range of research
approaches.
Action Research is methodologically eclectic. This means that any number of
methods can be used in the process of doing an action research project, although qualitative
methods have tended to be used more frequently. An action research project starts from a
specific practical or applied problem in teaching practice. It approaches this problem using
research and action components in a cyclical way: research is used, in a very applied way, to
develop a better understanding of the problem, and then this knowledge is used to inform an
procedure that addresses this problem (action).
Exploratory practice
Exploratory practice is a form of classroom-based research that aims to develop
understanding and the well-being of teachers and learners, by focusing on issues that are
relevant to their teaching and learning. The starting point of an exploratory practice project is
a local “puzzle” (the word is used deliberately to avoid the negative connotations of terms
such as “problem”.
A key feature of exploratory practice is that it adjusts to the regular routine of the
classroom, so as to minimize the burden on the teachers (and the learners) involved in the
project. This means that the data collection process will be integrated as seamlessly as
possible in the normal classroom procedures (e.g., speaking and writing tasks might double
as data generation procedures). Another characteristic is that it is methodologically inclusive:
that is to say, it is considered desirable to have students participating in the research process,
both by suggesting possible research topics and by being engaged in the data generation and
analysis.

14.Dealing with challenges in language classroom.

Generally, teaching English might seem similar to any other teaching, yet it has its own
unique challenges. These challenges exist in various forms. Since teachers may get only basic
preparation in the supportive theory and practical applications, they may then struggle for
embodying teaching methods effectively.
Furthermore, English teaching process tends to be challenging when it comes to the
teachers’ qualification, language proficiency level, and training since these points can cause
teachers’ confidence. Teachers whose teaching training is not enough might strive to embody
teaching methods effectively. Applying appropriate teaching methods and techniques is tough
because the teachers do not merely think of how to transfer four language skills, but also how to
remain students’ motivation and enthusiasm in learning and practicing English (Ansari,2012).
Lack of vocabulary.
One of the most challenging tasks students encountered is mastering vocabulary. Why
students lack vocabulary, i.e. students believed that they did not need to know words because
they were not common, even rarely used in their daily lives, therefore, they have no motivation
to learn the words. Consequently, students in English as a foreign language context are limited
by their knowledge of grammar and vocabulary of the target language and have to struggle to
comprehend the content.
Lack of Concentration In Class
When students do not have the concentration can’t learn the material. Concentration
depends on these factors:
fatigue and insomnia
environment
family problems
When all these factors are eliminated, the student can do his best to learn the language
and gain a good score.
The role of teachers in English teaching
Some students mentioned that learning English is the function of the teachers’
characteristics, so that if students love their teachers and use his motivation and creativity, they
will be more interested in English. Although this is an accepted scientific principle and is true for
all subjects, but we must accept that this is more prominent in practical lessons. When the
students love their teachers, they will be more interested in learning.
Different teaching methods and techniques application.
There are numerous methods of language teaching that can be implemented. English
teaching problems, teachers must use a variety of methods for teaching English language. In
addition, that through applying various methods, particularly in matching the method and
teaching topic, it will help teachers to establish an effective teaching process. Additionally,
applying various techniques in language teaching should be taken into account because it will
enable teachers to create suitable condition for students in learning English as well as help
students to deal with their learning challenges. Therefore, students can be helped in their
language learning when teachers understand what best teaching methods or technique meet the
need of students.
15.Time management in language classroom.

Time – management consists of several significant points

 Setting Clear Goals for Each Lesson
 Time Arrangement
 Be simple and economical, verbally
 Time Spending review
 Taking the time under control
 Setting Priority
 Skip Unnecessary Content
Time-management’s main principle – SETTING your goals appropriately .

There are useful ways how to make it real:

decide what exactly you want to do;

don’t forget to write them down on a piece of paper;
make a deadline for your aims to work more efficiently;
arrange your aims from higher-priority to lower priority;
every day do something that makes you closer to your goal, even something tiny, because
even something tiny might be very important.
Use your time efficiently
 Organization period: ( 3 mins )
 greetings
 finding out who is absent
 begin most lessons with an activity that grab students’ attention. You can hold up an
interesting object or photo or direct their attention to your board or display. There can be
included warm-up exercises (different kinds of exercises to cheer up students:
vocabulary games, working in pairs etc.)
Checking homework ( 8 mins )
 There are several ways not loosing much of your time for checking homework
 Check homework as a class
 Check only difficult moments
 Check every student individually
If three or more students have common mistakes, we should explain it at board.
Lead-in ( 3 mins )
 Before we start explaining a new theme and before setting the aims of the lesson, students
 should try making a guess what the lesson is about
 We can give them hints writing the words, the questions or find mini-quizzes, somehow
connected with the theme.
 Only after they have made all guesses, they can open their books and see what they are
going to learn about
Introduction of a new theme (15 mins)

 If it is grammar sometimes it can take more than 15 minutes

 Listening can take a lot of time, that’s why in order to save it we should pause after
each speaker and let the students answer. In a case more than half of the class can’t, we
need to play this part again, but not more than two times.
 There is also a good way to save your time when students have to read and match the
headings (let them read only first and last sentences of the each paragraph and then
they should find the correct heading)

 Drilling and actuation the new knowledge that students have gained (12 mins)

 Sum up lesson
 Giving homework (3-4 mins)

Time must be fixed

 students should know how much time they have to finish their task faster and save time
 It would be better if they could see the time

16.Sensitive periods in language development

The Sensitive Period for Language is the longest:

It spans from birth to age six, throughout the entire First Plane of Development!
During this time, children are drawn to language and words like moths to a flame. They
are particularly attuned to the human voice and to mouth and lip movements.
They are thrilled by the names of specific objects, rhyming words, and pronunciation of
complicated words.
We can support the Sensitive Period for Language by:
 telling oral stories
 naming objects all around us
 using the real words for things
 singing songs
 reading poems and books
  and having rich conversations!
Thanks to the Sensitive Period for Language, a child has the potential to learn two or
more languages fluently before the age of six.
After that time, a child will have to exert a conscious effort to learn vocabulary and
memorize grammatical structures of an additional language, rather than simply absorbing it from
their environment.

