UNIT I: UNDERSTANDING CULTURE,

SOCIETY AND POLITICS LESSON 1: SHARING

OF SOCIAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUNDS
CULTURAL IDENTITY

The cultural identity of an individual refers to the identity or feeling of belonging to a group. It
is considered as part of a person's self-conception and self-perception. It pertains to one’s
nationality, ethnicity, religion, social class, generation, locality or any kind of social group that
has its own distinct culture. As to cultural awareness, it connotes to the ability of a person to
recognize the different beliefs, values and customs that someone has based on that individual's
origins. This allows a person to build a more successful personal and professional relationship
with others in a diverse environment. In fact, a person's state, region or country of origin and
local customs heavily influence his/her cultural background.

CULTURAL BACKGROUND

Cultural background, on the other hand, essentially consists of the ethnic, religious, racial,
gender, linguistic or other socioeconomic factors and values that shape an individual’s
upbringing. The cultural background can be shaped at the family, societal or organizational
level. Sociologically, people with different cultural backgrounds need to interact with each
other. Such interactions lead to strong relationships that would help build diverse communities
and enable them to achieve predetermined goals. For example, in the Philippine society, it is
necessary to work effectively with people from different regions or with those who speak a
different language to promote economic development and other primary socio-cultural
undertakings.

GENDER AND SEXUALITY

A common distinguishing factor of a person’s cultural background is gender and sexuality.

Gender refers to the personal traits and social roles of the male and female members of society.
Sexuality is the state of being either masculine or feminine.

1. A person’s masculinity or manhood consists of a set of attributes, behaviors and roles generally
associated with men.

2. A person’s femininity or womanhood refers to a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles

generally associated with women.

3. A person may experience identity crisis when he/she does not accept or understand his/her
sexuality or is unable to understand his/her status.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS

Another common cultural identification factor is the level of an individual’s social standing
and financial position in the society. This is known as socio-economic status, a personal or
family's financial and social esteem on the basis of income, education, and occupation. Hence,
it is the totality of a person’s social position and wealth combined.

The Socio-economic class refers to the status of every individual from the sociological and
economic points of view. Social Status means a person’s standing or rank in the social ladder
of stratification based on prestige, power, popularity, etc. Economic status means a person’s
place in the society’s economic stratification based on wealth, property, and total assets.

ETHNICITY

Ethnicity is a condition in which a social group belongs to a common national or cultural

tradition. The adjective ethnic relates to large groups of people who have certain racial,
cultural, religious, or other traits in common. The Philippines are inhabited by different ethno-
linguistic groups, the majority of whose own languages are Polynesian in origin. Many of these
groups converted to Christianity, particularly the lowland-coastal groups, and adopted many
foreign elements of culture. Ethno-linguistic groups include the Ivatans, Ilocanos,
Pangasinenses, Kapampangans, Tagalogs, Bicolanos, Visayans (Masbateños,
Hiligaynons/Ilonggos, Cebuanos, Boholanos, Warays and Surigaonons) Maranaos, Subanons
and Zamboangueños.
 LESSON 2: OBSERVATIONS ABOUT SOCIAL, POLITICAL
BEHAVIOR AND PHENOMENA

SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDYING CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS

Why is the study of culture, society and politics important? Primarily, our understanding about
the society, culture and politics essentially develops our knowledge, understanding, skills,
values and attitudes to achieving social and cultural literacy. This is possible by examining the
interactions between persons, societies, cultures and environments across time.

Secondly, through the study of society, culture and politics we will increase our knowledge and
understanding about personal, social and cultural identity and would give us the impetus to
initiate change.

Thirdly, having a clear understanding about society, culture and politics likewise develops our
skills to apply and evaluate social and cultural research, investigate and engage in effective
evaluation, analysis and synthesis of information from a variety of sources, and ultimately be
able to communicate information, ideas and issues in appropriate forms to different audiences
in a variety of contexts.

Finally, through knowledge and understanding about society, culture and politics we will be
equipped with informed and responsible values and attitudes towards a just society,
intercultural understanding, informed and active citizenship, ethical research practices, and
lifelong learning.

SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND CULTURAL PHENOMENA IN THE PHILIPPINES

A. FOOD TABOOS Culturally, food taboos are known from virtually all human societies. A
food taboo is a prohibition against consuming certain foods. Some religions assert that there
are certain foods which to them are prohibited while other religions may consider them fit for
certain dietary rules that may affect particular aspects of the human life. These food taboos or
prohibitions may be associated with special events such as childbirth, pregnancy, menstrual
period or breast feeding.

In some cases, dietary rules are thought to be a result of health considerations or other practical
reasons. Some foods may be prohibited during certain religious periods like during the Holy
Week, at certain stages of life such as when one is pregnant, or to certain classes of people like
priests or religious people, even though the food is otherwise permitted.

B. THE STANDBY (ISTAMBAY) PHENOMENON A very interesting social issue with

economic implications is the Istambay phenomenon. Etymologically, the Filipino term
‘istambay’ is derived from the English idiom “on standby.” Istambay is a localized version of
standby, which over the years has developed a set of peculiar characteristics that signify a
particular subsector in Philippine society. One definition of istambay is “a person who does not
have work and who usually hangs- out on street corners.” Another definition of istambay
comes from a Pilipino-English dictionary which offers a more lucid characterization of the
negative stereotypes attached to being an istambay. The dictionary defines istambay as (1) an
act of spending one’s time unprofitably; idler (2) a person who spends his time unprofitably.

C. POLITICAL DYNASTY Another interesting issue in the country is about political dynasty,
a phenomenon with socio- economic undertones. Political dynasties which refer to families
whose members are engaged in politics have been in the Philippine political structure since
time past. Most political dynasties are found in affluent families that have entrenched
themselves in local politics before going to the national level. Political dynasties, therefore,
usually have a strong local support base. In fact, dynasties are also active in socio-economic
ventures and not just limited to politics.

D. PHILIPPINE ELECTIONS Another equally interesting political phenomenon is about

elections in the Philippines.

The President, Vice-President, and the senators are elected on a national or popular elections
serve for a six-year term. The members of the House of Representatives, and the local
government officials, namely: governors, vice-governors, members of the provincial board,
mayors, vice-mayors, the city/municipal councilors are elected for a term of three years
and are eligible for re-elections.

