LESSON 1: Receptive vs.
Expressive Macro •Become independent learners who are good
Skills
Languages are generally taught and
assessed in terms of the ‘four skills’: listening,
speaking, reading, and writing.  Listening and
reading are known as ‘receptive’ skills while
speaking and writing are known as
‘expressive’ skills.  Listening to and reading
content in the language you are learning is a
great way to develop your vocabulary and
comprehension.
     Developing your speaking skills will
involve gaining fluency in spoken interactions
with others, as well as practicing your
pronunciation. To practice pronunciation try
reading aloud or repeating after a recorded
text, trying to reproduce the pronunciation and
intonation of the original.  As in your first
language, your writing will be improved by
becoming a critical reader - try to think actively
about how texts are structured and what kinds
of phrases or vocabulary are used for different
purposes (e.g. introducing a topic, describing,
comparing and contrasting, writing
conclusions).
1-Listening
You should understand the main ideas of most
speech in a standard dialect.
You should demonstrate an emerging
awareness of culturally implied meanings
beyond the surface meanings of the text.
2-Speaking
You should be understood without difficulty by
natives, and converse in a clear and
participatory fashion.
You should be able to initiate, sustain, and
bring closure to a wide variety of
communicative tasks.
You should be able to narrate and describe
concrete and abstract topics using sustained,
connected discourse.
3-Reading
You should easily follow the essential points of
written text.
You should be able to understand parts of
texts which are conceptually abstract and
linguistically complex.
4-Writing
You should be able to address a variety of
topics with significant precision and detail.
You should be able to write competently about
topics relating to particular interests and write
clearly about special fields of competence.
You should be able to organize writings with a
sense of theoretical structure.
Macro Skill Competencies in the English K to
12 Curriculum
At the base of the framework are theories of
language teaching, theories of language
learning and acquisition and theories of
language. This means that English language
teaching in the K to 12 Curriculum is anchored
on various theories.
Assessment feedback are essential elements
of language teaching. The words assessment
and feedback are also found in the MTB-MLE
Framework.
The five main processes that form part of
the core of English language teaching are:
Construction:
•Learning tasks and activities are designed for
learners to reflect and respond to ideas and
information.
•Learners will be provided with sufficient
scaffolding so that they will be able to reach
their full cognitive, affective, and psychomotor
potentials
‘An active process of attending and
consumers and constructors of meaning.
Spiral progression:
•Skills, grammatical items, structures and
various types of texts will be taught, revised
and revisited at increasing levels of difficulty
and sophistication. This will allow students to
progress from the foundational.
Integration:
•The areas of language learning – the
receptive skills, the productive skills, and
grammar and vocabulary will be taught in an
integrated way
•Use of relevant print and non-print resources
•Provide multiple perspectives and
meaningful connections.
•Integration may come in different types
either implicitly or explicitly (skills, content,
theme, topic, and values integration).
Interaction:
•Language learning will be situated in the
context of communication (oral and written).
Activities that simulate real-life situations of
varying language demands (purposes, topics,
and audiences).
Contextualization:
•Learning tasks and activities will be
designed for learners to acquire the language
in authentic and meaningful contexts of use.
The five macro skills that are found in the
English K to 12 Curriculum are:
1.) Listening
2.) Speaking
3.) Reading
4.) Writing
5.) Viewing
The curriculum framework for English
language teaching mentions more than five
macro skills.
It added responding and representing. The
addition of responding to reading and viewing
ensures learners’ meaning making out of what
they read and view.
The addition of representing to writing
likewise ensures writing with meaning.
A Learning Area Standard specifies the
intended outcomes of the English subject from
K to Grade 12. For the English subject the
Learning Area Standard is: “The learner
demonstrates mastery of basic skills in the
English Language Arts, communicates
appropriately, fluently and orally and writes for
a variety of purposes in different social and
academic context as his/her level while
carrying out real life tasks necessary to cope
with the demands of a functionally literate and
competent local, national and global citizen.”