17.Major trends in language teaching

The modern trends in the development of the world educational process include the use of
new educational technologies in the learning process, which lead to the application of interactive
learning technologies for foreign language that meet the following requirements: improving the
efficiency and quality of teaching; providing motivation for independent cognitive activity;
development of interdisciplinary connections.
Several methods of learning are distinguished in modern methods:
− passive, when the student acts as an «object» of learning (listens and looks);
− active, when the student acts as a «subject» of training (independent work, creative
tasks);
− interactive, in which the student interacts not only with the teacher, but also with
others.
 Change in Teaching Content and Text Design
Teachers use a range of descriptive texts in the classrooms. The use of the English
language, as well as the use of various accents in texts or listening activities, encourages English
learning.
E-Learning
E-books should be introduced for learning because this is a digital era. Everyone is
having a smartphone and a tablet. So, if E-Books are introduced, it will be of great help. Access
to knowledge in terms of flexibility has changed.Ebooks also help teach ESL as a secondary
language.
Strategic Teaching and Learning 
Teaching in English language classes focuses on language content, outcomes, and
learning activities. There should be significant student teachers’ interactions outside and inside
the classrooms.
eaching Through Conversations and Role-Play
A lot of changes have to be made in the teaching method. As teaching is student-centric,
so involvement of the students is required. Teachers should give them specific tasks and involve
them in certain conversations. They should also be given role-play to prevent stage fear, which is
very common in students.
Teaching Through Games 
Teaching through games is one of the best methods to teach students. Teachers should
include games like puzzles, vocabulary games, and jumbled words. The teachers should conduct
quiz competitions in the class. The quiz competitions should be on synonyms, antonyms, idioms,
and a one-word answer. This will increase the interest of the students.
Blended Learning

18.The characteristics of a good language learner

Learning a second language has a lot in common with learning to play an instrument or
sport. They all require frequent practice and sustained effort.
A Good Language Learner…
…finds their own way
There is no one-size-fits-all approach to language learning, so you need to try different
activities and resources and identify what works for you.
…organises information about language
Whether you prefer using pen and paper or the latest app, it’s important to be organised
and keep track of your learning.
…uses mnemonics to remember what they have learned
These are rhymes and word associations that help you to store new vocabulary and
assimilate new rules. E.g. when you come across a new word, try to connect it to a song or a
brand name that you know.
…makes their own opportunities to practise using language inside and outside the
classroom
The activities you do in class are important for your progress, but so is what you do out of
the classroom. You should always be on the lookout for opportunities to practise.
…learns to live with uncertainty
One of the frustrations of learning a second language is not understanding everything
that’s being said around you. This is normal and it’s something you just have to accept. The
uncertainty will push you to learn more.
…lets the context help them in comprehension
Remember, communication is not only about language. Use people’s gestures, facial
expressions and other contextual information to help you follow the conversation.
…use linguistic knowledge, including knowledge of your first language
Although no two languages are the same, there are always some useful similarities.
Instead of completely ignoring your first language, start thinking about what you can and cannot
borrow.
…makes intelligent guesses
Until you become highly proficient in English, there will be gaps in your knowledge. It’s
fine, just think about your options and have a guess! This is an important way of testing out new
words and structures.
…isn’t afraid of making mistakes
Of course, some of this guessing will lead to mistakes, maybe even some embarrassment.
Don’t let it get to you, learn from your mistakes and, with any luck, you won’t repeat them.
…learns communication techniques
If you can’t think of the word, try to describe it. If you don’t understand someone, ask
them to speak more slowly. These are all techniques that help you keep the conversation going.

19.Interactive classroom activities.

Interactive Classroom Activities

Students learn through their participation in the attainment of knowledge by gathering

information and processing it by solving problems and articulating what they have discovered.
Each activity below provides students with opportunities to deepen their learning by applying
concepts and articulating new knowledge and many of these activities also provide the instructor
feedback about the students’ learning.

Entry/Exit Tickets
Entry & Exit tickets are short prompts that provide instructors with a quick student diagnostic.
These exercises can be collected on 3”x5” cards, small pieces of paper, or online through a
survey or course management system.

● Entry tickets focus student attention on the day’s topic or ask students to recall
background knowledge relevant to the day’s lesson: e.g., “Based on the readings for class
today, what is your understanding of ___________?”
● Exit tickets collect feedback on students’ understanding at the end of a class and provide
the students with an opportunity to reflect on what they have learned. They can be helpful
in prompting the student to begin to synthesize and integrate the information gained
 during a class period. For example, a muddiest point prompt: “What was the muddiest
point in today’s class?” or “What questions do you still have about today’s lecture?”.

Advantages of entrance and exit tickets include: participation of each student, prompt for
students to focus on key concepts and ideas, a high return of information for the amount of time
invested, important feedback for the instructor that can be useful to guide teaching decisions
(e.g., course pacing, quick clarification of small misunderstandings, identification of student
interests and questions).

Free Writing/Minute Paper/Question of the Day Exercise

These are activities that prompt students to write a response to an open question and can be done
at any time during a class. Writing activities are usually 1-2 minutes, and can focus on key
questions and ideas or ask students to make predictions. These activities give students the
opportunity to organize their own thoughts, or can be collected by the teacher to gain feedback
from the students. Advantages include developing students’ abilities to think holistically and
critically, and improving their writing skills.

Ice Breakers
Ice Breakers are low-stakes activities that get students to interact and talk to each other, and
encourage subsequent classroom interactions. They can be useful at the beginning of the
semester: for example, asking students to introduce themselves to each other and what they
would like to learn in the course. Advantages of icebreakers include: participation of each
student, the creation of a sense of community and focusing students’ attention on material that
will be covered during the class period.

Think–Pair–Share
This type of activity first asks students to consider a question on their own, and then provides an
opportunity for students to discuss it in pairs, and finally together with the whole class. The
success of these activities depends on the nature of the questions posed. This activity works
ideally with questions to encourage deeper thinking, problem-solving, and/or critical analysis.
The group discussions are critical as they allow students to articulate their thought processes.

The procedure is as follows:

1. Pose a question, usually by writing it on the board or projecting it.

2. Have students consider the question on their own (1 – 2 min).
3. Then allow the students form groups of 2-3 people.
4. Next, have students discuss the question with their partner and share their ideas and/or
contrasting opinions (3 min).
5. Re-group as a whole class and solicit responses from some or all of the pairs (3 min).
Advantages of the think-pair-share include the engagement of all students in the classroom
(particularly the opportunity to give voice to quieter students who might have difficulty sharing
in a larger group), quick feedback for the instructor (e.g., the revelation of student
misconceptions), encouragement and support for higher levels of thinking of the students.

