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© Joy Goodwin

‘How to be Top’
English Work Book

CHAPTER 14
Language awareness
 Register

 Connotation / denotation

 Bias, emotive language, subjective/objective

 Generalization / stereotyping

 Clichés

 Intention, style

 Fact and opinion

 Propaganda
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1. REGISTER
Good speakers/writers know that their language/writing must be appropriate to the
audience being adressed. These different ways of expressing the same idea occupy
different levels of formality or informality.

When using Formal/Standard English you
must use:
 No abbreviations in writing.
 No slang or colloquialisms.
 Correct use of language.
 Language usually complex.
 Jargon may be used.
When using Informal English you must use:
 Abbreviations may be used.
 Slang and Colloquialisms are often
used.
 Language use often incorrect.
 Language usually more simple
 Jargon may be used.

What is Jargon ?
= specialized language/vocabulary associated with a particular activity, profession or
group of people, and is often full of technical terms that are unlikely to be understood
by those unfamiliar with the activity. [Soccer jargon - open goals, good ball, front
runners, the right flank, their back four, his low cross, the off-side trap, a pin-point cross]

Do not use Jargon in general conversation. It is considered discourteous outside the

group whose special language it is.
e.g. A garage mechanic explaining car trouble:

“The trouble is in the sprigget-buffer, which got twisted round the rear-shock tweeter.
We’ll have to strip down the front dipps, remove the set of grease glippers and see if we
can rebuff the mag shafts. It’ll take about four hours, as long as the mechanic has a
nitch-wragler that fits.”

What is Colloquial language?

= relaxed, informal, everyday language. [“Are you doing anything tomorrow night?”
rather than: “Have you an engagement for tomorrow evening?”] Also includes
vocabulary that is specific to geographic areas such as Americanism, South
Africanisms, Australian English, Scottish English etc. and careless use of grammar,
inclusion of slang terms and, in writing, abbreviations. Note – when speaking one may
use formal English and still say things like “I don’t…”

What is Slang ?
 Words used to mean something other than they are supposed to. bread, brass,
dough = money; chick = girlfriend; doing porridge = prison time; tune =
speak to; check = look at
 A foreign word not adopted into formal English: vamoose = go (Mexican)
 A new word made by combining two existing words. Gorilla /baboon = goon
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AVOID    
Verbosity, Journalese, Officialese and Commercialese. These are terms relating to the
long-winded, vague, wordy, ornate and often incomprehensible style of writing often
used by writers in the press; by government officials and by many writers of business
letters and documents. Their use is not considered good STYLE.
e.g. at this point in time instead of now; juvenile members of the community instead of
children; will be made the recipient of instead will be given etc.

Exercise 1 Say whether the following are formal or informal, then turn them into the
opposite:
1. Hey, look here, see what I’ve got!
2. Will you please inform John that he has a detention on Saturday?
3. To whom may I send this letter?
4. Swear you won’t tell Becca I’m having a party this Saturday? /8/

Exercise 2 Here are some Americanisms. Rewrite them in Standard English.

1. He was gonna go.

2. I make good grades in school.
3. You did good.
4. Your hair is on fleek. /4/

Exercise 3 The following are some of the words that have been accepted into
South African English. Rewrite them in Standard English.

1. veldskoen 6. skelm
2. stoep 7. bundu
3. braaivleis 8. bonsella
4. riempie 9. dassie
5. voetsek 10. indaba
[10]

Exercise 4 Write the following slang expressions in Standard English:

1. Hang on girl!
2. The bridal couple’s nerves are really shot.
3. Out on the jol…
4. John is keen on a bird up the road.
5. Mom has flipped her lid because Bill has pushed off without telling her.