Viewing as a New Macro Skill
Viewing is the fifth macro-skill today. It
refers to perceiving, examining, interpreting,
and construction meaning from visual images
and is crucial to improving comprehension of
print and nonprint materials. This is the skill to
be taught as the learners are exposed on
multimedia. To make it possible, they should
have strong media and visual literacies. The
teachers are on the verge that they need to be
versatile and knowledgeable about teaching
viewing. Just like teaching the traditional
macro-skills, educators encounter difficulties in
teaching viewing. Several factors may hamper
them to teach the competencies under this skill
effectively. In the Canadia Common
Curriculum Framework, viewing is defined as
follows:
comprehending visual media, such as
television, advertising images, films, diagrams,
symbols, photographs, videos, drama,
drawings, sculpture and paintings.’ So
‘viewing’ is about ‘reading’ – analysing,
evaluating and appreciating – visual texts.
Viewing is an active rather than a passive
process.
Why is viewing important?
We are language teachers, so it’s obvious we
should focus on the written and spoken word
in our classes. So why should images, or
multimodal texts that use images, matter at all
to language teachers? Many teachers argue
that language and text-based approaches
should take priority and that the image just
distracts from the word. However, as the
majority of texts our students are accessing
outside the classroom are visual texts and
multimodal texts which use images, surely we
should give our students opportunities to ‘read’
– analyse and evaluate – these types of texts
in the classroom. Furthermore, the majority of
these multimodal texts – YouTube videos,
infographics, websites, blogs, social media
sites – are a combination of print text and
image, where the image, far from distracting
from the text, actually enhances it. 
Therefore, viewing is important because as
students are dealing with mainly multimodal
texts they need to understand them and to
become more effective, active and critical
viewers to be able to participate fully in society.
Viewing helps students develop the knowledge
and skills to analyse and evaluate visual texts
and multimodal texts that use visuals. Viewing
also helps students acquire information and
appreciate ideas and experiences visually
communicated by others. 
What do active viewers do? 
According to the Canadian Common
Curriculum Framework, active and effective
viewers would ask themselves a series of
questions such as:
What is the text representing?
How is the text constructed?
What assumptions, interests, beliefs, biases
and values are portrayed by the text?
What is the purpose of the text?To whom is
the text directed? Who does the text exclude?
What is my reaction to the text? What causes
this reaction?
What personal connections and associations
can I make with this text?
It’s important that students are aware that
understanding the viewing process is as
important as understanding the listening and
reading process. Students should understand
that effective, active viewers engage in the
following procedure: 
Pre-viewing: Students prepare to view by
activating their schema (the prior knowledge
they bring to the study of a topic or theme),
anticipating a message, predicting,
speculating, asking questions, and setting a
purpose for viewing. 
During viewing: Students view the visual text
to understand the message by seeking and
checking understanding, by making
connections, making and confirming
predictions and inferences, interpreting and
summarizing, pausing and reviewing, and
analyzing and evaluating. Students should
monitor their understanding by connecting to
their schema, questioning and reflecting. 
After viewing / responding: Students should
be given opportunities to respond personally,
critically and creatively to visual texts. Students
respond by reflecting, analyzing, evaluating
and creating.  Communicative Competence
LESSON 2: Lesson 2: Connection of the
Macro Skills with Vocabulary, Grammar and
Literature
Listening. There are three modes of listening:
competitive, passive and active. Active
listening is considered the most effective
because the listener is not only listening with
interest, but actively acknowledging listening
by brief responses. Most individuals are not as
skilled at listening as they think. Depending on
the study, listeners likely remember 25 to 50
percent of what they hear, according to
Mindtools. Giving the speaker your undivided
attention and not focusing on what you are
going to say in response while he is talking is a
good way to ensure you hear more of what is
being said.
Speaking. Speaking can be an intimidating
experience, even in your native tongue, let
alone when learning a new language. The best
way to learn how to speak, though, is by
practicing, so put your inhibitions aside and
strike up a conversation whenever you are
given an opportunity to do so. When speaking,
be aware of your pace and try not to mumble,
speak clearly. Consider being expressive
when you talk; avoid a monotonous tone.
Expression adds interest and depth to what
you are saying and it will keep your listener
interested.
Reading. Children learn to read by first
learning their ABCs and sounding out the
letters to discover what sound they make. The
phonetic approach to reading—using sound
units to figure out the words—is arguably the
best approach because theoretically, if you
know the sounds, you can read any word,
regardless of the difficulty level. This is also
the case when learning a new language.
Reading has many benefits, including
improving memory by exercising the brain,
increasing vocabulary, and exposing you to
new ideas.