Case Studies and Problem-Based Learning

Case studies are scenarios that apply concepts learned in class to a “real-life” situation. They are
usually presented in narrative form and often involve problem-solving, links to course readings
or source materials, and discussions by groups of students, or the entire class. Usually, case
studies are most effective if they are presented sequentially, so that students receive additional
information as the case unfolds, and can continue to analyze or critique the situation/problem.

Guiding questions lead students through the activity. The questions should be designed to
develop student’s critical thinking by asking students to distinguish between fact and
assumptions, and critically analyze both the process they take in solving the case study as well as
the solution itself. Example questions include:

● What is the situation? What questions do you have?

● What problem(s) need to be solved? What are some solution strategies? Evaluate
pros/cons and underlying assumptions of these strategies.
● What information do you need? Where/how could you find it?
● What criteria will you use to evaluate your solution?

There are many collections of case studies publically available in a variety of disciplines.

Problem-based learning activities are similar to case studies but usually focus on quantitative
problems. In some cases the problems are designed to introduce the material as well as provide
students with a deeper learning opportunity.

The advantages of problem-based learning activities and case studies include developing
students problem solving and decision making skills, develop student’s critical thinking skills
encouraging critical reflection and enabling the appreciation of ambiguity in situations.

Debate
Engaging in collaborative discourse and argumentation enhances student’s conceptual
understandings and refines their reasoning abilities. Stage a debate exploiting an arguable divide
in the day’s materials. Give teams time to prepare, and then put them into argument with a team
focused on representing an opposing viewpoint. Advantages include practice in using the
language of the discipline and crafting evidence-based reasoning in their arguments.

Interview or Role Play

Members of the class take the part or perspective of historical figures, authors, or other
characters and must interact from their perspective. Breakdown the role play into specific tasks
to keep students organized and to structure them so that the content you want to cover is
addressed. Preparation work can be assigned for outside of class, so clearly communicating your
expectations is essential. Advantages include motivation to solve a problem or to resolve a
conflict for the character, providing a new perspective through which students can explore or
understand an issue and the development of skills, such as writing, leadership, coordination,
collaboration and research.

Interactive Demonstrations
Interactive demonstrations can be used in lectures to demonstrate the application of a concept, a
skill, or to act out a process. The exercise should not be passive; you should plan and structure
your demonstration to incorporate opportunities for students to reflect and analyze the process.

1. Introduce the goal and description of the demonstration.

2. Have students think-pair-share (see above) to discuss what they predict may happen, or to
analyze the situation at hand (“pre-demonstration” state or situation).
3. Conduct the demonstration.
4. Students discuss and analyze the outcome (either in pairs/small groups, or as a whole
class), based on their initial predictions/interpretations.

Advantages of interactive demonstrations include novel visualizations of the material and

allowing students to probe their own understanding by asking if they can predict the outcome

20.The use of online language resources in language teaching

The possibilities of using the Internet resources are enormous. The Internet creates the
conditions for obtaining all necessary information for students and teachers held anywhere in the
world: cross-cultural material, news from the lives of young people, articles from newspapers
and magazines, necessary literature, etc.
Forms of work with computer training programs for foreign language lessons
include:
- learning vocabulary; - pronunciation; - training dialogical and monological speech;

- teaching writing;

- refinement of grammatical phenomena.

At foreign language lessons using the Internet we can solve a number of teaching tasks:
to form the skills and abilities of reading, using material from the global network to improve the
skills of writing of the students; to improve the vocabulary of the students; to form
schoolchildren’ s sustained motivation to the learning of English language.
 Students may participate in testing, in quizzes, contests and competitions held over the
Internet, to correspond with peers from other countries, participate in chat rooms, video
conferencing and etc. Students can obtain the information on the issue, on which they work at
this moment with their project.
Teaching resources :

platform for creating your own lessons, contains a lot of templates for different
SkillzRun exercises, tests and quizes
ESL KIDS Grammar games online
Games https://eslkidsgames.com/online-esl-games
THe templates for the game tic-tac-toe
Tic-tac-toe  https://eslkidsgames.com/tic-tac-toe
FIlms with the 
podcasts https://english-films.co/
ЗНО https://zno.osvita.ua/english/351/
Miro Board online whiteboard board with extended functions 
teachers’ library
Twirpix.com https://www.twirpx.com/private/password-recovery-succeed/
ISL collective the world of tasks, videos and presentations for different leels
ELT platform
MM rub www.eltplatform.com
provides support for teachers in methodology, contains working plans for
MM national certified learning books
Publication https://www.mmpublications.com/TeachersArea/get_smart_plus_british
Learning contains a lot of games and taska especially for young learners
chocolate  https://www.learningchocolate.com/category/food
Quizlet application for learning new words
Cambridgeengl
ish https://www.cambridgeenglish.org/
The powerful resource for teaching, contains  multilevel exercises. You can
create your own or use ready tasks with opportunity to check online
https://www.liveworksheets.com/register/activation.asp?
Liveworksheet username=FLY777&code=r2s8kmcu
MES Games https://www.mes-games.com/plural1.php
The apps can check your pronunciation in different accents 
Youglish.com Youglish.com
The resource for adult learners with extended grammar, listenind and writing
tasks 
Breaking news https://breakingnewsenglish.com/
wordwall.net On line exercises for young and adults. Have options to create as
Word wall your own exercise as use others 
 The Internet has tremendous potential as a tool for teaching and learning
EFL. Network-based technology can contribute significantly to
1.     Experiential Learning: The World Wide Web makes it possible for students to
tackle a huge amount of human experience. In such a way, they can learn by doing things
themselves. They become the creators not just the receivers of knowledge. Information is
presented in a non-linear way and users develop more flexible thinking skills and choose what to
explore.
2.     Motivation: Computers are most popular among students as they are often associated
with fun and games. Student motivation is therefore increased, especially whenever a variety of
activities are offered. This in turn makes students feel more independent.
3.     Enhanced student achievement: Network-based instruction can help pupils
strengthen their linguistic skills by positively affecting their attitude towards learning and by
helping them build self-instruction strategies and promote their self-confidence.
4.     Authentic materials for study: All students can use various resources of authentic
reading materials either at school or from their home. Those materials can be accessed 24 hours a
day at a relatively low cost.
5.       Individualization:  Shy or inhibited students can be greatly benefited by
individualized, student-centered collaborative learning. High fliers can also realize their full
potential without preventing their peers from working at their own pace.
6.     Independence from a single source of information: Although students can still use
their books, they are presented with opportunities to escape from canned knowledge and
discover thousands of information sources. As a result, their education fulfils the need for
interdisciplinary learning in a multicultural world.
7.     Global Understanding: A foreign language is studied in a cultural context. In a
world where the use of the Internet becomes more and more widespread, an English Language
teacher's duty is to facilitate students' access to the web and make them feel like citizens of a
global classroom, practicing communication on a global level. 
8.       Greater Interaction: Random access to Web pages breaks the linear flow of
instruction. By sending E-mail and joining newsgroups, EFL students can communicate with
people they have never met. They can also interact with their own classmates. Furthermore,
some Internet activities give students positive and negative feedback by automatically correcting
their on-line exercises.
As a professional teacher you can bring a lot of exercises on a situational basis, as well as
on the Internet provide us with graphics (static or dynamic) and sound information. Here on
these opportunities on the Internet and we will calculate the analysis of possible ways to use
resources and network services in the foreign language lessons and in extra-curricular activities
of students. The rest should solve technology training.