The President, as per the 1987 Philippine Constitution, is limited to a single term and is barred
from running for re- election. The Vice-president, on the other hand, may run for re-election or
may opt for a higher position.

The Philippine Congress has two chambers. The Senate or Upper House has 24 members
which are elected on a nationwide at-large basis; they do not represent any geographical
district. The lower half of the Senator’s term is renewed every three years. The House of
Representatives or Lower House has 250 seats of which 80% are contested in congressional
districts and 20% are allotted to party-lists representing the marginalized groups and other
civic- oriented sectors of the country.
 LESSON 3: OBSERVATIONS ON SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND
CULTURAL CHANGE

MAJOR SOCIAL CHANGES IN THE 21ST CENTURY

The 21st century has been characterized by the dynamic interaction between the advancing
technology and the improvement of economy and society. This development has always been an
integral dimension of human progress and history.

In retrospect, the massive transition from the agrarian society towards the industrial society
exemplifies the most pertinent illustration of the undeniably profound implications. The influx
and diffusion of new technologies in the human arena made family structures, work relations,
settlement patterns, economic and political power configurations, and also on behavior patterns
and value systems stronger and comfortably convenient. As we look forward to the decade or so,
obviously the main driving force for economic and social change will be information
technology.

TEXTING TECHNOLOGY

Way back, when we want to relay a message to a person from afar, we either use a landline
telephone or send a fax message, available only in homes, offices and buildings. Today, with the
use of a cellular phone, we can send messages at anytime, anywhere. This is the beauty of
technology on texting or text messaging. Text messaging or simply texting can be done by
composing and sending electronic messages from one person to another using mobile phones or
fixed or portable devices over a phone network. Technically, the term refers to messages sent via
the Short Message Service (SMS). Nowadays, the technology has expanded to include multi-
media messages (MMS) including images, videos, and sound content, as well as ideograms,
commonly known as emoji.

SELFIE PHENOMENON

A selfie has been defined as a self-portrait photograph, normally shot with a digital camera or
camera phone held in the hand or braced by a selfie stick. These selfies are often posted on social
networking sites such as Facebook, Instagram and Twitter. They are usually gratifying and made
to appear unplanned. Most selfies are shot with a camera held at arm's length or directed to a
mirror, rather than by using a self-timer. As an improvisation, a selfie stick may be used to
broaden the perspective of view.

Self-esteem is important, and not always in a conceited way. It is on how we define ourselves,
and present ourselves for others to see. Through the selfie, we often count on others' perceptions,
assessments and appraisals to develop our social self. A carefully taken profile picture or avatar
is our way to present a certain side of ourselves to others. More often than not, a posted selfie
puts us on public stage where we are being liked or disliked by others.

LESSON 4: DEFINITION OF ANTHROPOLOGY, POLITICAL

SCIENCE AND SOCIOLOGY

NATURE AND SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY, ANTHROPOLOGY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE

As a social science, Sociology deals with the study of society and social interactions taking place.
It also deals with the origin, evolution, and development of human society. It is focused on all
kinds of social interactions, social relationships, social organization, structure and process.

The study of human’s past and present is Anthropology. Anthropology’s goal is to describe and
explain human variation or the observed similarities and differences in people through time and
across space. Anthropology draws and builds upon knowledge from the social and biological
sciences as well as the humanities and physical sciences to understand the full sweep and
complexity of cultures across all of human history.

Political science as a social science discipline deals with the study of the state and government. It
is concerned about politics and policies of the government. Aristotle, in his Politics, defined
political science as the study of the state. It deals comprehensively with the theory and practice of
politics. It also focuses on the analysis of political systems, political behavior, and political
culture.

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SOCIOLOGY, ANTHROPOLOGY AND POLITICAL

SCIENCE

Both Sociology and Anthropology study human society. They analyze how societies are
organized, how humans act together and act among themselves. Political science, on the one
hand, is concerned with the political life of man, which is one part of his entire life while
Sociology, on the other hand, is the science of society. While political science is mainly
concerned with the state and government, the two social sciences have common grounds in
certain areas. Political science is a branch of sociology-dealing with the principles of organization
and government of human society. Thus, the subject matter of political science comes within the
field of sociology-the science of society.
AREAS OF SOCIOLOGY

1. Social Organization includes the study of social groups, social institutions, social stratification,
mobility, ethnic relations, and bureaucracy

2. Social Psychology tackles human behavior or nature as a result of group life, personality
formation, social attitude and collective behavior

3. Social Change deals with the study of changes in the society and culture, and the factors resulting
from such change.

4. Social Organization and Disorganization study the emergence of societies, their structural
formation and the ways they are strengthened. They also study crime, delinquency, family
conflict, poverty, subversion, unemployment, and a wide range of current social issues and
problems

THE MAJOR BRANCHES OF ANTHROPOLOGY

1. Cultural Anthropology studies human cultures, beliefs, ideas, technologies, economies,

practices, values, and other spheres of social and rational organization. This branch is primarily
based on cultural understanding gained through actual experiences, or participant observations of
the human population.

2. Physical Anthropology deals with the biological and behavioral aspects of human beings. It
focuses on their relationships to non-human primates and their extinct hominid ancestors.

3. Archaeology studies both the ancient and recent past of humans through the material remains,
such as artifacts, fossils and bone fragments.

MAJOR SUBDIVISIONS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE:

1. Political Theory focuses on the ideas of classical thinkers, such as Aristotle, Niccolò
Machiavelli, Cicero, and Plato among others.

2. Comparative Politics deals with the incisive evaluation and comparison of the doctrines of
various constitutions, of political actors, legislature and other allied fields.

3. Public Administration focuses on the implementation of government policies, the academic

disciplines involved and the principles governing civil servants working in the government.

INTERSECTIONS OF ANTHROPOLOGY, SOCIOLOGY, AND POLITICAL SCIENCE

A. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

Sociology and Anthropology are very close and intimate to each other. They contribute to the
growth of each other; are mutually related to each other. Sociology studies society while
Anthropology studies man. But since man and society are mutually interrelated, therefore, it is
very hard to distinguish the two. Nonetheless, their close relationship can be understood from the
foregoing.

