MODULE 1: Introduction on Culture,

Society and Politics (Anthropology,

Sociology and Politics)

ANTHROPOLOGY - the science or study of man.

From the Greek word
ANTHROPOS (man) + LOGY (study)
The term "Anthropology" is defined as the scientific study of human beings, human behavior, and the
different societies that have existed in the past and what we have now at present. In a nutshell,
anthropology is the systematic study of humanity, with the main goal of understanding our human
origins, our uniqueness as a species, and the great diversity in our forms of social existence across the
world and through time.

RELATIONSHIP of ANTHROPOLOGY to other DISCIPLINES

1. Anthropology and Sociology

Similarities: Shares an interest in social relations, organization, and behaviors.
Differences: 1. The kind of society that they study
2. Data gathering procedures
3. Method of conducting the study
(sampling and statistical technique versus ethnography)

2. Anthropology and Psychology

Psychological Anthropology studies about the different cultural and mental processes of man.
(Cognition, emotion. Motivation, and psychological processes).

3. Anthropology and Education

Research from anthropology extends from experts to classrooms into homes, neighborhoods, and
communities.

4. Anthropology and Business

Through micro enculturation (the gradual acquisition of the characteristics and norms of a culture or
group by a person, another culture, etc.)

FOUR MAJOR FIELDS OF ANTHROPOLOGY

1.Biological Anthropology/ Physical Anthropology 
 Studies the HOMO SAPIENS as biological beings both in the present and in the past to explain and
describe the evolution of our species.

Paleoanthropology also spelled Palaeoanthropology, Also called Human Paleontology, and

interdisciplinary branch of anthropology concerned with the origins and development of early
humans. Fossils are assessed by the techniques of physical anthripology, comparative anatomy, and
the theory of evolution.
 
Primatology is the study of primate orders of mammals other than recent humans (Homo sapiens).
The species are characterized especially by the advanced development of binocular vision,
specialization of the appendages for grasping, and enlargement of the cerebral hemisphere.
 
2. Cultural Anthropology/ Social Anthropology
 The study of the description and comparison of the adaptation made by human groups to the diverse
ecosystem on earth.
Ethnography is a branch of anthropology and the systematic study of individual cultures. In contrast
with ethnology, ethnography. Explores cultural phenomena from the point of view of the subject of
the study.
Ethnology is the branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the characteristics of different
peoples and the relationships between them.

3. Archeology

  A systematic study of remains of the previous culture as a means of reconstructing the lifeways of
the people who lived in the past.

Prehistoric Archeology
1. Artifacts- object made or altered by humans
2.Features- no portable evidence of technology (roads, buildings)
3.Eco facts- natural materials such as plants and animals.

4. Linguistics

    The study of language. Anthropological linguists do not necessarily speak several languages. (such
person is called a polyglot)
Descriptive Linguistics is the study of the grammar, classification, and arrangement of the features
of a language at a given time, without reference to the history of the language or comparison with
other languages.

Historical linguistics, also called Diachronic Linguistics, is the branch of linguistics concerned with
the study of phonological, grammatical, and semantic changes, the reconstruction of earlier stages of
languages, and the discovery and application of the methods by which genetic relationships among
languages can be demonstrated. 

POLITICAL SCIENCE

Political science focuses on the theory and practice of government and politics at the local, state,
national. And international levels. Dedicated to developing understandings of institutions, practices,
and relations that constitute public life and modes of inquiry that promote citizenship.
ARISTOTLE- The FATHER OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

TYPES OF MAJOR POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES

Socialism, the social and economic doctrine that calls for public rather than private ownership or
control of property and natural resources. According to the socialist view, individuals do not live or
work in isolation but live in cooperation with one another.

Furthermore, everything that people produce is, in some sense, a social product, and everyone who
contributes to the production of a good is entitled to a share in it. Society as a whole, therefore,
should own or at least control property for the benefit of all its members.
 SOCIOLOGY
Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. Sociology’s subject matter is
diverse, ranging from crime to religion, form the family to the state, from the divisions of race and
social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social stability to radical change in
whole societies. Unifying the study of these diverse subject of study is sociology’s purpose of
understanding how human action and consciousness both shape and are shaped by surrounding
cultural and social structures.

RELATIONSHIP OF SOCIOLOGY TO OTHER SCIENCES

How does sociology enrich our life?
1.Teachers, students, and even ordinary individuals can use it as an intellectual exercise if they are
curious about the different things that are happening around them.
2. It can be used to understand our lives better.
3. It can also be used in pursuing a specific career in the government.

RELATIONSHIP OF SOCIOLOGY TO OTHER SCIENCES

According to Thomas (1995), he highlighted the relationship of Sociology with another field of
Social Sciences, and these are as follows:
1. Sociology and Anthropology- the comparative study of the various aspects of the past and present
in the social science closest to sociology in its subject matter. anthropologists traditionally have
concentrated on examining past culture and present simple societies.
2. Sociology and Psychology- both studies how a human being behaves and acts inside the society,
the only difference is that psychology focuses on one individual, why sociology studies society as a
whole.
3. Sociology and Economics- the study of the choices people make to satisfy their needs and wants. It
is the factor that affects people’s choices and how they live with various groups in society.
4. Sociology and Political Science- both deal with the interests including the voting patterns, the
concentration of political power, and the formation of politically-based groups.
5. Sociology and History- both of the disciplines study past events to explain the present situation in
society.