Writing. Writing is perhaps the most complex
of the communication skills and takes the most
time to master. As with any other skill, the craft
of putting words on paper is improved through
practice and a willingness to improve on past
attempts. The more you practice, the better
you will get! Moving beyond the basics, many
types of writing can be used, depending on
audience and purpose. Writing can be a basic
means of conveying information—such as in
newspapers—or it can be a tool to create
elaborate new worlds, much like those found in
fiction novels such as The Lord of the Rings
trilogy.
Viewing. The breakthrough of technology has
come with the fifth macro skill both in English
and Filipino subjects which is viewing. It is an
easy way for the teacher to be guided while
discussing. Since viewing could help the
teacher ease the pain from talking throughout
the period, so much so, the students rely much
in it (viewing), whereas the other macro skills
are left behind.
Canale and Swain's Model of
Communicative competence is a term in
linguistics which refers to a language user's
grammatical knowledge of syntax,
morphology, phonology and the like, as well as
social knowledge about how and when to use
utterances appropriately.
The term was coined by Dell Hymes in 1966,
reacting against the perceived inadequacy of
Noam Chomsky's (1965) distinction between
linguistic competence and performance.To
address Chomsky's abstract notion of
competence, Hymes undertook ethnographic
exploration of communicative competence that
included "communicative form and function in
integral relation to each other". The approach
pioneered by Hymes is now known as the
ethnography of communication.
The notion of communicative competence is
one of the theories that underlies the
communicative approach to foreign language
teaching. At least three core models exist. The
first and most widely used is Canale and
Swain's model and the later iteration by
Canale. In a second model, sociocultural
content is more precisely specified by Celce-
Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell in 1995. For their
part, they saw communicative competence as
including linguistic competence, strategic
competence, sociocultural competence,
actional competence, and discourse
competence. A third model widely in use in
federal language training in Canada is
Bachman and Palmer's model.
The understanding of communicative
competence has been influenced by the field
of pragmatics and the philosophy of language,
including work on speech acts.
In "Theoretical Bases of Communicative
Approaches to Second Language Teaching
and Testing" (Applied Linguistics, 1980),
Michael Canale and Merrill Swain identified
these four components of communicative
competence:
(i) Grammatical competence includes
knowledge of phonology, orthography,
vocabulary, word formation and sentence
formation.
(ii) Sociolinguistic competence includes
knowledge of sociocultural rules of use. It is
concerned with the learners' ability to handle
for example settings, topics and
communicative functions in different
sociolinguistic contexts. In addition, it deals
with the use of appropriate grammatical forms
for different communicative functions in
different sociolinguistic contexts.
(iii) Discourse competence is related to the
learners' mastery of understanding and
producing texts in the modes of listening,
speaking, reading and writing. It deals with
cohesion and coherence in different types of
texts.
(iv) Strategic competence refers to
compensatory strategies in case of
grammatical or sociolinguistic or discourse
difficulties, such as the use of reference
sources, grammatical and lexical paraphrase,
requests for repetition, clarification, slower
speech, or problems in addressing strangers
when unsure of their social status or in finding
the right cohesion devices. It is also concerned
with such performance factors as coping with
the nuisance of background noise or using gap
fillers.
What is BICS & CALP?
These terms are commonly used in discussion
of bilingual education and arise from the early
work of Cummins (1984) in which he
demonstrated his ideas about the two principal
continua of second language development in a
simple matrix. BICS describes the
development of conversational fluency (Basic
Interpersonal Communicative Skills) in the
second language, whereas CALP describes
the use of language in decontextualized
academic situations (Cognitive Academic
Language Proficiency ).
According to Baker (2006) "BICS is said to
occur when there are contextual supports and
props for language delivery. Face-to-face
`context embedded´ [boldface in original]
situations provide, for example, non-verbal
support to secure understanding. Actions with
eyes and hands, instant feedback, cues and
clues support verbal language. CALP, on the
other hand, is said to occur in 'context reduced'
[boldface in original] academic situations.
Where higher order thinking skills (e.g.
analysis, synthesis, evaluation) are required in
the curriculum, language is `disembedded´
[boldface in original] from a meaningful,
supportive context. Where language is
`disembedded´ the situation is often referred to
as `context reduced´ [boldface in original]."
(Baker, 2006, p. 174)
What are some examples of BICS & CALP?