Essentially, Anthropology aids the development of Sociology. The study of Sociology can’t be
complete without the help of Anthropology. The latter is an integral part of the former.
Anthropology provides data about ancient societies. Sociology needs the help of Anthropology to
have a comprehensive understanding of present society.

Likewise, Sociology provides rich contributions towards the expansion of Anthropology.

Anthropology receives substantial concepts from Sociology. The researches and ideas of
Sociologists like Emile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer greatly helped Anthropology. Anthropologists
greatly benefited from the ideas and conclusions of sociological researchers. These contributed to
the enhancement of researches in Anthropology.

B. RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ANTHROPOLOGY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE

Anthropology enriches the study of Political Science. A vast knowledge of early societies, their
laws, customs, manners and modes of government, enable us to understand accurately the modem
institutions and the political behavior of the people today.

Thus, the three, Sociology, Anthropology and Political Science, are distinct sciences but are
closely intertwined with one another. Their existence and growth are greatly influenced by one
another.
 UNIT 2
LESSON 1:
SOCIETY
SOCIETY -A society is a group of people interacting with each other and having a common
culture; sharing common geographical or territorial domains, and having relatively common
aspirations.

THEORIES ON HUMAN SOCIETY -Even before sociology was born there have been many
concepts developed focusing on human society. In the beginning of human civilization, early
philosophers have already dealt with society, looking into its structure in the attempt to solve its
variety of problems that emerge every time. Social philosophers have already predicted, since
then, that a study on behavior would someday emerge.

In his Republic Plato (427-347 BC) laid his standards for an ideal society ruled by philosopher-
kings assisted by equally and intellectually gifted “guardians.”

In his work Politics Aristotle (384-322 BC) stated that man is self-sufficient and that those who
are unable to live in society and have no needs in life must be either “beasts” or “gods.”

According to St. Augustine (354-430 AD) as stated in his City of God he described society’s
ultimate pilgrimage towards the kingdom of God which is closely identified with the church,
the community that worshipped God.

In his masterpiece Utopia, (1516), Sir Thomas More (1468-1535) coined the word "utopia" that
refers to the ideal, imaginary island nation whose political system he described.

TYPES OF SOCIETIES

Different societies are categorized according to methods of subsistence, the ways by which
humans apply technology to meet their own needs. Anthropologists, on the other hand, have
classified different societies throughout human history according to the degree to which
different groups within a society have access to resources, prestige, or power. In general,
sociologists have placed societies in three broad categories, namely: pre-industrial, industrial,
and post-industrial societies.

A. PRE-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES

During the pre-industrial society, the main economic activity is food production carried out
through the utilization of human and animal labor. Particularly, these societies are subdivided
according to their level of technology and their method of producing food. These are the
hunting and gathering societies, pastoral societies, horticultural societies, agricultural societies,
and feudal societies.
1. HUNTING AND GATHERING SOCIETY

In these societies, the main method of food production is the collection of wild plants and the
hunting of wild animals on a daily basis. Humans gather and hunt around for food as nomads.
They do not establish permanent villages nor have a variety of artifacts. They usually form
small groups such as bands and tribes. However, some hunting and gathering societies in areas
where resources abound lived in larger groups and formed complex hierarchical social
structures such as chiefdoms. Due to the necessity for constant mobility these societies are of
limited sizes. These societies generally consist of 60-100 people. Social statuses within the tribe
are relatively equal, and decisions are reached through general consensus. The ties that bind the
tribe are more complex than those of the bands. Leadership in tribal societies is personal and
based on charisma used only for special purposes

2. PASTORAL SOCIETY

The prevailing method food production during this period is through pastoralism, slightly more
efficient than the subsistence method. Instead of searching for food on a daily basis, the
members of a pastoral society depend on domesticated herd of animals to meet their need for
food. The pastoralists move their herds from one pasture to another. Since their food supply is
far more reliable, pastoral societies can now support larger populations. Since there are more
available foods, fewer people are required to produce food. In effect, the division of labor, the
specialization by individuals or groups in the performance of specific economic activities, has
now become more complicated.

3. HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY

The horticultural societies have learned how to raise fruits and vegetables grown in garden plots
that have provided them their main source of food. Their level of technology and complexity is
similar to pastoral societies. Some horticultural groups practice the slash-and-burn method or
the kaingin system to raise crops. This was how the system goes. Wild vegetation is cleared, cut
and burned, and then the ashes are used as fertilizers. Horticulturists make use of human labor
and simple tools to cultivate the land for one or more seasons. When the land becomes arid and
unproductive, horticulturists clear a new plot and leave the old plot to revert to its natural state.
4. AGRARIAN SOCIETY

Societies which applied agricultural technological advances to cultivate crops over a large area
are known as agrarian societies. Sociologists use the phrase agricultural revolution to describe
these period about 8,500 years ago, characterize this period to the technological changes that
occurred leading to extensive cultivation of crops and raising of farm animals. Increases in food
supplies translated to larger populations comparatively bigger than previous societies. The
greater surplus resulted in the emergence of towns that became centers of trade. These societies
made the tasks of rulers, educators, craftspeople, merchants, and religious leaders less
demanding that they did not have to worry about viable sources of food and economic
sustenance. Consequently, greater degrees of social stratification appeared in these agrarian
societies.

5. FEUDAL SOCIETY

As an offshoot of the increased food production, several groups become wealthy and able to
acquire lands and declared these as their own domain. This is being described as feudal society
based on ownership of land. Unlike today's farmers, vassals then under feudalism were bound to
cultivating their feudal master's land. In exchange for military protection, the feudal masters
exploited the peasants into providing food, crops, crafts, homage, and other services to the
landowners. The estates of the realm system of feudalism were often multi-generational which
means that the families of peasants may have cultivated their lord's land for generations.

B. INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES

A new economic system emerged between the 15th and 16th centuries began to replace
feudalism. This is capitalism, the predominant economic system of industrial societies.
Capitalism, characterized by free competition, free market and the right to acquire private
property, emerged. The introduction of foreign metals, silk, and spices in the market stimulated
greater commercial activity in European societies. Industrial societies which rely heavily on
machines powered by fuels in the production of goods became dramatically increased and
efficient. The increased efficiency of production of the industrial revolution produced an even
greater surplus than before. Hence, the surplus was not just agricultural goods but also
manufactured goods.

C. POST-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES

More advanced societies, called post-industrial societies, dominated by information, services,

and high technology, surfaced. These hallmarks of these societies were beyond the production
of goods. Advanced industrial societies are shifting toward an increase in service sectors over
manufacturing and production. These service industries have been used in government,
research, education, health, sales, law, and banking and in almost all sectors of society.

D. MODERN SOCIETIES

Our highly industrialized modern society is characterized by mass production of all essential
products such that the subsistence level of food production is now a thing of the past. Products
are sold in markets in large quantities. People nowadays typically do not need to subsist on their
own and instead buy items they cannot personally produce to live. Modern societies show a
cultural, liberal growth as well.

With the use of a new commodity-money- as a medium of exchange, trade and commerce have
become more efficient. With the shift to a money-based economy came the vast expansion of
financial institutions. While banks exist in pre- modern societies, they play a much larger role in
modern societies, serving not only as a safe repository for saved money, but also as a source of
unearned money. The modern worker soon discovered that banks would enable them to spend
money that they had not yet earned and to take out long-term loans to make major purchases.
Modern societies inevitably become communities of debt and money becomes the most valued
entity in these societies.
 LESSON 2: CULTURE

CULTURE

Culture is "that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs
and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." (Edward B.
Tylor) The Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is "the way of life, especially the
general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time."

Culture refers to all that man has made for himself through time, material or nonmaterial, still
useful or not anymore, all to provide benefits for his society.

Even though culture is all about man, it has nothing to do with his biological characteristics or
his natural instincts. In all, what culture is not is that it does not have anything to do with nature.
The tree, the animals, the sky, sun, moon, stars are therefore not cultural. However, once man
thinks about nature and even does things to it, create or alter it, improve or destroy it, that
thought or act becomes cultural.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

1. Culture is learned. The different habits, skills, values and knowledge are acquired or learned
in the course of a person’s life. This is what we call enculturation, the acquisition of knowledge,
skills, attitudes, and values that enable men to become active members of their communities.

2. Culture is transmitted. Culture within a social group is transmitted to succeeding

generations through imitation, instruction and example. Cultural transmission is the process
through which cultural elements, in the form of attitudes, values, beliefs, and behavioral scripts,
are passed onto and taught to individuals and groups

3. Culture is adaptive. All culture changes. Changes in the environment are caused by
inventions and discoveries. Man is capable of adjusting to his environment. Adaptation is the
process of change in response to a new environment. It is one component of acculturation,
which relates to the change in a group’s culture or the change in individual psychology in
response to a new environment or other factors.

4. Culture is gratifying. Culture provides satisfaction for man’s biological and socio-cultural
needs, foods, clothing, and shelter and for various relationships with other individuals and
groups. Culture provides proper opportunities for the satisfaction of our needs and desires.

5. Culture is symbolic. Through culture man can communicate with other people using
language. Symbols must be understood by all to be an effective tool of communication; to allow
people to develop complex thoughts and to exchange those thoughts with others. Language and
other forms of symbolic communication, like art, enable people to create, explain, and record
new ideas and information.

MAIN TYPES OF CULTURE

Material culture deals with the physical culture, including contemporary technology, artifacts,
relics, fossils, and other tangible remains of cultural development, past and present. Material
culture refers to the tangible and concrete objects produced by man in the process of social
development.

Non-Material culture deals with the intangibles including values, norms, beliefs, traditions, and
customs that collectively hold a society and shape individuals as they interact within society.

ELEMENTS OF NON-MATERIAL CULTURE

Beliefs are man’s perception about the reality of things and are shared ideas about how the
world and his environment operate. They are reflective of highly valued feelings about the
world in which they live. Beliefs are influenced by emotions, attitudes, values, ideology, and
religion.

Values refer to the broad preferences of person on the appropriate courses of action or decisions
he has to take. Values are a reflection of a person’s sense of right and wrong. A person’s values
sociologically influence his attitudes and behavior.

Norms are society’s standard of morality, conduct, propriety, ethics, and legality. Norms vary
according to age, gender, religion, politics, economics, ethnicity, or race of the group.

Folkways are fairly weak forms of norms, whose violation is generally not considered serious
within a particular culture. They are the habits, customs, and repetitive patterns of behavior.

Ideas comprise man’s concepts of his physical, social and cultural world as manifested in people’s
beliefs and values.

Knowledge can natural, supernatural, magical or technical. These are the body of facts and
beliefs that people accumulate over time.
PERSPECTIVES/APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical perspective that examines the way participants in the
socialization choose and agree on the meaning of symbols. This perspective holds that humans
are symbol-manipulating and are capable of creative behavior.

Functionalism, on the other hand, presupposes that every aspect of society is interdependent and
contributes to the total functioning of society. To The government, the school and the family are
significant social institutions which proper functioning would make life in the society
meaningful and productive.

Conflict is another theoretical perspective, which originated primarily out of Karl Marx's
writings on class struggles, presents society in a different light than do the functionalist and
symbolic interactionist perspectives. Conflict theorists note that unequal groups usually have
conflicting values and agendas, causing them to compete against one another. This constant
competition between groups forms the basis for the ever‐changing nature of society.

Dramaturgical perspective is an interactionist perspective that analyzes human behavior in

much the same way that a person would analyze the presentation of a play to the audience.

Ethnomethodology is a socio-cultural perspective which emphasizes the process of interaction

that uses interpersonal techniques to create situational impressions and the importance of
perceptions of consensus among actors.

LESSON 3: ASPECTS OF CULTURE

ASPECTS OF CULTURE

Art is one aspect of culture that includes the expression or application of human creative skill
and imagination. The arts exemplify human expression influenced by culture and conversely
may change culture. The arts are a vivid manifestation of the person’s creative instinct. Major
components of the arts include literary arts, performing arts, culinary arts, media arts, and visual
arts.

Another aspect of culture is language, a system of communication used by a particular society.