PIONEERS OF SOCIOLOGY
1.) Auguste Comte (1798-1857) -was the first to develop the concept of "sociology." He defined
sociology as a positive science. Positivism is the search for "invariant laws of the natural and social
world." Comte identified three basic methods for discovering these invariant laws, observation,
experimentation, and comparison. He is also famous for his Law of the Three Stages. These three
stages are theological, metaphysical, and positivist. Comte discussed the difference between social
statistics and social dynamics; which have been renamed social structure and social change. Comte’s
ideas have had a major role in developing structural functionalism. His major goal was to integrate
theory and practice.

Comte proposed the two Branches of Society

A.Static – the study of an organization that allows society to endure.
B.Dynamics – the study of the process by which societies change.

2.) Harriet Martineau (1802-1876) - Even before the works of Marx, Engels, or Weber, Martineau
examined social class, religion, suicide, national character, domestic relations, and how these
elements affected social problems and individuals. Martineau was also very active in women's rights,
the fight against slavery, the struggle of the common worker, and religious tolerance. Harriet
Martineau is considered the first woman sociologist. She is an essayist, novelist, journalist, and
economic and historical writer who was prominent among English intellectuals of her time. Perhaps
her most scholarly work is The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte, Freely Translated and
Condensed, 2 vol. (1853), her version of Comte’s Cours de philosophie positive, 6 vol. (1830–42).

3. ) Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) - an English sociologist, and philosopher, an early advocate of the
theory of evolution, who achieved an influential synthesis of knowledge, advocating the preeminence
of the individual over society and of science over religion.

He was known for his contributions to evolutionary theory and for applying it outside of biology, to
the fields of philosophy, psychology, and sociology. In this work, he coined the term "survival of the
fittest." In addition, he helped develop the functionalist perspective, one of the major theoretical
frameworks in sociology

4. ) Karl Marx (1818-1883) - in full Karl Heinrich Marx, a revolutionary, sociologist, historian, and
economist. He published (with Friedrich Engels) Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei (1848),
commonly known as The Communist Manifesto, the most celebrated pamphlet in the history of the
socialist movement. He also was the author of the movement’s most important book, Das Kapital.
These writings and others by Marx and Engels form the basis of the body of thought and belief
known as Marxism.
5.) Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) - was a well-known sociologist famous for his views on the
structure of society. His work focused on how traditional and modern societies evolved and function.
Durkheim's theories were founded on the concept of social facts, defined as the norms, values, and
structures of society.

This perspective of society differed from other sociologists of his era as Durkheim's theories were
founded on things external in nature, as opposed to those internal in nature, such as the motivations
and desires of individuals. According to Durkheim, collective consciousness, values, and rules are
critical to a functional society. In this lesson, we will focus on Durkheim's theories of functionalism,
anomie, and division of labor.

6.) Max Weber (1864-1920) - was a 19th-century german sociologist and one of the founders of
modern sociology. He wrote 'The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism' in 1905. German
sociologist and political economist best known for his thesis of the “Protestant ethic,” relating
Protestantism to capitalism, and for his ideas on bureaucracy. Weber’s profound influence on
sociological theory stems from his demand for objectivity in scholarship and from his analysis of the
motives behind human action.

Module 2: Defining Culture and Society from the

Perspective of Anthropology and Sociology

HUMAN SOCIETY AND THE FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIETY

What is Society?
A group of interacting individuals sharing the same way of life and living in the same state or
territory. 
Thio (2000), gives the different foundations of society and these are as follows:
 
WHAT ARE THE TWO FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIETY?
FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIETY

 
 STATUS The relative social, professional, or another standing of someone or something. 
Social status, also called status, is the relative rank that an individual holds, with attendant rights,
duties, and lifestyle, in social status or hierarchy based upon honor or prestige. 
ASCRIBED —that is, assigned to individuals at birth without reference to any innate abilities. While
a person's status is usually determined by their gender or age or race or family ties or birth, a person's
status can be determined by their education, occupation, marital status, or other factors.
ACHIEVED- requiring special qualities and gained through competition and individual effort

As a socially recognized behavior pattern, a role serves as a means of identifying and placing an
individual in society. In addition, it is a way to deal with situations that recur and with other people's
roles (e.g., parent-child roles). A person or thing's role in a particular situation.

CULTURE
WHAT IS CULTURE?  - CULTURE is defined as the collection of all the shared products of human
beings, it can be physical or material culture to non-material culture or those that are abstract ones. 
The term is derived from the Latin “colere”. Which means to tend to the earth and grow, or
cultivation and nurture.

Other definitions of Culture

1.) They have a certain quality if they care about excellence in the arts and letters, manners and
scholarly pursuits, etc.
2.) There's a lot to admire in terms of the arts, manners, etc.
3.) Some form of civilization, such as that of a certain nation or period: Greek culture
4.) Arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement are viewed as a whole
5.) There are several customs, arts, and social institutions of a particular nation, people, or social
group.
1. MATERIAL CULTURE- the physical object that people create.
Examples: Mobile phones, clothing, books, building, cooking utensils, etc.

2. NON-MATERIAL CULTURE- the abstract human creations.

Examples: Language, ideas, beliefs, rules, skills.

DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF CULTURE

According to Thomas (1997), all or most of the cultures consist of five basic elements and these are
as follow

1.) Symbols – Anything that stands for “something else” and has attatched meaning to it.

2.) Language – The Organization of written or spoken symbols into standardized system.

3.) Values – Shared beliefs about what is good or bad, right or wrong, desirable and undesirable.

4.) Norms – Shared rules of conduct that tells people how to act in specific area
 DIFFERENT CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

1.) Dynamic, Flexible, & Adaptive- culture keeps on changing, otherwise, we would have a huge
problem in adapting to the changing environmental problems. Most cultures interact and change over
some time because of their contact with another or a different culture, they tend to exchange ideas
and symbols.

2. Shared and Contested - (given the reality of social differentiation) culture must be shared.
Because we share culture with other members of society, we can act socially appropriately and
predict how others will act too.