21.Assessment and feedback in language learning

Assessment is one of the most important aspects of language teaching and learning. Assessment
has two main purposes: to make summative evaluations and to provide instructional feedback to
help learners progress. Both summative and formative assessments can be formal (standardized)
or informal (classroom-based). Informally, assessment provides feedback from peers and others;
formally, it provides information against a standard about how the student is progressing in
specific areas. Depending on the stakes, everyone can be involved in assessment—peers, teacher,
self, administrators, and external constituents; however, teachers, as immediate catalysts of the
learning process, should be particularly involved and well-informed about assessment practices
THe assessment practices need to be authentic For a measure to be authentic, students should
perceive it as related to their lives and/or goals in topic, form, content, process, or any element
they consider related.

Accordingly, authentic assessment will not only serve as a representative picture of student’s
competencies, but also as a learning tool.
Inevitably required in second language education, assessment helps students develop language
competence and helps teachers improve instruction. As a crucial component of assessment,
feedback is not only an essential pedagogical approach which serves as a follow-up to
assessment, but also one of the most influential factors affecting students’ achievement.

Through authentic assessment, students tend to

● apply knowledge rather than memorize the information

● develop more in-depth learning
● develop metacognitive strategies
● develop critical thinking and problem solving skills
● be engaged in the activity through meaningful, interesting,and collaborative activities
● be more confident, satisfied, and active in the learning process.

The examples of possible authentic assessment techniques are verbal reporting, observation,
retelling, graphic organizers, role-plays, journals, portfolios, and self-assessment. Although these
guidelines and examples may make the assessment process in language classrooms seem rather
simple, in reality it can be quite complex.

The role of feedback for learners is critical in advancing language proficiency. Feedback should
be provided in multiple forms including formative, summative and self-assessment. It should be
specific, timely, spoken or written, and most importantly, relevant to learning goals and the
targeted level of proficiency. The educator’s role is to determine a learner’s current level of
proficiency, plan the next steps, and offer formative feedback and strategies to further language
acquisition. The key is to give learners what they need in a timely fashion to improve and not to
overwhelm them with too much feedback.

Formative feedback is designed to assess learners’ progress toward learning targets during the
learning process.
Summative feedback provides an assessment of student performance at the end of a learning
cycle (unit, semester, program).
Reflective feedback invites learners to play an active role in self-evaluation of their
performance. This self-assessment provides learners the opportunity to make the changes
necessary to improve their language performance.
Why?
Giving appropriate feedback promotes student ownership and builds confidence as learners can
identify those areas of strength and those areas of needed improvement. Learners can use
formative feedback and instructor-provided strategies to make changes that impact their
language performance. Without prompt feedback, learners are disconnected from the task and
not motivated to improve. Learner self-assessment and reflection require learners to focus on
their own learning, comparing their current performance with their past performance in order to
reach their proficiency level targets.

How?
Teachers should utilize feedback strategies throughout instruction to assess and inform learners
of progress towards proficiency goals. Feedback can be oral or written and can be given in a
variety of ways.

Formative Feedback (on-going feedback to improve language skills)

Teacher-provided and/or teacher-guided
Consistent, timely and specificRelevant to learning targets based on a learner’s current level of
proficiency
Descriptive
Provided in student-friendly language (free of jargon)

Summative Feedback (feedback on an end assessment)

Teacher-provided and/or teacher-guided
Given at the end of a learning sequence
Measurement of a learner’s current language performance
Evaluative

Reflective Feedback (self-assessment)

Teacher designed, but learner-driven\
Opportunities occur at the beginning of, during, and after a learning sequence
Develops learner awareness of language skills and current level of performance
Demonstrated through a variety of ways including, but not limited to:
Portfolios
Learner-written reflection of a specific performance
Surveys, questionnaires (Google forms)\
Peer-assessments, co-constructed evaluations
Class discussion
Technology can be used to support feedback. There are myriad options that could include:
Google Drive to create a portfolio
Survey and questionnaire forms to assess progress toward learning targets,
comprehension of interpretive mode, self-check as students prepare
presentational mode
Video- or audio-recording of a task to self-evaluate
Blogging or shared forum (i.e., Google chat) for peer or co-constructed discussion
Immediate feedback via technology (online practice that offers automatic feedback)

22.The ways to critical skills development

Critical thinking is the process of analyzing information to get the best answer to a question or
problem. By drawing upon your own experience, reasoning, observation and communication
with others, you can make informed decisions that yield positive solutions.

Critical thinking helps us to find any flaw, if it exists, in our decision making process and helps
us to reach a better outcome by eliminating those flaws. In short, no matter what you are doing,
you need to have that set of decision making skills; and for that, you need to be able to think
critically and act quickly.
Here is a list of what you should do in order to improve critical thinking,
1. Know exactly what you want
Knowing exactly what you want is the first step of critical thinking.
We have to think critically to solve problems so that they meets their objectives. Every decision
we make has an objective or purpose attached to it and identifying exactly what that is, what we
actually want out of it, gives us a starting point to work with.
So ask yourself: What do I want? What do I expect to get out of this? Until you know the answer
to these questions you're not going to know what the right decision is.