It is the most important tool of verbal communication and it is the area where cultural
differences play its role. All countries have different languages. In order to have a better
understanding of different cultures it is required to have knowledge of their languages as well.

Another significant aspect of culture is food. Food is any substance consumed to provide
nutritional support for the body. It is one of the best ways to truly experience local culture. Food
is a huge deal when it comes to culture. Nearly every culture has its own food, and its own
customs associated with eating food.

Another prominent aspect of culture is government which refers to the aggregate of persons or
groups of persons exercising control and authority in the society. In most of the world's
countries, national power and authority are allocated to various individuals and groups through
politics, the science of state and government. Through politics, government leaders are elected,
appointed, or installed by armed force. Governments have the power to make, interpret, and
enforce the rules and decisions that determine how countries are run. A distinguishing aspect of
culture is the clothing or costume. Costume is the distinctive style of dress of an individual or
group that reflects their class, gender, profession, ethnicity, or nationality. The amount and type
of clothing worn depends on physical, social and geographic considerations. Some clothing
types can be gender specific.

Another particular aspect of culture is religion, a unified system of beliefs and practices relative
to sacred things. Its structural features include a body of ideas, beliefs, doctrines, rituals, and
ceremonies. In the contemporary, religions are rationalized and systematized theologies and
creeds. Religion can be explained as a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and purpose
of the universe usually involving devotional and ritual observances, and often containing a
moral code governing the conduct of human affairs.

Education, the process of teaching or learning, is oftentimes associated with a place or a

building where boys and girls go almost every day carrying books, notebooks in order to attend
classes and learn from the teachers. But such definition is limited. Sociologically, education is a
social process wherein an individual is socialized and learns culture.
 LESSON 4: ETHNOCENTRISM AND RELATIVISM

THE PRIMARY CAUSES OF CULTURAL SIMILARITIES:

a. BIOLOGICAL SIMILARITIES. This means that all people in the world have the same
biological needs, namely food, clothing, shelter, and health care.

b. NECESSARY PREREQUISITES FOR SOCIAL BEING . Society must fulfil some

requirements in order to function, such as replacing members, teaching new members to
participate, and the need to have participation in production and distribution.

c. PSYCHIC UNITY OF MANKIND. All human beings are alike in having similar ranges
of emotion – the need for love, security, and language.

d. GEOGRAPHICAL ENVIRONMENT. The geographical environment is characterized by

certain limitations such as limited food, limited source of energy, and other delimiting factors of
the people’s environment.

Every society in the world is unique from one another. Everyone has his own cultural practices,
values and interests. Each culture has its distinct features and characteristics. This is socially
called cultural diversity. These differences in culture can be attributed to the following factors:

a. Though men all over the world have the same biological needs, they differ in ways in meeting
them. Each culture adapts to its environment.

b. Differences in geographical characteristics like climate, topography, or soil condition.

c. The absence or presence of natural resources.

ORIENTATIONS IN VIEWING OTHER CULTURES

One particular manner of viewing other culture is Ethnocentrism, a feeling of superiority

towards one’s own group over other groups. This one-sided vision often results in failing to
adequately understand cultures that are different from one’s own, and in value judgments of
preference and thought of superiority of one’s in-group. Thus, ethnocentrism, the extreme
preferential feeling which the individual has for his own group; that one’s group is more
important than any other. Ultimately, ethnocentrism is an expression of group solidarity with
antagonism towards outside groups. In fact, ethnocentrism is linked to multiple forms of
dogmatism and prejudice, including regionalism, nationalism, racism, and even sexism and
religious discrimination.
A relatively neutral cultural perspective is Cultural relativism. This is the principle of
regarding the beliefs, values, and practices of a culture from the viewpoint of that culture itself.
In sociology, the principle is sometimes practiced to avoid cultural bias, as well as to avoid
looking with arrogance another culture by the standards of one's own culture. For this reason,
cultural relativism has been considered an attempt to avoid ethnocentrism. Cultural relativism is
related to but often distinguished from moral relativism, the view that morality is relative to a
standard, especially a cultural standard.

IMPORTANCE OF PRESERVING OUR FILIPINO CULTURE

Why is it important to preserve our culture as a Filipino? It is important to preserve our culture
so that the true Filipino identity and culture will last. In spite of the impact of technology and
the pervasive influences of foreign cultures, we Filipinos must forever cherish and be proud to
say that we are Filipinos. We Filipinos have something that other nations do not have and that is
our unique culture. Our cultural values, traditions and heritage could not be contained in books
nor learned through studies alone. We need to practice them ourselves every hour of our lives.
The Filipino values, traits and virtues should be written in every Filipino`s heart.

In fact, our sterling Filipino culture of hospitality and being polite and warm to strangers is one
of the reasons why foreigners keep coming to our country. This is a testament and tangible
proof for which truly we can say that it is indeed More Fun in The Philippines. We also need to
preserve our natural resources: the beautiful islands, beaches, the clean and sparkling rivers,
lakes and seas, the fresh and green flora and forests, all gifts to us by God and Mother Nature.
We should preserve and protect them because these are natural magnets that attract tourists
from both local and foreign lands to visit our beloved country which strengthen our economic
and diplomatic status. They are potential sources of income for the country and at the same time
bind us a community of nations.

The Filipino cultural arts also need to be preserved and practiced so as not to be replaced or
supplanted by too many international influences that hook most of our teenagers nowadays who
we fear may soon lose their taste and appreciation of our very own Filipino artistic heritage. An
example is the Korean K-Pop. Many teenagers today are influenced by this Korean performing
arts group. They are attached to the way Koreans dress; the way they act.
 UNIT 3

LESSON 1: BIOLOGICAL & CULTURAL EVOLUTION

BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION

Human life on Earth has undergone evolution, the gradual and progressive development or change.

Anthropology which deals with the study of the origin, evolution, and development of the
human species is concerned with all peoples everywhere, from those alive today, back to those
who lived in the remote past. It is concerned with many aspects of life, from the shapes of their
teeth, how they found and produced food, built their settlements, and how they reared and
educated their children.

Physical anthropology is the branch that deals with the biological origins and evolution of
man, and the variations of the human species and their physical characteristics, including the
study of the different races. It is also referred to as biological anthropology.