3. Learned through socialization or enculturation - culture is learned in many different forms. We

learn about cultures from our families, peers, institutions and the most visible one is through media
and social media. Culture as said is not biological, or we do not have it when we are born, we do not
inherit it. And the act of learning culture is called enculturation, it is learned and acquired when we
socialize with other people around us.

4. Integrated and at times unstable - All aspects of culture are related to one another and to truly
understand a culture, one must learn about all of its parts, not only a few.

5. Requires language and other forms of communication - Varies cross-culturally and is arbitrary/
Symbol means something that stands for something else. They only have meaning when people in a
culture agree on their use.

CONCEPTS OF CULTURE

Sociologist examines a culture by breaking it down into levels and studying each level separately.

CULTURE TRAITS
- The smallest unit of culture
- An individual tool, act, or belief that is related to a particular situation or need

CULTURE COMPLEXES
- Individual culture traits combine to form culture complexes.
- The cluster of interrelated traits.      

CULTURE PATTERN
- Culture complexes combine to form large units called culture patterns.
CULTURAL UNIVERSAL
- Thio (2000) explains that human being everywhere is the product of the same evolutionary process,
and all of us have the same needs that must be met if we are to survive
- is an element, pattern, trait, or institution that is common to all human cultures worldwide.

CULTURE CLASH
- The difference among different cultural domains can be expected to generate most of the conflict
around the globe.
- Conflict arising from the interaction of people with different cultural values.

ETHNOCENTRISM AND XENOCENTRISM

What is the difference between Ethnocentrism and Xenocentrism?

ETHNOCENTRISM – an attitude that one’s own culture is superior to those of other peoples.

XENOCENTRISM – an attitude that one’s own culture is inferior to those of other peoples.

Numerous reasons exist for why people of different races and religions are at odds with one another.
Your ethnic group is superior to everyone else's. They believe that because of their ethnicity, they are
superior to others. That this practice has something to do with racism and prejudice is undeniable. To
put it bluntly, this is the antithesis of xenocentrism, which holds that someone else's culture is better
than their own. Consider, for example, an American who believes that French culture is superior to
American culture.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Cultural relativism is the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to make judgments
using the standards of one’s own culture. The goal of this is to promote an understanding of cultural
practices that are not typically part of one’s own culture. Using the perspective of cultural relativism
leads to the view that no one culture is superior to another culture when compared to systems of
morality, law, politics, etc.

Two different categories of cultural relativism

1. Absolute - Everything that happens within a culture must and should not be questioned by
outsiders. The extreme example of absolute cultural relativism would be the Nazi party’s point of
view justifying the Holocaust.
2. Critical - Creates questions about cultural practices in terms of who is accepting them and why.
Critical cultural relativism also recognizes power relationships.

Module 3a: Culture and Society from the Perspectives

of Anthropology and Sociology

1.) Subjects or social actor, agent, person - Referring the person and what the person can do; the
person` effect or influence on others (good or bad); the person as a member of the society

2.) Social, political, and cultural behavior and phenomena - Any action, behavior, outcome,
decision, issue or events (ABODIE) in the society.

3.) Community - Society is different from the community in a way that “community is only a social
group whose members reside in a specific locality, share government, and often have a common
cultural and historical heritage. A community perceives itself as distinct in some respect from the
larger society within which it exists (Dictionary.com, 2020).

4.) Social change - "Sociologists define social change as changes in human interactions and
relationships that transform cultural and social institutions." (Southern New Hampshire University,
2021).

5.) Cultural change - "The modification of a society through innovation, invention, discovery, or
contact with other societies" (Merriam Webster).

6. Political change - "Political change occurs when the rulers in a country lose power or the type of
governance in the country changes. Governance is the type of system used to rule a country.

Political change is a normal function of internal and external politics. Rulers will be voted out, retire,
or die while in power, and the new leader will make changes" (Study.com, 2021).

7. Social competence - "Social competence effectiveness or skill in interpersonal relations and social
situations is increasingly considered an important component of mental health.

Social competence involves the ability to evaluate social situations and determine what is expected or
required; to recognize the feelings and intentions of others, and to select social behaviors that are
most appropriate for that given context. It is important to note, however, that what is required and
appropriate for effective social functioning is likely to vary across settings" (APA, n.d.).

8. Cultural competence - Cultural competence is "the ability of a person to effectively interact,

work, and develop meaningful relationships with people of various cultural backgrounds. Cultural
background can include the beliefs, customs, and behaviors of people from various groups. Gaining
cultural competence is a lifelong process of increasing self-awareness, developing social skills and
behaviors around diversity, and gaining the ability to advocate for others. It goes beyond tolerance,
which implies that one is simply willing to overlook differences. Instead, it includes recognizing and
respecting diversity through our words and actions in all contexts (APA, 2020)"

9. Critical attitude or spirit - "The detached and objectifying frame of mind of a disinterested
observer in which phenomena are subject to critical attention rather than taken for granted as in the
natural attitude" (Schutz, n.d.); involves careful or analytical evaluations.

10.) Open attitude - "Being willing to consider ideas and opinions that are new or different from
your own" (Collins English Dictionary, n.d.) Open-means affording free passage, access, view, etc.;
not blocked or obstructed; unreserved or candid; not decided or finalized

11.) Ethnocentricity

: "characterized by or based on the attitude that one's own group is superior" (Merriam Dictionary,
2021)

: a tendency to view race or culture, and privileged, based on the belief that one's group is superior to
others.

"Ethnocentrism is a form of egocentrism extended from self to the group. Much uncritical or selfish
critical thinking is either egocentric or ethnocentric in nature.