Exercise 5 Write down 5 slang expressions of your generation and give the Standard
English equivalents. [10]
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Exercise 6 From the jargon used, identify the sport involved in each sentence:

1. Derek Warwick managed to claim yet another pole position for this, the sixth
round of the championship.
2. He’s deadly at the net; nobody can block his spike.
3. It was probably her greater control in the sit-spin that made the difference in
the end.
4. The Bedfordview couple scored an easy win in the pairs, and Harlequins
upset the more fancied Corinthians to walk away with the fours trophy.
5. By tacking skillfully, they were able to make the most of poor conditions.
[5]

2. DENOTATION AND CONOTATION

Denotation is the straightforward dictionary definition. A dog is a four-legged,
canine, domesticated, mammal. home – a built structure usually made of bricks and
cement with a roof, in which people live.

Connotation (an associated meaning) is the suggestion of something more than the
literal meaning – a deeper meaning not found in the dictionary. Meaning comes from
the reader’s understanding of the cultural ways in which the word can be used to
have different meanings. It provides an implied attitude. For example: home – is
associated with warmth, intimacy, love, coziness, safety etc.

Words can have a positive connotation. e.g. home, mother, fireside, Christmas OR a
negative connotations e.g. detention, loneliness.

Exercise 7 Let’s play a round of “Would you rather”: Choose the words with the
better connotation. Write down only the words that have a positive connotation.

1. be seen with a companion who is tanned or sun burnt?

2. be called wise or cunning?
3. be called sparkling or unusually talkative / drunk?
4. be called firm or obstinate / pig-headed?
5. be called carefree or irresponsible?
6. your office were raided or searched?
7. be fired or retrenched?
8. be alone or lonely?
9. be ruled by a ruler or a dictator?
10. be fat or well-built? [10]
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Connotation is based on the use of EMOTIVE WORDS – words that elicit an emotional
response. e.g. raided.
They are sometimes called loaded words.
Emotive words are used in order to persuade. They appeal to a strong feeling, fear or
prejudice, rather than to rational thought.

For example:
The denotation of all these words is more or less the same:
thin, skinny, slender, emaciated, lean, scrawny - thin

The connotations are quite different.

thin neutral (no connotation)
skinny negative – too thin, almost bony.
slender positive – such a person is attractive
emaciated negative – starving, skeletal
lean positive – fit, strong, energetic
scrawny negative – scruffy, bony, small

Words with a positive connotation are sometimes called purr words, and those with a
negative connotation are called scratch words.

Exercise 8 Look at the columns below. Which word would you put in the purr
(positive connotation) column and which in the scratch (negative connotation)
column? Make purr and scratch columns in your notebook.

Words Neutral Positive Negative

meaning connotation connotation
(purr) (scratch)
1 daring, reckless confident
2 stench, perfume smell
3 thrifty, stingy economical
4 ingenious, cunning smart
5 dignity, arrogance self-respect
6 emaciated, slender thin
7 monstrous, mighty big
8 notorious, famous well-known
9 petite, puny little
10 home, hovel house
11 senile, venerable old
12 obsolete, antique old
13 childish, youthful young
14 schemer, strategist planner
15 chore, career work
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Exercise 9 Read the texts below and answer the questions:

Text A
This is the third time that youths have defaced my garden wall with graffiti. It’s not right
I tell you! The expense of repainting that section is enormous. It seems as though these
hooligans wait just until the wall is clean before they scrawl their initials once more. I
am sick of this! Police should take a more active role in stopping this mindless
vandalism.

Text B
What do I think of graffiti? I love it! I mean the good stuff – the pieces – not the
mindless attempts of pre-teens on garden walls. There are some magic pieces in the
city. Vibrant and complex. So much better than a dirty concrete wall.

Text C
I didn’t like it when the bus stop had graffiti on. It looked messy and ugly. We painted
over it and everyone says it looks much nicer.