In anthropology, dating is of primary importance. This is because evolution of species is done

through progression, and to prove the progression the time element on when species may have
surfaced and have become extinct must be presented.

TYPES OF DATING METHODS:

1. The Relative Dating is a dating method that is not precise. Where the sight, an artifact or
human remains that cannot be determined is measured in comparison with the date of others
determined already. It is a matter of whether something is younger than another or older than
something that can be or has been dated, or being in between two dates.

2. The Absolute Dating is when the dating is more precise considering that it can be narrowed
to a bracket of within a few years.

A. RADIOCARBON DATING METHOD by nuclear physicist Willard F. Libby is based

on measuring the radioactive carbon or Carbon 14 (an unstable radioactive isotope of normal
carbon) that all living beings absorb daily from the environment and the atmosphere. It remains
in the living bodies until death.

B. THE POTASSIUM ARGON K–AR DATING is a radiometric dating method based on

measurement of the product of the radioactive decay of an isotope of potassium (K40) that
breaks into argon (Ar40), a gas. The difference from the Carbon 14 is that this method only
dates inorganic materials like rocks and minerals.

C. URANIUM-SERIES DATING is the most accurate & reliable procedure at present. It

is done through a Radiogenic Isotope facility. It was used to date the age of the Callao Man of
the Philippines (67,000 years old)

GEOLOGY

Geology is the science that comprises the study of solid Earth, its rock composition, and the
processes of changes. Geologic time tells that the earth began 6 billion years ago. From the
beginning to the present, it is divided by time blocks called era. An era is a change on earth that
is distinct created by an event and ended by another one. Earth conditions in every era created
minor changes called disturbances, and these created epochs and periods.

There are three geologic eras, the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic, and the Cenezoic. The final era, the
Cenezoic, is when the primates have evolved. It is divided in seven epochs, the Paleocene, the
Eocene, the Oligocene, the Miocene, the Pliocene, the Pleistocene and the Recent. Crucial to the
emergence of the human being are the Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs.

Imbedded in the earth’s crust are fossils. Fossils are the remains of ancient organisms that are
imbedded and preserved in the earth’s crust. They are evidence of life in pre-historic times dug
out from the earth like skeletons or imprints, or whole animals frozen in ice in permafrost (or
frozen earth). They may also be specimens discovered in tar pits. Fossils also yield the ancestral
origins of organisms. The world’s oldest fossils, single-celled microbes that have been found
inside a lump of sandstone rocks in Western Australia, are believed to age 3.5 B years old.

Geologic findings hold that present life began to develop in the Tertiary Period, or referred also
as the Age of Mammals. It was the beginning of the Cenezoic era which started 65 million BC
when large mammals were dominant as insects & modern plants were evolving. One-celled
organisms and mollusks are the major marine life. It lasted for about 63 million years.

The Quaternary Period beginning about 1.8 million years ago, include the Holocene and
Pleistocene Ice Ages, 2 million BC, when glaciers covered all Europe, North America and most
Asia. Modern Man first appeared 500.000 BC.
PALEONTOLOGY: THE EVIDENCES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION

Paleontology is the scientific study of life in the past Geologic periods. It deals with life forms
known from fossils. When fossils show evidence of extinct species of primates or human forms
it becomes the concern of Physical Anthropology. DARWIN’S EVOLUTION THEORY OF
NATURAL SELECTION

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) refused to accept that all species that emerged have been created
independently. His years of studies pointed out the thought of evolution of species through
change, and that this occurs through the process of natural selection. In the Origin of Species
(1859), Darwin established that all life are linked, and demonstrated how natural selection
operates on the inherited variations of species that resulted to the adaptive modification of life
forms, which then had led to a radiating evolution. This explains why Individual members of
the same species differ from one another physically e.g. some members have longer limbs than
others. The difference between members of the same species is credited to the nature of
“adaptation” placed by the environment on the organism. The better adaptive species are the
greater the chance they will increase qualitatively (becoming stronger and better in many ways),
while the ill-adapted will grow weak and may get eliminated and become extinct. The ability to
adapt determines the survival of the fittest.

Natural Selection does not only produce changes within a species but also to the emergence of
new species. Changes in a species may be expected to occur through the passage of time as the
environment changes or as the species move to new environments. THE EVOLUTION OF
MAN FROM THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION

Anthropology looks at human beings at both biological and cultural perspectives. Man, as an
animal underwent through the process of biological evolution and has shared some
characteristics with other animals in the past, particularly what we call the “hominids”.
Adaptation to environment is a must to biological beings in order to survive. Man, who has
adapted well to the changes in the environment, was able to develop a brain that is capable of a
RATIONAL characteristic from where he was able to develop a culture that resulted to the
changes in his behavior.

THE PRIMATES

THE EVOLUTION OF PRIMATES

Man and the other present primates share many common traits, biological and behavioral, that
offer evidence of common ancestry. This does not mean, however, that the present monkeys and
apes are our ancestors. However, we should view them as distant relatives of man. Man may not
have come from them but maybe that they and also man came from the same distant ancestors.
Man and the simian (all monkeys) have many ancestors who all have undergone different
ecological situations that created distinct experiences and adaptations. These adaptations
resulted to various genetic transformations. As time passed, some of the most primitive primates
have become more developed monkeys, some became apes, and some developed human-like
features Examples of which are the Tree Shrew – referred to as an insectivore, the Tarsier – the
arboreal primate have developed tarsal bones at the foot, the Lemur – the primate with a long
snout dog-like nostrils and the Loris, nocturnal and arboreal from the lorisidae family.

THE EMERGENCE OF MAN

The Oligocene epoch paved the way to the emergence of the monkeys and some of the early
apes like the Oligocene Catarrhines and the Aegyptopithecus.

The Oligocene catarrhines composed of two jaw fragments and other bones create two fossil
genera, the Parapithecus and the Propliopithecus. The Parapithecus is a possible ancestor to the
New and Old World monkeys, while the Propliopithecus is considered as a generalized
hominoid. The find in Fayum, Egypt, the Aegyptopithecus zewxis is estimated to be 28-30
million years old. The fossil which is a small monkey-like skull is interpreted as representing
the earliest probable known antecedent to all the later hominoid forms.