Ethnocentrism and sociocentrism extended are used synonymously, for the most part, though socio-
centricity is broader, relating to any social groups including, for example, socio-centricity regarding
one's profession. Most humans privileged the beliefs, norms, and practices of their own culture (De
Guzman, 2017)."

(On ethnocentricity) Why is it difficult to tell that other people are ethnocentric if you are
ethnocentric?

Is there a better culture (in comparison to other cultures) for humans to have a more productive and
happier life?

PERSPECTIVES IN/APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF

CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Perspectives in/Approaches to the Study of Culture and Society

This refers to the means or ways to discuss and know more about the culture and society (i.e.,
comparative, historical, structural-functional, interpretive, critical)
A.) Comparative approach- just compare but do not use subjective descriptors such as beautiful,
dull, easy, etc.

Example: Rice is a food staple particularly in Asia, Latin America, and parts of Africa while

corn has been spread throughout the world and now makes up a major source of food in Africa,
Europe, and the US.

B.) Historical approach- just discuss and/or describe its origin and how the culture developed over
time without using subjective descriptors

Example:

Since the 1970s, the Philippines has been exporting labor abroad, with some members engaging in
paid labor abroad while many remain in their hometown or village.

C.) Structural-functional approach - just discuss the sociocultural structure (what composes it) and
the functions or roles of its members or parts

Example:

The common family composition in the Philippines consists of a father, mother, children, extended
family members. Generally, the head of the household is usually the oldest female. Income from
family members is often pooled together, then the matriarch will look after the family finances

D.) Interpretive approach - To interpret means to "explain the meaning of"; observe ethnocentrism
(the evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs
of one's own culture)

Example: Filipinos tend to dress modestly, especially when in public.

Do not refer to the woman of the house as ‘hostess’ as this has an alternative meaning in the
Philippines that is offensive.

Try to accept any refreshments offered. Refusing them is considered impolite.

E.) Critical approach - analysis of the culture or society that shows completeness, significance,
clarity, and accuracy

Example: Filial piety (stresses the importance of age in society) is an important concept in Filipino
culture. It is understood as essential in order to maintain the collective face of the family and to avoid
experiencing hiya (see Social Interactions and Hiya in ‘Core Concepts’). Many Filipinos hold the
belief that each family member has several duties and responsibilities they must uphold. Observing
one’s duties and responsibilities is important in order to correctly respect others and to ensure
harmony among family members. For example, family members are required to show respect to their
elders at all times. The opinions of younger family members and children’s opinions are considered
to be secondary to their superiors. Moreover, those requiring age care are nearly always taken care of
by their children or grandchildren.
 Module 3b: Looking back at Human Cultural and
Sociopolitical Development
The Fertile Crescent, A quarter-moon-shaped region of modern-day Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan,
Israel, and northern Egypt is referred to as the "Cradle of Civilization" in the Middle East. Ancient
Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Levant have all made significant contributions to world culture, as have
the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Egyptians, and Phoenicians. Named "Cradle of Civilization",
the Fertile Crescent is considered the birthplace of agriculture and urbanization as well as the
birthplace of writing and trade.

FERTILE CRESCENT: CRADLE OF CIVILIZATION

1. TIGRIS-EUPHRATES RIVER CIVILIZATION OF MESOPOTAMIA

"The climate and geography of southwest Asia, along the Tigris and Euphrates River system, aided
in the emergence of human civilization," he says. In its history, the wheel, the concept of time, and
math have all been developed.

Mesopotamia has been ruled by a succession of rulers from different regions and cities over the
centuries.

People were able to settle and farm in one area due to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

Mesopotamia is described as a disorganized collection of city-states united.

2. THE NILE VALLEY CIVILIZATION OF EGYPT

The Ancient Egyptian civilization, famous for its pyramids, pharaohs, mummies, and tombs,
flourished for thousands of years. But what was its lasting impact? Learn how Ancient Egypt
contributed to society with its many cultural developments, particularly in language and
mathematics.

Known as “Gift of Nile”.

Architectural achievements are what ancient Egypt is known for, also for its hieroglyphics, for its
elaborate religion, which emphasized life after death, which led to the development of
mummification.
3. THE YELLOW RIVER CIVILIZATION OF CHINA

In Chinese history, the Yellow River is a river that represents the origins of civilization and culture.
Ancient Chinese culture owes a lot to this.

The Chinese refer to it as "the Mother River" and "the Cradle of Chinese Civilization." Early Chinese
civilizations like the Xia (2100–1600 BC) and Shang (1600–1046 BC) were born along the Yellow
River, which was the most prosperous region in ancient China.

As farmers began to settle in the Yellow River Valley, Yellow Valley was born.

4. INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION OF INDIA

It is located in modern Pakistan. The ruins of this civilization, in such sites as Harappa, Dholavira,
and Mohenjo Daro, discovered in the early 1920s reveal that it was probably the largest among the
four ancient civilizations.

5. ANCIENT GREECE

In ancient Greece or archaic Greece, the period from 700-480 BCE is characterized by art,
architecture, and philosophy.

However, it is best known as the age when the polis (or city-state) was invented.

Greece's political life for hundreds of years was defined by the polis.

6. The ROMAN REPUBLIC

The Romans achieved greatness in their military, political, and social institutions.

Some of the most significant influences of Rome are the Western alphabet of 26 letters and the
calendar of 12 months and 365.25 days are only two simple examples of the cultural legacy which
Rome has contributed to Western civilization.

FEATURES OF CIVILIZATION
1.) Cities

Civilization is a term used to describe a complex way of life that developed when people began to
build urban settlements. Civilized societies were urban societies; they were larger and complex than
villages. They had palaces, temples, markets, workshops, and homes. Before they could emerge,
there must be a surplus in food supplies produced by the villagers.