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills
(BICS)
The commonly used acronym BICS describes
social, conversational language used for oral
communication. Also described as social
language, this type of communication offers
many cues to the listener and is context-
embedded language. Usually it takes about
two years for students from different linguistic
backgrounds to comprehend context-
embedded social language readily. English
language learners can comprehend social
language by:
•observing speakers’ non-verbal behavior
(gestures, facial expressions and eye actions);
•observing others’ reactions;
•using voice cues such as phrasing,
intonations, and stress;
•observing pictures, concrete objects, and
other contextual cues which are present; and
•asking for statements to be repeated, and/or
clarified.
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency
(CALP)
CALP is the context-reduced language of the
academic classroom. It takes five to seven
years for English language learners to become
proficient in the language of the classroom
because:
•non-verbal clues are absent;
•there is less face-to-face interaction;
•academic language is often abstract;
•literacy demands are high (narrative and
expository text and textbooks are written
beyond the language proficiency of the
students); and
•Cultural/linguistic knowledge is often needed
to comprehend fully.
BICS describes the development of
conversational fluency (Basic Interpersonal
Communicative Skills) in the second language,
whereas CALP describes the use of language
in decontextualized academic situations
(Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency).
LESSON 3: Approaches in Teaching the
Macro skills
CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION
Content-Based Instruction (CBI ) Is a teaching
approach that focuses on learning a language
trough learning about something
Although CBI is not new, there has been an
increased interest in it because it has proven
very effective in teaching English as Second
Language around the world.
CONCEPT
 It is an active method of combining language
and content learning.
 Instead of focusing on language forms, the
curriculum in this method is based on content.
 Method of language instruction in which
content and language are integrated.
 Content-based Instruction (CBI) is teaching
organized around the content or information
that students will acquire, and not around the
linguistic or other types of syllabus
 Content refers to the substance or subject
matter that we learn or communicate through
language content rather than the language
used to convey it. Content is the use of a
subject matter for second /foreign language .
Subject matter may consist of topics or
themes based on student interest or need in
an adult EFL setting or subjects or students
studying in their classes.
BACKGROUND
The roots of CBI can be traced back many
centuries ago. St Augustine pointed out that :
“Once things are known , knowledge of words
follows… we cannot hope to learn words we
do not know unless we have gasped their
meaning. This is not achieved by listening to
the words, but by getting to know the things
signified. “
The publication of Bernard Mohan’s work in
the mid 1980’s was the first appearance of
what is known today as CBI. Mohan’s
Language and Content explored the different
ways in which the subject matter and the
learning of a language can be achieved.
 CBI is built on the principles of
Communicative Language Teaching.
 Classroom needs to be filled with real and
meaningful communication where information
is exchanged.
APPROACH
Content-based Instruction is based in two
assumptions
1. People learn a second language more
successfully when they use the language as a
means of acquiring information. This
assumption reflects one of the motivations for
CBI noted earlier that it leads to more effective
language learning.
2. It reflects learners’ needs for learning a
second language. Many ESL, EFL programs
focus on preparing students for academic
studies of for mainstreaming.
THEORY OF LEARNING
 CBI makes an assumption that learners
learn best when they are given language in a
meaningful, contextualized form with the
primary focus on acquiring information.
People learn a second language more
successfully when the information they are
acquiring is perceive as interesting, useful and
leading to a desired goal.
Language learning is more motivating when
students are focusing on something other than
language, such as ideas, issues and opinions
LANGUAGE IS PURPOSEFUL
 Language is use for a specific purpose such
as, vocational, social or recreational. In order
to make the content comprehensible, teachers
need to make adjustments and simplifications
for the students to learn.
Objectives- In CBI, the language is second to
learning the content. The objectives relate to
the content, not to the language.
Syllabus- The syllabus comes from the
content. However, it is common for a topical
syllabus to be used in theme-based CBI.
DISTINCTIVE FEATURES
 Language and Content can be
combined to introduce the learning
and teaching process .
 Although this method takes the
linguistic skills as communicative
tool, its main purpose is focused on
the content. Grammar is
unconsciously acquired.
 Both communicative and linguistic
competencies ( listening, speaking,
reading, and writing) are promoted
in natural classroom activities.