2. Deal with your biases

We often think from only our own perspective to deal with problems. However, it helps with
critical thinking and decision making if you try thinking from someone else's point of view.
Furthermore, it gives you a clearer picture of the overall situation. Let's say you're looking to
solve a problem at work. Think of how your best friend might approach it, or how your partner
or a sibling might. Now think of how your boss might approach it.
By allowing yourself to consider different perspectives you might find yourself hitting upon
solutions you hadn't previously considered.

3. Consider the consequences of your options

Every option we choose has consequences for ourselves, or maybe others involved in the
problem.
You need to weigh up the possible consequences which may arise from each of your options and
go for the one that benefits you most whilst limiting the negative effects on others involved.
A good way to do this is by writing a list of pros and cons. By asking yourself to think of every
possible positive outcome alongside every possible negative outcome, you can make a much
more informed decison.

4. Do your research
I'm sure you've heard that knowledge is power. However, many of us tend to rely a lot on what
we already know and are reluctant to let go of our own beliefs.
Critical thinking requires you to let go of your beliefs sometimes to solve problems. Reluctance
to learn, research or acquire new beliefs will only hold you back and certainly won't help you
with critical thinking.
By taking time to do your research and focus on learning you'll find that over time you will
evolve and adapt to overcome new situations and improve your critical thinking.

5. Accept the fact that you’re not always right

This one can be harder than it sounds.
It's okay to make mistakes and no matter who we are, we all make them.
However, most of us don't accept this fact which holds us back from thinking critically. If you
are doing something wrong and repeatedly keep doing it because you have already assumed that
you can never go wrong, then this needs to change for your own good.
Always double check solutions to problems, consider new options and view your mistakes as an
opportunity to learn.

5. Break it down
Being able to see the big picture is great but it's even better if you can break things down into
smaller sections.
The reason being that smaller sections are easier to mentally digest and work with.
Working with numerous small things is an easier task than trying to solve the bigger picture
which can become too much to handle.
So try and think about it in terms of steps: what is the first thing I need to do? Make a list and try
and put it in terms of priority, or chronology. By taking a big problem and breaking it into
several pieces you allow yourself to start looking at the solutions, rather than spending half your
time being overwhelmed by the problem.

6. Don't overcomplicate things

Overcomplicating things is something a lot of us have in common. It's a necessity to think things
through but it only makes things difficult if you begin overthinking. You have to discover the
fine line between positive thinking and overthinking.
There are a number of occasions where simplicity gets the job done.
If you are still in doubt about your critical thinking ability, just know that you are not alone.
Critical thinking is not something that comes easy. It sometimes needs you to let go of what you
believe and work with new ideas. It can be challenging at times but if you do it right, it will be
all worth it!

23.The peculiarities for planning a CLIL lesson

Underlying principles

The principles behind Content and Language Integrated Learning include global statements such
as 'all teachers are teachers of language' (The Bullock Report - A Language for Life, 1975) to
the wide-ranging advantages of cross-curricular bilingual teaching in statements from the
Content and Language Integrated Project (CLIP). The benefits of CLIL may be seen in terms
of cultural awareness, internationalisation, language competence, preparation for both study and
working life, and increased motivation.

While CLIL may be the best-fit methodology for language teaching and learning in a
multilingual Europe, the literature suggests that there remains a dearth of CLIL-type materials,
and a lack of teacher training programmes to prepare both language and subject teachers for
CLIL teaching. The theory may be solid, but questions remain about how theory translates into
classroom practice.

Classroom principles

Some of the basic principles of CLIL are that in the CLIL classroom:

● Language is used to learn as well as to communicate

● It is the subject matter which determines the language needed to learn.

A CLIL lesson is therefore not a language lesson neither is it a subject lesson transmitted in a
foreign language. According to the 4Cs curriculum (Coyle 1999), a successful CLIL lesson
should combine elements of the following:

● Content - Progression in knowledge, skills and understanding related to specific

elements of a defined curriculum
● Communication - Using language to learn whilst learning to use language
● Cognition - Developing thinking skills which link concept formation (abstract and
concrete), understanding and language
● Culture - Exposure to alternative perspectives and shared understandings, which deepen
awareness of otherness and self.

In a CLIL lesson, all four language skills should be combined. The skills are seen thus:

● Listening is a normal input activity, vital for language learning

● Reading, using meaningful material, is the major source of input
● Speaking focuses on fluency. Accuracy is seen as subordinate
● Writing is a series of lexical activities through which grammar is recycled.
For teachers from an ELT background, CLIL lessons exhibit the following characteristics:

● Integrate language and skills, and receptive and productive skills

● Lessons are often based on reading or listening texts / passages
● The language focus in a lesson does not consider structural grading
● Language is functional and dictated by the context of the subject
● Language is approached lexically rather than grammatically
● Learner styles are taken into account in task types.

In many ways, then, a CLIL lesson is similar to an ELT integrated skills lesson, except that it
includes exploration of language, is delivered by a teacher versed in CLIL methodology and is
based on material directly related to a content-based subject. Both content and language are
explored in a CLIL lesson. A CLIL 'approach' is not far removed from humanistic,
communicative and lexical approaches in ELT, and aims to guide language

processing and supports language production in the same way that an ELT course would by
teaching techniques for exploiting reading or listening texts and structures for supporting spoken
or written language.

Lesson framework

A CLIL lesson looks at content and language in equal measure, and often follows a four-stage
framework.

Processing the text

The best texts are those accompanied by illustrations so that learners can visualise what they are
reading. When working in a foreign language, learners need structural markers in texts to help
them find their way

through the content. These markers may be linguistic (headings, sub-headings) and/or
diagrammatic. Once a 'core knowledge' has been identified, the organisation of the text can be
analysed.

Identification and organisation of knowledge

Texts are often represented diagrammatically. These structures are known as 'ideational
frameworks' or 'diagrams of thinking', and are used to help learners categorise the ideas and
information in a text. Diagram types include tree diagrams for classification, groups, hierarchies,
flow diagrams and timelines for sequenced thinking such as instructions and historical
information, tabular diagrams describing people and places, and combinations of these. The
structure of the text is used to facilitate learning and the creation of activities which focus on
both language development and core content knowledge.

Language identification

Learners are expected to be able to reproduce the core of the text in their own words. Since
learners will need to use both simple and more complex language, there is no grading of
language involved, but it is a good idea for the teacher to highlight useful language in the text
and to categorise it according to function. Learners may need the language of comparison and
contrast, location or describing a process, but may also need certain discourse markers, adverb
phrases or prepositional phrases. Collocations, semi-fixed expressions and set phrases may also
be given attention as well as subject-specific and academic vocabulary.