2.) Writings

People were able to record their history and everyday events through written language, which is
crucial for understanding ancient cultures. It enables people to preserve, organize, and expand their
knowledge through the use of technology. It also made it easier for the officials to do their work.
Around 3100 BCE, Sumerians emerged in Mesopotamia as the oldest known written language.
Cuneiform, the most familiar form of Sumerian writing, consisted of a variety of wedge (triangle)
shapes. Keeping records was the primary purpose of Sumerian writing from the beginning. Sumerian
cuneiform kept track of taxes, grocery bills, and laws for things like theft, just like modern
civilizations. The most familiar platform of shared communication is probably written language. One
of the first written languages was Sumerian cuneiform, made up of triangle shapes.

The most familiar platform of shared communication is probably written language. One of the first
written languages was Sumerian cuneiform, made up of triangle shapes.

3.) Specialization

A complex division of labor has always characterized human societies throughout history. Therefore,
different people are assigned to jobs that require specific skills. Food, shelter, clothing, and other
necessities can be provided for by those who live in an agricultural society. In a complex civilization,
a farmer may specialize in one type of crop and rely on others for other foods, clothing, shelter, or
information. The division of labor is particularly pronounced in societies that rely on trade.

4.) Government

All civilizations rely on government administration. An organized way of making and enforcing
decisions. It maintains order in a society. The government also collects taxes to fund different
projects such as roads, irrigation works, palaces, temples, and bridges. The government drew up
boundary lines to protect its people and territory, and form its army to protect and expand its borders.

5.) Religion

Religion gives rulers the authority for they were thought to represent the will of God. To the ancient
people, religion is something to help them understand/provide meaning to life.

DEMOCRACY
WHAT IS DEMOCRACY?
From Greek word demokratia: demos means “PEOPLE” kratia meaning “GOVERNMENT”

Democracy is the “government of the people”.

Democratization

A process in which democracy expands, within a state or across the world.

ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS OF DEMOCRACY

1.) Popular support of the government
2.) Alternation in Power
3.) Majority Rule
4.) Political Competition
5.) Popular Representation

Module #3: Tracing Back at Human Social Evolution

NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION
WHAT IS THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION?

NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION or so-called AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION. During the

NEOLITHIC PERIOD, hunter-gatherers roamed the natural world, foraging for their food. But then a
dramatic shift occurred. The foragers become farmers, transitioning from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle
to a more settled one.

The Neolithic Revolution is also known as the Agricultural Revolution because it marked the
transition from small hunter-gatherer bands to larger agricultural settlements and early civilization.

Plant domestication: During this period, cereals such as emmer, einkorn, and barley were among the
first domesticated crops in the Fertile Crescent by Neolithic farming communities. In addition to
lentils, chickpeas, peas, and flax, these early farmers domesticated other crops.

Livestock: A Neolithic hunter-gatherer culture domesticated the first animals. For example,
domestic pigs were bred from wild boars, while goats were bred from Persian ibexes, and so on. It
was domesticated animals that made farming possible, as well as adding variety to the human diet
with their milk and meat. Smallpox, influenza, and measles were all transmitted from domesticated
animals to humans.

Effects of the Neolithic Revolution

Many individuals engaged in farming and agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution. Globalization
brought civilizations together through trade and conquest thanks to these advances in farming, war,
art, etc."
To further understand the Neolithic revolution, watch this video that will discuss the different things
that we need to remember about this period in history.

Neolithic Revolution in Different Parts of the World

Middle East
In Mesopotamia (land between rivers)
Agricultural practices and animal domestication began in areas with a steady stream of rain.
Africa
It started in Nabta Playa, Eastern Sahara, and Southern Egypt.
It provides the early “African Cattle Complex” in which cattle are used economically for their milk
and blood rather than killed. (or their beef)

Europe
In Mediterranean shores, (Greece, Italy, France)
Shifting from foraging (searching for food) into farming imported species.

Asia
China was the first one to develop farming, based on millet rice.

Module #4: Becoming a Member of the Society

BEING A PART OF SOCIETY

HOW CAN AN INDIVIDUAL BE A MEMBER OF SOCIETY? According to the famous author,
J.K Rowling, “there is no greater adventure than growing up”, as she said this, individuals that are
growing up experience a great adventure in learning about the different things that surround them.
And as individuals grow older, he/she is learning the importance of socializing with other people and
going along with them, learning about the difference between each culture, sometimes adapting them
and incorporating them into their own culture and embracing it. As a member of the society, we
should all remember the saying that, “no man is an island” no one can live on his own, that is why
adapting, adjusting, participating, and learning about the different things that made up the society that
we live in is a must for us.

TWO PROCESSES OF LEARNING AND ACQUIRING CULTURE

According to a sociologist named, TALCOTT PARSONS, when a child is born, he/she doesn’t know
anything at all, in that sense, he used the term “barbarians” to refer to a newborn child. They have no
concept of the world, language, morality, or values. They are uncultured and not socialized persons.
And as the infant grows up, they need to learn and adapt to the different culture around them, they
will acquire those through the process of enculturation termed by the anthropologist and
socialization, termed by the sociologist.

ENCULTURATION
According to Grusec et. al,2007, enculturation is the process by which people learn the requirements
of their surrounding culture and acquire values and behaviors appropriate or necessary in the culture
that he/she belongs to.
A person's culture is acquired through the process of enculturation, which involves learning the
values and norms of the society in which they live.
It is the way or process in which an individual learns the different components of one’s culture, such
as values, norms, ideas, concepts, language, customs, and tradition that makes a culture known or
distinguished from another culture.
Enculturation starts at birth and continues until death, people never stop learning.