MIOCENE HOMINOIDS

The Miocene was a period of environmental conditions highly favorable to the arboreal
primates, with a mild climate, moist and wetter than at present. Rain forests covered most of Asia,
Africa and Europe.

DRYOPITHECUS

The Miocene resulted to the wide dispersal of the genus Dryopithecus, where the members of
the genus Pongo like the Orangutan and the genus Pan like the chimpanzees and gorilla are
derived from. Dryopithecus is the first of the fossils of the great apes to be discovered. It had a
large brain and could stand like a chimpanzee. First found in France, then Europe, China and
India.

The best preserved and best known dryopithecus is the Dryopithecus Africanus. It is small-
brained compared to humans. They got about to the trees swinging by the branches rather than
walking on them as earlier primates did. This is a primate adaptation that accompanies
increasing body size in the direction of the hominoids.
PLIOPITHECUS

It was a very early proto-ape and had the look and features similar of a gibbon. Its skeleton &
teeth suggest that they are ancient relatives of the gibbons and also of the siamangs.

PROCONSUL

Another Miocene fossil ape classified as dryopithecine is what was originally called Proconsul,
and is considered to be a very early ape. They are viewed as ancestors of the chimpanzees and
gorillas.

GIGANTOPITHECUS

A massive ape probably descended from Dryopihecus Indicus. The wear on the teeth suggest
that it lived in an open woodland and grassland environment. Its mode of feeding is called
“graminivorous” meaning the eating of small, tough grass seeds, stems and rhizomes that
require a lot of grinding. The Gigantopithecus is the largest known primate.

OREOPITHECUS

The Oreopithecus bambolii was directly related to Dryopithecus. However, it was bipedal but
not in the likes of the Australopithecus who were bipeds also. It height and weight suggest that
it walked and was not an aberrant ape. Distinctively, it had high pelvis also.

SILVAPTHECUS (RAMAPITHECUS)

It is a genus of extinct primates with fossil remains as old 8.5 to 12.5 million years and lived in
the Miocene. Former discoveries gave it a separate name of Ramapithecus and was suggested
that they were the oldest of ancestors of humans in direct line. Teeth, jaws and palate are
human-like making scientists think of its hominid status. However, this is no longer acceptable.

THE PLIOCENE HOMINIDS

The hominids close relatives of humans. The Australopithecus is an extinct genus of hominids
that has evolved in eastern Africa around four million years ago and spread across the continent
until two million years before they become extinct.

AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFARENSIS: LUCY

Australopithecus afarensis is an extinct hominid that lived between 2.9 to 3.9 million years ago.
It is viewed that it is more closely related to the genus Homo (including the modern human
Homo sapiens), whether as a direct ancestor or a close relative of an unknown ancestor. The
fossil “Lucy” found by Donald Johanson is the most complete and oldest hominid dated 3.2 m
years old. The Afarensis is a biped that walked, run and stood. It is also believed to be both tree
and land dwellers. It is the oldest hominid found.

AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFRICANUS

It was the South African counterpart of the A. afarensis and was given the name, “the south ape
of Africa”. It was generally similar in traits like a bipedal hominid with arms slightly larger than
the legs (also found in chimpanzees). Despite the slightly more human-like cranial features,
other more primitive features include ape-like curved fingers for tree climbing. The first and
most promising fossil find was in 1924 at Taung lime mine. It included a skull of an odd ape-
creature having human traits such as eye orbits, teeth, and, most importantly, the hole at the
base of the skull over the spinal column, the foramen magnum, indicating a human-like posture.

AUSTRALOPITHECUS ROBUSTUS (PARANTHROPUS ROBUSTUS)

First discovered in 1938 and was called Paranthropus. It is bigger, bulkier, more muscular and
had larger molar teeth than the Africanus. Tools discovered are from Swartkrans, South Africa
and were used for foraging purposes.

AUSTRALOPITHECUS BOISEI

It is also called as the “Nutcracker Man” because its face and cheek are so massive. Close
relative of robustus, same brain size, but a better one. Boisei is the “dead end” branch of the
hominid line. The genus Homo started to split away from the primitive line. Environmental
changes may have resulted to the appearance of the first Homo or probably the long period of
relative evolutionary stability initiated the appearance of the genus Homo. Even though it is the
final stage of the Hominid line, it is considered to be the first hominid to use stone tools.

THE RISE OF THE HOMO

Man alone is a RATIONAL animal. He alone has ART or the aesthetic appreciation. Man has
LANGUAGE. While other animals may communicate, language is unique to man. He can bring
ideas that make, create and invent tools or things he
needs that result to CULTURE. Man has HISTORY, recording his past so that he may learn from
it as guide to his future. Man is SELF-CONSCIOUS, even though some other species have self-
awareness, the self-conscious state of man is unique.

THE HOMO-HABILIS

Homo-habilis is believed to be the first of the "great Ape" type creatures to have evolved into
"Homo" (Man). He existed about 2 million to 1.5 million years ago. He was given the name
Homo-habilis, meaning 'handy man', because he made tools.

THE HOMO- ERECTUS

Homo erectus or 'upright man’ is believed to be the first creature to stand fully upright. He was
believed to be the first to use fire. We think that Homo-erectus built campfires and may have
made simple ovens with hot stones. Homo-erectus appears to have existed late Middle or early
Late Pleistocene, and their fossils are found in Africa.

THE HOMO-SAPIENS

This prehistoric man Homo-sapiens-sapiens whose fossil remains found in Africa, have existed
from 400,000 years ago or more is believed to be the ancestor of all modern human beings.
Homo-sapiens have well-defined characteristics and habits such as bipedal stance and gait,
brain capacity averaging about 82 inches, high forehead, small teeth and jaw, defined chin,
construction and use of tools, and the ability to make use of symbols such as used in language
and writing.

Early Homo-sapiens used simple technology. Their tools were in the form of chipped stones,
which points were sharpened to be used as simple "knives" for butchering and cutting. Their
garments were made from animal hides. Their shelters were make-shift shelters if natural caves
were not available.