Tasks for students

There is little difference in task-type between a CLIL lesson and a skills-based ELT lesson. A
variety of tasks should be provided, taking into account the learning purpose and learner styles
and preferences. Receptive skill activities are of the 'read/listen and do' genre. A menu of
listening activities might be:

● Listen and label a diagram/picture/map/graph/chart

● Listen and fill in a table
● Listen and make notes on specific information (dates, figures, times)
● Listen and reorder information
● Listen and identify location/speakers/places
● Listen and label the stages of a process/instructions/sequences of a text
● Listen and fill in the gaps in a text

Tasks designed for production need to be subject-orientated, so that both content and language
are recycled. Since content is to be focused on, more language support than usual in an ELT
lesson may be required.

Typical speaking activities include:

● Question loops - questions and answers, terms and definitions, halves of sentences
● Information gap activities with a question sheet to support
● Trivia search - 'things you know' and 'things you want to know'
● Word guessing games
 ● Class surveys using questionnaires
● 20 Questions - provide language support frame for questions
● Students present information from a visual using a language support handout.

Conclusion

From a language point of view the CLIL 'approach' contains nothing new to the EL teacher.
CLIL aims to guide language processing and 'support language production in the same way as
ELT by teaching strategies for

reading and listening and structures and lexis for spoken or written language. What is different is
that the language teacher is also the subject teacher, or that the subject teacher is also able to
exploit opportunities for

developing language skills. This is the essence of the CLIL teacher training issue.

What are some tips for CLIL lesson planning?

● Connect what CLIL activities students are doing today with what they have
done before. Remember, our earlier experiment with putting sugar in the flowers’
water? Well, today we’re going to add salt and see what happens.
● Connect your class to other classes. I know in your art history class you just saw a
film about the Egyptian pyramids. Today, we’re going to make and label posters
that show what’s inside a pyramid.
● Have some extra content information in reserve. You are the language teacher
and are not expected to be a content area specialist. However, you will earn your
students’ respect if you occasionally demonstrate content knowledge beyond the
exact classroom task. Do a little research online, and perhaps learn an interesting
fact or two about a famous explorer, a story about a scientific discovery, or a current
example of social science theory. You might not find the right situations to bring up
this information in every class, but you’ll be ready if the opportunity arises.
● Be able to explain the importance of the target content. It’s natural for students to
wonder why they are being asked to learn certain information. However, they may
hesitate to ask a content teacher a question like Why are we studying ancient Greek
architecture? Who cares what the Parthenon looked like originally? Since you are
the language teacher, students may feel safer (and more polite) directing those kinds
 of questions to you. Be ready with an answer! What does the content in your CLIL
curriculum have to do with real life? Before your class, ask yourself Why is this
important? Why is this interesting? Make sure you have good answers. If you don’t
have answers, ask a content area specialist or do a short online query to prepare
yourself.

24.The peculiarities of CLIL application

How does CLIL work?

The basis of CLIL is that content subjects are taught and learnt in a language which is not the
mother tongue of the learners.
 Knowledge of the language becomes the means of learning content
 Language is integrated into the broad curriculum
 Learning is improved through increased motivation and the study of natural language
seen in context. When learners are interested in a topic they are motivated to acquire
language to communicate
 CLIL is based on language acquisition rather than enforced learning
 Language is seen in real-life situations in which students can acquire the language. This
is natural language development which builds on other forms of learning
 CLIL is long-term learning. Students become academically proficient in English after 5-7
years in a good bilingual programme
 Fluency is more important than accuracy and errors are a natural part of language
learning. Learners develop fluency in English by using English to communicate for a
variety of purposes
 Reading is the essential skill.
The advantages of CLIL
CLIL helps to:
 Introduce the wider cultural context
 Prepare for internationalisation
 Access International Certification and enhance the school profile
 Improve overall and specific language competence
 Prepare for future studies and / or working life
 Develop multilingual interests and attitudes
  Diversify methods & forms of classroom teaching and learning
 Increase learner motivation.
 
CLIL in the classroom
CLIL assumes that subject teachers are able to exploit opportunities for language learning. The
best and most common opportunities arise through reading texts. CLIL draws on the lexical
approach, encouraging learners to notice language while reading. Here is a paragraph from a text
on fashion:
The miniskirt is a skirt whose hemline is high above the knees (generally
200-300 mm above knee-level). Its existence is generally credited to the
fashion designer Mary Quant, who was inspired by the Mini Cooper
automobile, although André Courrèges is also often cited as its inventor,
and there is disagreement as to who invented it first.
 
The language to be looked at in a passage like this falls into three categories - subject specific,
academic and other lexis including fixed expressions and collocations:
Subject specific Academic Other language
above the knee(s)
miniskirt credited
credited to
hemline designer
inspired by
knee-level cited
cited as
fashion designer invented
disagreement as to
 
The treatment of this lexis has the following features:
 Noticing of the language by the learners
 Focus on lexis rather than grammar
 Focus on language related to the subject. Level and grading are unimportant
 Pre-, while- and post-reading tasks are as appropriate in the subject context as in the
language context.

The future of CLIL

There is no doubt that learning a language and learning through a language are concurrent
processes, but implementing CLIL requires a rethink of the traditional concepts of the language
classroom and the language teacher. The immediate obstacles seem to be:
 Opposition to language teaching by subject teachers may come from language teachers
themselves. Subject teachers may be unwilling to take on the responsibility.
 Most current CLIL programmes are experimental. There are few sound research-based
empirical studies, while CLIL-type bilingual programmes are mainly seen to be
marketable products in the private sector.
 CLIL is based on language acquisition, but in monolingual situations, a good deal of
conscious learning is involved, demanding skills from the subject teacher.
 The lack of CLIL teacher-training programmes suggests that the majority of teachers
working on bilingual programmes may be ill-equipped to do the job adequately.
  There is little evidence to suggest that understanding of content is not reduced by lack of
language competence. Current opinion seems to be that language ability can only be
increased by content-based learning after a certain stage.
 Some aspects of CLIL are unnatural; such as the appreciation of the literature and culture
of the learner's own country through a second language.

25.The main features of special education in language teaching contexts.

A special need is a challenge that interferes with one’s learning. It requires support that
goes beyond the norm.

There are different types of special needs and challenges. For instance, there are learning,
developmental, behavioural, and physical challenges. Moreover, these challenges can
differ in their severity, or in how much they impair learning.