Moreover, enculturation has two phases, and they are as follows:

UNCONSCIOUS STAGE- early in the years of human growth where the individual unconsciously
internalized or learned his culture. One example of this is when a child learns how to use “po and
opo” as a respectful way to address the elders which they have to learn what their parents are using
while talking to the elderly people.
CONSCIOUS STAGE -enculturation in the later years, which involves innovations initiated by
individuals. The process in which people innovates ideas to modify something that they have learned
of seen from someone or somewhere, and example of this is when an adult watched the television
and saw some dishes that look delicious but the ingredients are not available to the community, and
that is where innovation occurs when the touch of his locality will be imputed to the dish.

In the same manner, Grunland and Mayers, (1998) stated that acculturations have two major
aspects:
INFORMAL- it is also called “child-training” which means while the child is growing up, he/she is
trained about the thing that he must do and he must not do, imparting knowledge to the children
through the help of those people around them, especially the parents.
FORMAL- or also referred to as “education”, imparting of culturally accepted things are done
through formal education, with the help of the educational institutions.

SOCIALIZATION
The process in which people learn the rules and practices needed to participate successfully in their
culture and society.
As a result of socialization, a person learns how to fit in with a group (or society) and behave in a
way that is acceptable to the group (or society). All of life's learning, according to social scientists, is
socialization. It has a major influence both on the behavior, beliefs, and actions of adults and
children. Individuals are taught how to function in society through socialization. You can read about
how people come to understand and accept the beliefs of society as well as learn about its values in
this book. To be precise, socialization is a sociological process that occurs in the context of
socializing (interacting with others, such as family members, friends, and coworkers). As an
individual develops a personal identity, he or she also learns the appropriate social behaviors and
social skills for his or her social position.

Difference between Enculturation and Socialization?

The main difference between socialization and enculturation is that socialization is the process of
learning to behave in a way that is acceptable to society, whereas enculturation is the process of
being socialized into a certain culture.
Secondly, the difference between socialization and enculturation is that socialization is
(sociology/psychology) the process of learning how to live in a way acceptable to one's society, said
especially about children while enculturation is the process by which an individual adopts the
behavior patterns of the culture in which he or she is immersed.
Socialization and enculturation are two similar processes. It is not incorrect to say that
enculturation is a product of socialization.
In conclusion, the two are somehow similar, both are the process of acquiring and learning the
different requirements or components of one’s culture to fully participate in the society that they
belong to, the only difference is simply that, enculturation is used by the anthropologist to refer how
and the individual learns about his or her culture, while socialization is a term commonly used by the
sociologist to describe how and individual participates in the society.

THINGS THAT WE CAN LEARN:

After learning about the process of enculturation and socialization, what are the things that an
individual learns to adapt through this process? 
In the succeeding lesson for this module, we will learn about these things. Here is the list of
things that they learn to adapt to form. 

1. Identity Formation
2. Norms
3. Values
4. Status
5. Roles
6. Conformity
7. Deviance
8. Social Control
9. Human Rights
10. Human Dignity 
11. Common Good

1. IDENTITY FORMATION

Through the process of socialization and enculturation, one’s identity is being formed, now what is
so-called identity formation?

Identity formation has been most extensively described by Erik Erikson in his theory of
developmental stages, which extends from birth through adulthood. According to Erikson, identity
formation, while beginning in childhood, gains prominence during adolescence. Faced with physical
growth, sexual maturation, and impending career choices, adolescents must accomplish the task of
integrating their prior experiences and characteristics into a stable identity.

An important stage in adolescent development is the development of identity Adolescence is a time

when many people begin to search for their identity. They are more willing to experiment with
different behaviors and appearances to discover who they are during this period. To discover who
they are and what they want, teenagers are likely to try on a variety of identities to find the one that
fits them best. Adolescence is a time when many factors come into play such as family, environment,
and social standing.
What is identity?

According to Giddens et. al: 2007, identity relates to the understanding people hold on to and believe
in what is meaningful to them as it may be sourced of gender, sexual orientation, nationality or
ethnicity, and social class.

Identity also refers to who a person is, or the qualities of a person or group that make them different
from others.

SOCIAL IDENTITY- it refers to the characteristics that other people attribute to an individual.
These are also called markers to identify someone in society. A father, a student, sibling, widow, a
teacher are some examples of social identity. Social identity is a person’s sense of who they are
based on their group membership(s).

SELF IDENTITY- or referred also as personal identity, it makes one a unique or distinct individual.
It refers also to the process of self-development through which an individual formulates a unique
sense of themselves and their relationship to the people or things around him/her. Self-identity refers
to stable and prominent aspects of one’s self-perception

NORMS AND VALUES

Norms are social rules that specify appropriate and inappropriate behavior in a given situation, this is
according to Hughes and Kroehler (2009). Values are defined as collective conceptions on what is
considered good, desirable, and proper or bad, undesirable, and improper. Schaefer (2012)

Social norms are standards, rules, guides, and expectations for actual behavior, whereas values are
abstract conceptions of what is important and worthwhile. They are abstract notions of what
constitutes a desirable behavior and what constitutes a good, right, ethical, or moral behavior. For
example, freedom and equality are important values in the United States. A variety of subcultures or
social institutions can impart these values. As long as a society lacks a way to enforce its values,
having values is worthless. To maintain order in groups, societies have developed various forms of
social control. In terms of social control, there are two main categories: norms and laws. A norm is a
set of rules for conduct.