 CBI shares similar meanings and
principles with other successful
methods to develop a significant
knowledge making learners the
center of the process such as:
1.Cooperative learning
2. Experiential learning
3. Active learning
4. Project work
5. Problem solving
6. Constructivism
LEARNER’S ROLE
 Become autonomous
 Support each other
 Active interpreters of input
 Willing to explore alternative learning
strategies and sources of content
 To have a learn-by-doing attitude
TEACHER’S ROLE
 A good language teacher
 Knowledgeable in the subject matter
 Be able to draw out that knowledge from
students
 Creating learner-centered classrooms
ROLE OF MATERIALS
Materials should;
be authentic and comprehensible
be relevant to learners’ needs and interests
Contain the subject matter of content course.
. study.
 These make language learning more
successful
 Some examples of materials are;
newspapers, magazines, radio and TV
broadcasts, etc.
CONTEMPORARY MODELS OF CONTENT-
BASED INSTRUCTION COURSES AT
UNIVERSITY LEVEL
 Theme based instruction; Syllabus is
organized with themes or topics .
 Sheltered content instruction; For learners of
ESL who has a specific purpose.
 E.g: Courses in English for business.
 Adjunct language instruction; Two linked
courses: content course↔language course
ADVANTAGES OF CBI
A More interesting and motivating
 Real purpose
 Wider knowledge of the world
 Developing valuable thinking skills
 Developing collaborative skills (Peachy,
2002) 
DISADVANTAGES OR DRAWBACKS
 Teachers
• A lack of training in content-based instruction.
• Collaboration between the language teacher
and the subject matter teacher is imperative.
• Language proficiency of the subject matter
teacher and the language teacher.
 Students
• Limited time to achieve adequate academic
level.
CBI
In the 21st century, the classroom is no longer
a place where the teacher pours knowledge
into passive students who wait like empty
vessels to be filled. That is why, the teachers
need to be familiar with different approaches
and methods to use in the classroom.
1. Content-Based Instruction - an
approach to language teaching that
focuses not on the language itself,
but rather on what is being taught
through the language; that is, the
language becomes the medium
through which something new is
learned.
What can be considered ‘ content ’? There are
many things that can be considered ‘content’;
what is important is that what is being taught
or discussed through the language not be
language instruction related.
How can CBI be used in the language
classroom?
1. Extended input, meaningful output, and
feedback on language and grasp of content
2. Information gathering, processing, and
reporting
3. Integrated skills (using reading, writing,
speaking and listening in natural classroom
activities)
4. Task-based activities and project work,
enhanced by cooperative learning principles
5. Strategy training (to produce more
metacognitively aware strategic learners)
6. Visual support (ie. Images, graphic
organizers, language ladders etc.)
7. Contextualized grammar instruction 8.
Culminating synthesis activities (knowledge is
displayed in writing and orally)
2. Communicative language
teaching (CLT) or the
communicative approach, is an
approach to language teaching that
emphasizes interaction as both the
means and the ultimate goal of
- Communicative language teaching (CLT)
CLT teachers choose classroom activities
based on what they believe is going to be most
effective for students developing
communicative abilities in the target language
(TL).
Classroom Activities
-Communicative language teaching (CLT) is
an oral activity usually done in pairs, whose
main goal is to develop students'
communicative abilities in a certain setting.
1. Role play - is an oral activity usually done in
pairs, whose main goal is to develop students'
communicative abilities in a certain setting
2. Interview - An interview is an oral activity
done in pairs, whose main goal is to develop
students' interpersonal skills in the TL
3. Group work - Group work is a collaborative
activity whose purpose is to foster
communication in the TL, in a larger group
setting
4. Information Gap - is a collaborative activity,
whose purpose is for students to effectively
obtain information that was previously
unknown to them, in the TL
5. Opinion sharing- is a content-based
activity, whose purpose is to engage students'
conversational skills, while talking about
something they care about.
6. Scavenger Hunt - is a mingling activity that
promotes open interaction between students.
Qualities of an Effective English Macro
Skills Teacher
 Socio-Affective Skills - As in all other
fields, it is crucial that teachers have some
basic socioaffective skills to interact with their
students and maintain the educational process
effectively.
 Pedagogical Knowledge - In order to
conduct any kind of job properly, one should
have the knowledge of how to do it. S/he
should be aware of the procedures and the
strategies to follow in the process, which is
pedagogical knowledge.
 Subject-Matter Knowledge - Another main
area that attracts attention is the subject-
matter knowledge which teachers should
possess regarding their specific field.