Special education is for students who have challenges or disabilities that can interfere with their
learning.

Normally, students who meet this criterion have needs that can’t be met in a regular classroom.
Learning environments, teaching approaches, and curricula may need to be adapted to support
them. This tailored approach isn’t normally offered in general education.

In Ukraine students with a disability can receive an Individualized Education Program. Ukraine
has an inclusive approach to special education. Every child with a special need has a right to free
public education. Special education programs may be a delivered through a range of placements.
Students may benefit from assessment and instruction that is personalized, precise, explicit, and
intensive, as required. Special education programs and services primarily consist of instruction
and assessments that are different from those provided to the general student population. These
may take the form of accommodations (such as specific teaching strategies, preferential seating,
and assistive technology) and/or an educational program that is modified from the age-
appropriate grade-level expectations in a particular course or subject,

Many of special children may require educational programs customized to their unique needs. In some
instances, the student’s educational needs can be met in the general education classroom by altering the
curriculum and/or instructional strategies.

Students with Learning Disabilities

Learning disabled students are those who demonstrate a significant discrepancy, which is not
the result of some other handicap, between academic achievement and intellectual abilities in
one or more of the areas of oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic
reading skills, reading comprehension, mathematical calculation, mathematics reasoning, or
spelling.

Following is a list of some of the common indicators of learning disabled students. These traits
are usually not isolated ones; rather, they appear in varying degrees and amounts in most
learning disabled students. A learning disabled student …

● Has poor auditory memory—both short term and long term.

● Has a low tolerance level and a high frustration level.
● Finds it difficult, if not impossible, to stay on task for extended periods of time.
● Is easily confused.
● Is verbally demanding.
● Has some difficulty in working with others in small or large group settings.
● Has difficulty in following complicated directions or remembering directions for
extended periods of time.

Teaching learning disabled youngsters will present you with some unique and distinctive
challenges. Not only will these students demand more of your time and patience; so, too, will
they require specialized instructional strategies in a structured environment that supports and
enhances their learning potential. It is important to remember that learning disabled students are
not students who are incapacitated or unable to learn; rather, they need differentiated instruction
tailored to their distinctive learning abilities. Use these appropriate strategies with learning
disabled students:

● Provide oral instruction for students with reading disabilities. Present tests and reading
materials in an oral format so the assessment is not unduly influenced by lack of reading
ability.
● Provide learning disabled students with frequent progress checks. Let them know how
well they are progressing toward an individual or class goal.
● Give immediate feedback to learning disabled students. They need to see quickly the
relationship between what was taught and what was learned.
● Make activities concise and short, whenever possible. Long, drawn-out projects are
particularly frustrating for a learning disabled child.
● Learning disabled youngsters have difficulty learning abstract terms and concepts.
Whenever possible, provide them with concrete objects and events—items they can
touch, hear, smell, etc.
● Learning disabled students need and should get lots of specific praise. Instead of just
saying, “You did well,” or “I like your work,” be sure you provide specific praising
comments that link the activity directly with the recognition; for example, “I was
particularly pleased by the way in which you organized the rock collection for Karin and
Miranda.”
● When necessary, plan to repeat instructions or offer information in both written and
verbal formats. Again, it is vitally necessary that learning disabled children utilize as
many of their sensory modalities as possible.

It's Elementary
 Offer learning disabled students a multisensory approach to learning. Take advantage of all the
senses in helping these students enjoy, appreciate, and learn.

Students Who Have Higher Ability

Students of high ability, often referred to as gifted students, present a unique challenge to
teachers. They are often the first ones done with an assignment or those who continually ask for
more creative and interesting work. They need exciting activities and energizing projects that
offer a creative curriculum within the framework of the regular classroom program.

Characteristics of Gifted Students

Gifted students exhibit several common characteristics, as outlined in the following list. As in
the case of learning disabled students, giftedness usually means a combination of factors in
varying degrees and amounts. A gifted student …

● Has a high level of curiosity.

● Has a well-developed imagination.
● Often gives uncommon responses to common queries.
● Can remember and retain a great deal of information.
● Can not only pose original solutions to common problems but can also pose original
problems, too.
● Has the ability to concentrate on a problem or issue for extended periods of time.
● Is capable of comprehending complex concepts.
● Is well organized.
● Is excited about learning new facts and concepts.
● Is often an independent learner.

Teaching Gifted Students

If there's one constant about gifted students it's the fact that they're full of questions (and full of
answers). They're also imbued with a sense of inquisitiveness. Providing for their instructional
needs is not an easy task and will certainly extend you to the full limits of your own creativity
and inventiveness. Keep some of these instructional strategies in mind:

● Allow gifted students to design and follow through on self-initiated projects. Have them
pursue questions of their own choosing.
● Provide gifted students with lots of open-ended activities—activities for which there are
no right or wrong answers or any preconceived notions.
● Keep the emphasis on divergent thinking—helping gifted students focus on many
possibilities rather than any set of predetermined answers.
● Provide opportunities for gifted youngsters to engage in active problem-solving. Be sure
the problems assigned are not those for which you have already established appropriate
answers but rather those that will allow gifted students to arrive at their own conclusions.
● Encourage gifted students to take on leadership roles that enhance portions of the
classroom program (Note: gifted students are often socially immature.)
 ● Provide numerous opportunities for gifted students to read extensively about subjects that
interest them. Work closely with the school librarian and public librarian to select and
provide trade books in keeping with students' interests.
● Provide numerous long-term and ex-tended activities that allow gifted students the
opportunity to engage in a learning project over an extended period of time.

Prepare to teach the students with special needs you may have in your classroom using these
suggestions and guidelines for accommodating and modifying your lessons to meet the needs of
everyone. New teachers will find this resource particularly valuable. Includes examples of traits
various types of special needs students may exhibit along with strategies to help your special
needs students be successful.

Students Who Have Hearing Impairments

Secondary Thoughts

Other students can be responsible for taking notes for a hearing impaired student.

Hearing impairment may range from mildly impaired to total deafness. Although it is unlikely
that you will have any deaf students in your classroom, it is quite possible that you will have one
or more who will need to wear one or two hearing aids. Here are some teaching strategies:

● Provide written or pictorial directions.