1. Which text uses the most formal language? Give a reason for your choice.(3)
2. Which text uses the most informal language? Give a reason for your choice.(3)
3. All the texts use emotive language. Which text is the most negative?
Pick out 3 words that express this negative connotation.(4)
4. Which is the most positive text? Pick out 3 words with positive connotations.(4)
5. Is the tone of text A angry, frustrated, prejudiced or all three?(1)
6. Explain your choice for 5.(2)
7. Is the tone of text B relaxed, positive or both.?(1)
8. Give a reason for your answer in 7.(2) [20]

3. SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE WRITING

Biased writing / speech is subjective. The speaker / writer expresses personal
attitudes and beliefs. (They give their opinion)
Unbiased writing / speech is objective. The speaker / writer merely presents the
facts/situation/characters with no interference from him. This is called factual /
reporting style and should be the style of news reporters.

Exercise 10 Are the following examples of objective or subjective writing?

1. You cannot bear being told what to do.

2. Emotional intelligence is the lifeblood of happy working situations.
3. This term has to do with the awareness and acceptance of positive and
negative feelings.
4. She also read Daniel Coleman’s book: Emotional Intelligence.
5. Those who came to South Africa in the 17th century were pioneers. [5]
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Exercise 11 Read the following passages.

1a
West of the small village of Bergville is a wide, flat plain, on which there are a few
clusters of huts and some groups of animals in the distance. At the far side of this plain
the foothills of the mountains gradually begin to rise. In winter the peaks are covered
with snow, and a cold wind blows across the plain, driving the few inhabitants of the
area into their homes, where they gather around fires for warmth.

1b
The empty plain stretches bleakly westward, abandoning the lonely village of
Bergville, rolling reluctantly past dismal clusters of huts and straggling herds of forlorn
cattle. The cowering swells of the foothills cringe beneath the crags of the great
buttresses that loom menacingly behind them, cloaked icy white in winter, the
malevolent source of the bitter gales that sweep spitefully across the huddling plain,
searching out the wretched peasants clustered miserably around their pathetic little
heaps of flickering twigs.

1. Which account of the Bergville region would entice you to visit it? 1a or 1b?
Give a reason for your answer. (2)
2. Which writer obviously dislikes the region he is describing? 1a or 1b? Give a
reason for your answer.(2)
3. What do we call words that reveal his negative attitude? (1)
4. Write down 17 words that makes us realize that the writer does not like the
Bergville region.(17) [22]

4. Generalizations/Stereotyping
When generalizing or making a generalization, the particular is extended to the general. e.g.
Some Scotsmen play the bagpipes. It is untrue to say that all Scotsmen play the bagpipes.
Some Germans hated Jews. This does not mean that all Germans hated Jews. Some teachers
are lazy and leave classes unattended. This does not mean that all teachers do etc.
Stereotyping people places them into groups or types. So a stereotypical science master
might be depicted as being elderly and eccentric. He is the stereotype – the general mould of
what people imagine all science masters to be like. Of course they are not like this at all.

Exercise 12 Write down 3 adjectives that would describe for you the
stereotypical:

1. rugby player
2. computer games fanatic
3. headmaster
4. chef [12]
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Stereotypes in advertising.
A B

Exercise 13 Answer the questions based on the above photos.

1. What stereotypes have been created in these two advertisements?(2)
2. Why would these stereotypes be attractive to young men?(4)
3. Do you think these stereotypes give a realistic view of young men?
Explain your answer.(2) [8]

5. Clichés
What is a cliché?
…something that has been said over and over again until it has become worn-
out/stereotyped and its original meaning lost.

Examples of some common clichés: Only yesterday I sat by a roaring fire, heard the
wind howling, waited in an agony of suspense, saw her full, inviting lips and swanlike
neck, had a lump in my throat and heard someone swearing like a trooper. I found,
on looking back, that the number of clichés I had used in my manuscript must have
run into hundreds. [Adapted from My Left Foot by Christy Brown]

Clichés that I dislike intensely are: in this day and age; at this point in time; last but not
least; each and every; thanks must go (Please say, I thank… instead; everyone out
there.
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Exercise 14 Write down all the clichés between the two robbers, Jack and Bill.