THE CREATION STORY

Contrary to Darwin’s Evolution Theory is the age-old belief in the Creation Story. According to
Book of Genesis in the Old Testament, God created the Earth, the firmament and everything
therein. Under the Judeo-Christian faith and traditions, it asserted that God literally created man
on the sixth day. And on the seventh day God rested. There are skeptics, however, who believed
that the creation story was symbolic. Whichever side one believes is a matter of religious belief
and orientation.

LESSON 2: CULTURAL AND SOCIO-POLITICAL EVOLUTION

EARLY HUMANS AND THEIR CULTURE

Humans are cultural beings. By culture, we mean the aggregate of the people’s ideas, beliefs,
traditions, languages, arts, technology and arts that distinguishes him from animals.

Early human societies, through the development of culture, began the process of overcoming
the limits set by the physical environment. The hunter-gatherer societies during the Paleolithic
Era (Old Stone Age) were nomadic, migrating in search of food, water, and shelter; invented the
first tools, including simple weapons; learned how to make and use fire; lived in clans;
developed oral language; and created “cave art.”

The beginning of agriculture, including permanent settlements, was a major step in the advance
of civilization. Societies during the Neolithic Era (New Stone Age) developed agriculture
(domesticated plants); domesticated animals; used advanced tools; made pottery; and developed
weaving skills.

Our ancestors started to use pottery as a means of storing and transporting food, water, and
other goods in the new Stone Age. This was a big step up from the hide sacks and animal
stomachs that were commonly used until this time. Pottery also became the prime medium of
Neolithic art, replacing the simple wood carvings, which tended to include statuary of the
mother goddess, and the simple stone monuments that preceded it, which include the stone
circles of England that were created near the end of the English Stone Age and represent the
beginnings of modern architecture in the region.

At first, the pottery, which was usually shaped like a basket, gourd, bell, or sack, was usually
decorated with simple geometric forms that included triangles, spirals, and wavy lines. Later on,
the engravings, especially in Egypt, would depict temples, shrines, gods, and religious rituals.

Somewhere around 8,000 BC in northern Iraq, our ancestors learned how to cultivate grains like
wheat and barley. Within 3,000 years’ agriculture, which was now common in parts of
Mesopotamia and independently discovered in southwest Asia, parts of North, Central, and
South America, China, and Africa, had spread to Western Europe. For the first time, societies
could stay in one place year after year. This not only led to the formation of complex societies,
but also allowed world population to increase to levels that would be unsustainable otherwise. It
has been estimated that world population reached about 5,000,000 by 8,000 BC as agriculture
supported higher density populations in smaller territories.
BRONZE AGE

Bronze, which may have been used as early as 4500 BC, supplied the most useful metal known
during the third and second millennia B.C. It replaced (primarily cold-hammered) copper and
stone as the metal of choice for tools, weapons, and art and allowed for the construction of tools
and weapons that were harder and longer lasting than the stone and copper predecessors.

The Bronze Age, which started with the widespread use of bronze, made from copper and tin,
and saw the birth of the early great civilizations of the Near East and Eastern Mediterranean --
including the Sumerians in Mesopotamia, the Egyptians, the Minoans of Crete, the Hittites of
Asia Minor, and the Mycenaean civilization of ancient mainland Greece -- is the period where
humanity left prehistory and entered into history with the formation of modern society.

LESSON 3: EARLY CIVILIZATION, RISE OF THE STATE AND

DEMOCRATIZATION

PROGRESS TOWARDS CIVILIZATION

The establishment of a complex form of organization, the state and the development of
hierarchical administrative bureaucracies are the central characteristics of all civilizations.

The emergence of civilization in human history that took place in Mesopotamia, Egypt, China
and India, was characterized by the development of agriculture and sedentary way of life, dated
back to about 6,000 years BC. The characteristics of these early civilizations are: food
production in permanent habitations, processing metals and other natural sources, a division of
labor in terms of occupational specialization and the development of writing.

CIVILIZATIONS IN HISTORY HAD THE FOLLOWING COMMON

PARTICULARITIES:

1. Intensive agricultural techniques, such as crop development and irrigation permitted a surplus
of food beyond the subsistence. This allowed the sustaining of a group of population in other
fields, such as administration, industry, war, science or religion, etc.

2. Those not in agriculture constituted the population of the cities. By time a government and its
bureaucracy in charge of coordinating the tasks of production and protecting the whole
community began to concentrate in the cities. 3. This institutionalized control of production by a
“ruling” class became more complex in time and other formal social institutions such as
organized religion, education, permanent army and markets and money as forms of economic
exchange developed.

RISE OF NATION-STATE

The nation-state developed fairly recently. Prior to the 1500s, in Europe, the nation-state as we
know it did not exist. Back then, most people did not consider themselves part of a nation; they
rarely left their village and knew little of the larger world. If anything, people were more likely
to identify themselves with their region or local lord. At the same time, the rulers of states
frequently had little control over their countries. Instead, local feudal lords had a great deal of
power, and kings often had to depend on the goodwill of their subordinates to rule. Laws and
practices varied a great deal from one part of the country to another.

In the early modern era, a number of monarchs began to consolidate power by weakening the
feudal nobles and allying themselves with the emerging commercial classes. This difficult
process sometimes required violence. The consolidation of power also took a long time. Kings
and queens worked to bring all the people of their territories under unified rule. Not
surprisingly, then, the birth of the nation-state also saw the first rumblings of nationalism, as
monarchs encouraged their subjects to feel loyalty toward the newly established nations. The
modern, integrated nation-state became clearly established in most of Europe during the
nineteenth century.

DEMOCRATIZATION

Democratization is a concept that encapsulates the expansion of a set of related political ideals
with different intellectual vintages that gain public prominence during the emergence of
capitalist modernity. Relatedly, democratization is also a process in which various social groups
have made claims on the state through protests, riots, strikes, and lobbies. The discourse of
democracy has infused many struggles against monarchical absolutism, working-class struggles,
and the suffragette movement.

Democratization is a process by which democracy expands, within a state or across the world.
Democratization, both as a process and as a concept, draws on a long history. The intellectual
origins of the concept of democracy stretch back to Athenian ideals of city governance and
Roman republicanism.