● Physically act out the steps for an activity. You or one of the other students in the class
can do this.
● Seat a hearing impaired child in the front of the classroom and in a place where he or she
has a good field of vision of both you and the chalkboard.
● Many hearing impaired youngsters have been taught to read lips. When addressing the
class, be sure to enunciate your words (but don't overdo it) and look directly at the
hearing impaired student or in his or her general direction.
● Provide a variety of multisensory experiences for students. Allow students to capitalize
on their other learning modalities.
● It may be necessary to wait longer than usual for a response from a hearing impaired
student. Be patient
.
● Whenever possible, use lots of concrete objects such as models, diagrams, realia,
samples, and the like. Try to demonstrate what you are saying by using touchable items.

Students Who Have Visual Impairments

All students exhibit different levels of visual acuity. However, it is quite likely that you will have
students whose vision is severely hampered or restricted. These students may need to wear
special glasses and require the use of special equipment. Although it is unlikely that you will
have a blind student in your classroom, it is conceivable that you will need to provide a modified
instructional plan for visually limited students. Consider these tips:

● Tape-record portions of textbooks, trade books, and other printed materials so students
can listen (with earphones) to an oral presentation of necessary material.
 ● When using the chalkboard, use white chalk and bold lines. Also, be sure to say out loud
whatever you write on the chalkboard.
● As with hearing impaired student, it is important to seat the visually impaired student
close to the main instructional area.
● Provide clear oral instructions.
● Be aware of any terminology you may use that would demand visual acuity the student is
not capable of. For example, phrases such as “over there” and “like that one” would be
inappropriate.
● Partner the student with other students who can assist or help.

Students Who Have Physical Impairments

Physically challenged students include those who require the aid of a wheelchair, canes, walkers,
braces, crutches, or other physical aids for getting around. As with other impairments, these
youngsters' exceptionalities may range from severe to mild and may be the result of one or more
factors. What is of primary importance is the fact that these students are no different
intellectually than the more mobile students in your classroom. Here are some techniques to
remember:

● Be sure there is adequate access to all parts of the classroom. Keep aisles between desks
clear, and provide sufficient space around demonstration tables and other apparatus for
physically disabled students to maneuver.
● Encourage students to participate in all activities to the fullest extent possible.
● Establish a rotating series of “helpers” to assist any physically disabled students in
moving about the room. Students often enjoy this responsibility and the opportunity to
assist whenever necessary.
● Focus on the intellectual investment in an activity. That is, help the child use his or her
problem-solving abilities and thinking skills in completing an assignment without regard
to his or her ability to get to an area that requires object manipulation.
● When designing an activity or constructing necessary equipment, be on the lookout for
alternative methods of display, manipulation, or presentation.
● Physically impaired students will, quite naturally, be frustrated at not being able to do
everything the other students can accomplish. Be sure to take some time periodically to
talk with those students and help them get their feelings and/or frustrations out in the
open. Help the child understand that those feelings are natural but also that they need to
be discussed periodically.

Students Who Have Emotional Problems

Students with emotional problems are those who demonstrate an inability to build or maintain
satisfactory interpersonal relationships, develop physical symptoms or fears associated with
personal or school problems, exhibit a pervasive mood of unhappiness under normal
circumstances, or show inappropriate types of behavior under normal circumstances.

Although you will certainly not be expected to remediate all the emotional difficulties of
students, you need to understand that you can and do have a positive impact on students' ability
to seek solutions and work in concert with those trying to help them. Here are some guidelines
for your classroom:
 ● Whenever possible, give the student a sense of responsibility. Put the student in charge of
something (operating an overhead projector, cleaning the classroom aquarium, re-potting
a plant), and be sure to recognize the effort the student put into completing the assigned
task.
● Provide opportunities for the student to self-select an activity or two he or she would like
to pursue independently. Invite the student to share his or her findings or discoveries with
the rest of the class.
● Get the student involved in activities with other students—particularly those students
who can serve as good role models for the child. It is important that the emotionally
disturbed child has opportunities to interact with fellow students who can provide
appropriate behavioral guidelines through their actions.
● Discuss appropriate classroom behavior at frequent intervals. Don't expect students to
remember in May all the classroom rules that were established in September. Provide
“refresher courses” on expected behavior throughout the year.
● Emotionally disabled students benefit from a highly structured program—one in which
the sequence of activities and procedures is constant and stable. You will certainly want
to consider a varied academic program for all your students, but you will also want to
think about an internal structure that provides the support emotionally impaired
youngsters need.
● Be sure to seat an emotionally impaired child away from any distractions (highly verbal
students, equipment, tools, etc.).
● Whenever possible, keep the activities short and quick. Provide immediate feedback,
reinforcement, and a sufficient amount of praise.

Students Who Have ADHD

Students with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) offer significant and often

perplexing challenges for many teachers. ADHD students comprise approximately 3 to 5 percent
of the school-age population. Students with ADHD generally have difficulties with attention,
hyperactivity, impulse control, emotional stability, or a combination of those factors.

A student who has ADHD …

● Has difficulty following directions.

● Has difficulty playing quietly.
● Talks excessively.
● Fidgets or squirms when sitting.
● Blurts out things.
● Is easily distracted.
● Often engages in dangerous play without thinking about the consequences.
● Has difficulty awaiting turns.
● Interrupts or intrudes.
● Doesn't seem to listen.
● Has difficulty paying attention.
● Has difficulty remaining seated.
● Often shifts from one activity to another.
When working with ADHD students in your classroom, keep the following in mind:

● Make your instructions brief and clear, and teach one step at a time.
● Be sure to make behavioral expectations clear.
● Carefully monitor work, especially when students move from one activity to another.
● Make frequent eye contact. Interestingly, students in the second row are more focused
then those in the first.
● Adjust work time so it matches attention spans. Provide frequent breaks as necessary.
● Provide a quiet work area where students can move for better concentration.
● Establish and use a secret signal to let students know when they are off task or
misbehaving.
● Use physical contact (a hand on the shoulder) to focus attention.
● Combine both visual and auditory information when giving directions.
● Ease transitions by providing cues and warnings.
● Teach relaxation techniques for longer work periods or tests.
● Each day be sure students have one task they can complete successfully.
● Limit the amount of homework.
● Whenever possible, break an assignment into manageable segments.

You are not alone when you're working with special needs students. Often specialists, clinicians,
and other experts are available in the school as part of an educational team. Included on the team
may be special education teachers, diagnosticians, parents, social workers, representatives from
community agencies, administrators, and other teachers. By working in concert and sharing
ideas, you can provide a purposeful education plan for each special needs student.