STATUS AND ROLES

STATUS
 A part of a person’s social identity defines his/her relationship with others. (Macionis, 2006).
Also refers to a person’s position inside a group in society. This is according to Hughes and Kroehler
(2009)

Also, status is the position of an individual concerning another or others, especially regarding social
or professional standing. An individual can be addressed by his status, such as a father, governor,
SHS student, a teacher, a vendor, and an online seller are some examples of a status.
On the other hand, every person holds different statuses at the same time, such as being a father, a
teacher, a cousin, a brother to his siblings, and a husband, and this is called STATUS SET.
Moreover, status sets can change over the life course of a person, because a teenager who is a high
school student, will turn into a college student, into a worker, and eventually turn into a family man,
when a man marries to become a husband-and-wife changes are occurring through life stages.

There are two different types of status, and these are ascribed and achieved status.
ASCRIBED STATUS- according to Macionis, 2006 ascribed status is a social position where a
person receives at birth or takes involuntarily later in life. It is also believed to be assigned to us by
the group or society. A person's ascribed status, on the other hand, cannot be changed. Rather, it is a
gift that people are either born with or are unable to control. Sex, race, and age are examples of
ascribed status. As a result, children tend to have more statuses assigned to them than adults.

ACHIEVED STATUS- And achieved status is acquired based on merit; it is a position that is earned
or chosen and reflects a person's skills, abilities, and efforts. Being a professional athlete, for
example, is achieved status, as is being a lawyer, college professor, or even a criminal. As an
example, a family's social status or socioeconomic status is achieved for adults but ascribed to
children. Another example could be homelessness. In the case of adults, homelessness is often the
result of achieving or failing to achieve, something in life. But homelessness is out of their hands.
Children's economic status, or lack thereof, is solely determined by their parent's actions and
decisions.

Lastly, there is the so-called MASTER STATUS, to put it simply, which is a key or core status that
carries primary weight in personal interaction and relationships with others. (Hughes and Kroehler,
2009) If you have a master status, it's the title you use most often when trying to communicate with
others. According to sociology, it refers to a person's social identity and the roles and behaviors that
they adopt in a societal context.

If you have a master status, it's the title you use most often when trying to communicate with
others. According to sociology, it refers to a person's social identity and the roles and behaviors that
they adopt in a societal context.
 The way we see and understand ourselves and our relationships with others are often heavily
influenced by external forces, such as socialization and social interaction.
In addition, for every status a person has, there is a corresponding obligation that he/she must fulfill.
A person can occupy the status, but a person plays a role.

ROLE
Are a set of expectations for people who occupy a given social position or status (Shaefer 2011).
The role, in sociology, is the behavior expected of an individual who occupies a given social position
or status. As a socially recognized behavior pattern, a role is a way to identify and place an individual
in a society. In addition, it is a way to deal with situations that recur and with other people's roles
(e.g., parent-child roles).

A person that holds multiple statuses also holds multiple roles; a sociologist Robert Merton (1968)
introduced the term ROLE SET to identify the number of roles attached to single status.

The sociological significance of roles is that they lay out what is expected of people, like being a
teacher, you are expected to teach and to be a good colleague, a student is expected to study well in
school and a student is also a child that is expected to respect their parents and love their siblings. It
allows us to formulate our behavior so that we can mentally appropriately shape our actions.

CONFORMITY AND DEVIANCE

As an individual that is a part of a society, we tend to feel burdened if we are being addressed as
someone as a conformist or a deviant, that is why we are being careful on how are we going to act in
a particular situation to follow that social norms and to maintain order in our society.

CONFORMITY- or simply compliance with standards, rules, or law.

In the dictionary, conformity means "yielding to group pressures" (Crutchfield, 1955). For example,
bullying, persuasion, and teasing are all examples of group pressure. Influence from the majority is
another term for conformance (or group pressure). As a result of a desire to "fit in" or be liked
(normative) or to be correct (informational), the term conformity is often used to describe an
agreement with the majority position (identification).

In conformity, people alter their beliefs, attitudes, actions, or perceptions to better match those
held by the groups to which they belonged/wanted/desired approval. There are important social
implications to conformity, which continue to be investigated in depth by researchers.
DEVIANCE- Any behavior that violates a cultural norm, violation of social rules, and conventions.
Deviance can vary dramatically across cultures. Cultural norms are relative, which makes deviant
behavior relative as well. “Deviance” is a concept that describes a non-conformity to social norms,
values, and civic expectations, while the “deviant” is someone whose behavior (notably, not attitudes
or beliefs) departs from established moral standards. Alcoholics, gamblers, sex deviants, drug
addicts, or latecomers in the class are all classified as deviants or deviant acts.

CRIMINAL DEVIANCE or Formal deviance includes criminal violation of formally-enacted laws.

Examples of formal deviance include robbery, theft, rape, murder, and assault.

NON-CRIMINAL DEVIANCE or Informal deviance refers to violations of informal social norms,

which are norms that have not been codified into law. Examples of informal deviance include
picking one’s nose, belching loudly, or standing unnecessarily close to another person.

What is the other classification of Deviance?