1. Jack: I could hardly believe my eyes. I was almost at the end of my tether
when I realized that we could get into the jeweller’s through an air-vent.
Do you want to have a finger in the pie, Bill?(3)
2. Bill: Well, we can’t let a chance like that slip through our fingers, can we? (1)
3. Jack: You’ve hit the nail on the head. If we strike while the iron is hot, we
can grab the chance of a lifetime.(3)
4. Bill: I’ll leave no stone unturned in planning a safe getaway. We’ll be out
of there in the twinkling of an eye.(3)
5. Jack: Are you sure that you’ve considered all the angles?(1)
6. Bill: I’ll tell you man-to-man. We’re both in the same boat and I’ll make
sure we don’t get our fingers burnt this time. (3) [14]

6. The writer’s intention and writing style

6.1 Style of writing
What do we mean when we talk about the writer’s style?
= the way a person writes. It results from things like word choice, tone, and syntax. Your
writing style will change depending on your subject matter

Simplicity adds grace and dignity to writing style. Clumsy words, superlatives,
journalese, jargon, fashionable and clichés detract from quality writing.

There are different writing styles. Some are listed below:

* simple direct style clear and straightforward expression.
* terse style compact, to the point, economy of words
* elegant style grace and beauty of language
* graphic style vivid and picturesque
* vigorous style forceful argument, strong expression
* sublime style sincere, elevated in thought, treatment
* clichéd style verbose and stereotyped

6.2 Writer’s purpose

What do we mean when we talk about the writer’s purpose?
= The reason why you wrote that piece.

Everything that is written is written for a purpose:

 To persuade
 To record
 To advertise
 To inform
 To tell a story
 To give instructions
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Exercise 15 What is the intention of the following types of writing? Choose from
the list above.

1. a school time-table.
2. a note excusing a boy from rugby practice.
3. a newspaper headline.
4. a notice concerning puppies for sale.
5. a biography.
6. a recipe.
7. a book of fiction.
8. a description of an exotic holiday resort.
9. a dictionary
10. a diary [10]

7. FACT and OPINION

A fact can be proven to be true.
An opinion is merely what one person believes to be true.

It is important to be able to distinguish between the two, otherwise one might believe
everything one reads or is told.

Exercise 16 Say whether the following statements are fact or opinion: Just write
down fact or opinion.

1. The last time we went there was six weeks ago.

2. Ask him. He will help you.
3. You will never be able to persuade him.
4. Treasure Island was written by Robert Louis Stevenson.
5. It is the best book he wrote.
6. Peters is our best player.
7. The minister’s speech was long but interesting.
8. So far they have won all their matches.
9. He will not pass his examination. He does not work hard enough.
10. The two sides could not reach an agreement.
11. He is both untidy and unwashed. It is clear that he has not had a bath for a week.
12. Do not discuss it with him. He is too prejudiced.
13. The train arrived at 10 o’clock, eighteen minutes late.
14. We have heard nothing since then.
15. Look for the trade name Maxwell. You then know that you are buying the best that
money can buy.
16. I don’t like that book. It is badly written and the story is unconvincing.
17. Fishing is relaxing. [17]
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8. PROPAGANDA

Propaganda is any organized scheme which deliberately promotes a one-sided view

to gain support for a particular view-point, creed or belief.

It uses certain techniques to get an emotional response from the reader:

 It appeals to emotions not reason by playing on feelings of fear, pride etc.;

using loaded, emotive language.
 It hides selfish motives.
 It uses name-calling and character assassination - Reds for communists – Yids
for Jews. This makes it easier to adopt a hostile attitude towards a particular
race or group.
 It uses rhetorical questions to draw in the audience.
 It appeals to group identity(a sense of belonging) – uses words like we not I.
 It is simple and straightforward.
 It uses repetition and stereotyped slogans.
 It often distorts the truth.
 It exaggerates (Hyperbole)

Exercise 17
←A

B→

1. Who is the target audience in each poster? (2)

2. What emotions are being appealed to in each poster? (2)
[4]