Physical Deviance – The most visible form of deviance can evoke stereotypes, stigma, and
discrimination. Sociologists classify two types of physical deviance, a. violation of aesthetic norms,
(what people should normally look like, including height, weight) and b. physical incapacity includes
those people with physical disabilities. (Good, 2005).
Sexual Deviance – Includes exotic, dancers, strippers, sex tourism, and sexual in public restrooms,
bisexuality, online sexual predators, prostitute, and other sexual crimes.
Deviance in Cyberspace – is a relatively new phenomenon but comes in many forms: cyberbullying,
online gambling, sexting, illegal downloading of music, movies, and readings.
Elite Deviance - is a condition known to sociologists that exist in a society when the elite of that
society no longer believe that the rules apply to them. Acts did by people who have more power in
society.
Positive Deviance - an approach to behavioral and social change based on the observation that in any
community. This refers to a behavioral and social change approach which is premised on the
observation that in any context, certain individuals confronting similar challenges, constraints, and
resource deprivations to their peers, will nonetheless employ uncommon but successful behaviors or
strategies that enable them to find better solutions.
 People conform when they choose an action that the majority supports or that is deemed socially
acceptable by others. People deviate from the norm when they do something that is not socially
acceptable or favored by a majority. Each morning when you get dressed, for example, you're
confronted with a group of people who, as a majority, dress a certain way. Will you dress the same as
they do, such as in jeans and a T-shirt, or will you dress differently if you want to stand out from the
crowd? Anyone's actions in such a situation are either conformity or deviance.

SOCIAL CONTROL

Social control is the control that society has over an individual or group of people's social norms and
actions. Social control is divided into two subgroup categories, formal social sanctions, and informal
social sanctions. Formal social sanctions are ways that society prohibits any social deviance through
rules and laws. These rules are usually carried out through police officers and court officials.
Informal social sanctions are rules that are not spoken but known or assumed by a community. These
rules become embedded within us to be used at a later time in our lives. (Conley, 2011) (Scott &
Marshall, 2009) (Calhoun, 2002).

HUMAN DIGNITY, HUMAN RIGHTS, AND COMMON GOOD

Section 1. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor
shall any person be denied the equal protection of the laws.

Section 2. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects against
unreasonable searches and seizures of whatever nature and for any purpose shall be inviolable, and
no search warrant or warrant of arrest shall be issued except upon probable cause to be determined
personally by the judge after examination under oath or affirmation of the complainant and the
witnesses he may produce, and particularly describing the place to be searched and the persons or
things to be seized.
Section 3. (1) The privacy of communication and correspondence shall be inviolable except upon
lawful order of the court, or when public safety or order requires otherwise, as prescribed by law.
(2) Any evidence obtained in violation of this or the preceding section shall be inadmissible for any
purpose in any proceeding.
Section 4. No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, of expression, or of the press, or
the right of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the government for a redress of grievances.
Section 5. No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof. The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without
 discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious test shall be required for the
exercise of civil or political rights.
Section 6. The liberty of abode and of changing the same within the limits prescribed by law shall
not be impaired except upon the lawful order of the court. Neither shall the right to travel be impaired
except in the interest of national security, public safety, or public health, as may be provided by law.
Section 7. The right of the people to information on matters of public concern shall be recognized.
Access to official records, and to documents and papers pertaining to official acts, transactions, or
decisions, as well as to government research data used as the basis for policy development, shall be
afforded the citizen, subject to such limitations as may be provided by law.
Section 8. The right of the people, including those employed in the public and private sectors, to
form unions, associations, or societies for purposes not contrary to law shall not be abridged.
Section 9. Private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation.
Section 10. No law impairing the obligation of contracts shall be passed.
Section 11. Free access to the courts and quasi-judicial bodies and adequate legal assistance shall not
be denied to any person by reason of poverty.
Section 12. (1) Any person under investigation for the commission of an offense shall have the right
to be informed of his right to remain silent and to have competent and independent counsel
preferably of his own choice. If the person cannot afford the services of counsel, he must be provided
with one. These rights cannot be waived except in writing and in the presence of counsel.

Module 5: The Organizations in the Society

WHAT IS A GROUP?
- Pertains to a social aggregate or collection of people who just who can in one place at the same time
ex. People queuing at the MRT station or passengers of public vehicle
- A number of people or things that are located close together or are considered or classed
- They may have to perform similar activities but do not interact with each other or vice versa.

Note that group may be used to refer to a social category – individuals classified together because
they share certain characteristics (singing during the national anthem, being educated, being poor,
being man, woman

SOCIAL GROUP
 A collection of people who interact with each other and share similar characteristics and sens of
unity

SOCIAL CATEGORY
A collection of people who do not interact but who share similar characteristics.

There are four ways to identify social groups according to Gelles and Lavine (1999)
Members of a group have a shared identity – if members recognize that they have something in
common and make them believe to be different
Members of a social group interact regularly – when members make a point of getting together
every so often
Social groups have a social structure – formally or informally, they establish a structure of roles
and statuses to coordinate their activities.
Social groups depend on consensus – members must agree to some extent on values, norms, and
goals.

IN-GROUPS AND OUT-GROUPS

In-groups is a group to which people feel that they belong; it commands their loyalty and respect
Out-group is, by contrast, a group one feels opposed to or in competition with

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROUPS

PRIMARY GROUP - coined by Charles Horton Cooley to describe a small warm association based
on ongoing personal, intimate relationships
-Small in size.
-High level of intimacy among member relationship is very personal.
-Members are accepted regardless of who they are – It is more about what the members mean to each
other, Interaction between them is very frequent.

SECONDARY GROUP - a 'cool" impersonal association whose members' relationships are limited
and instrumental (Gelles and Lavine 1999)
-Usually large in size
-Less intimacy among members, relationship is usually impersonal and formal.
-Less frequent interaction with limited contact, Members are accepted on how they perform
 REFERENCE GROUPS AND NETWORK
Reference groups are defined as a group that serves as a point of comparison (or reference) for an
individual in the formation of either general or specific values, attitudes, or behavior.

SOCIAL NETWORKS
A social network is a social structure made up of a set of social actors (such as individuals or
organizations), sets of dyadic ties, and other any relationship between two or more individuals.
Also, "The term "social network" refers both to a person's connections to other people in the real
world and to a platform that supports online communication, such as Instagram, Facebook, or
Twitter" (Psychological Today, 2021) .