 Personality Characteristics - People who
work in any profession indispensably bring
their personal characteristics in the working
environment. This is also valid for teachers
who not only are human beings but also deal
with human
Summing things up!
+ Content-Based Instruction is an approach
to language teaching that focuses not on the
language itself, but rather on what is being
taught through the language; that is, the
language becomes the medium through which
something new is learned.
+ Communicative language teaching (CLT),
or the communicative approach, is an
approach to language teaching that
emphasizes interaction as both the means and
the ultimate goal of study.
+ The four (4) main features related to an
effective English Macro Skills Language
teacher are: socio-affective, pedagogical
knowledge, subject-matter knowledge and
personality characteristics
LESSON 4: NATURE AND PURPOSE OF
SPEAKING
SPEECH PRODUCTION- is the process by
which spoken words are selected to be
produced, have their phonetics formulated and
then finally is articulated by the motor system
in the vocal apparatus.
Three (3) stages:
1. Conceptualization • to create speech links
a desired concept to a particular spoken word
to be expressed
2. Formulation • the linguistic form required
for that words expression is created.
3. Articulation • involves the retrieval of the
particular motor phonetics of a word and the
motor coordination of appropriate phonation
and articulation by the lungs, glottis, larynx,
tongue, lips, jaw, and other parts of the vocal
apparatus
AUTOMATICITY-In order to achieve any
degree of fluency, some degree of automaticity
is necessary. It allows speakers to focus on
their attention on the aspects of the speaking
task …In this sense, speaking is like any other
skill, such as driving or playing a musical
instrument: the more practice you get, the
better it is …
FLUENCY: 1.Speed, 2.Pausing, 3.Placement
of pauses, 4.The length of run
5 Speaking Rules:
1. Don’t study grammar too much
2. Learn and study phrases
3. Reading and Listening is NOT enough.
Practice speaking what you hear!
4. Submerge yourself
5. Study correct material
PURPOSES OF SPEAKING
To Inform
The first general purpose that some people
have for giving speeches is to inform. Simply
put, this is about helping audience members
acquire information that they do not already
possess.
To Persuade
The second general purpose people can
have for speaking is to persuade. When we
speak to persuade, we attempt to get listeners
to embrace a point of view or to adopt a
behavior that they would not have done
otherwise. A persuasive speech can be
distinguished from an informative speech by
the fact that it includes a call for action for the
audience to make some change in their
behavior or thinking.
To Entertain
The final general purpose people can have
for public speaking is to entertain. Whereas
informative and persuasive speech making is
focused on the end result of the speech
process, entertainment speaking is focused on
the theme and occasion of the speech. An
entertaining speech can be either informative
or persuasive at its root, but the context or
theme of the speech requires speakers to think
about the speech primarily in terms of
audience enjoyment.
MECHANICS/PROCESS OF SPEAKING
STAGE 1: Sending the message:
Speaker/Sender – is the source of that
message that is encoded into symbols that are
verbal (with words) and/or nonverbal (without
words).
Message- is any information or anything the
speaker/sender wants to communicate by
using a medium.
Medium- is the form in which the
speaker/sender conveys the message,
(speech, conversation, letter, email, blog,
newspaper, book, and the like, through
channel.)
Channel- is the mode, method, or means of
sending or expressing the message, which
may perhaps be through any of the five
senses.
STAGE 2: Receiving the message
Listener/ Receiver- gets the message in the
medium desired through the chosen channel,
and decodes the message.
Feedback- is the receiver’s response, verbally
or nonverbally—silence included, to the
message sent. It varies from one person -to
another. No such thing as “zero feedback”.
Context- is the situation or environment in
which communication takes place, which
includes time, place, event, as well as sender’s
and receiver’s feelings, perceptions, beliefs,
attitudes, and relationship.
Noise, also called interference or
distraction- is anything that impedes or gets
in the way of accurately sending, receiving,
and interpreting the message. It can be
internal or external.
LESSON 5: SPEECH STYLE AND
REGISTERS
the speech style/ register is defined as the way
a speaker uses language differently in different
circumstances.
Speech style/registers are marked by a variety
of specialized vocabulary and turns of
phrases, colloquialisms and the use of jargon,
and a difference in intonation and pace; in
"The Study of Language," linguist George Yule
describes the function of jargon as helping " to
create and maintain connections among those
who see themselves as 'insiders' in some way
and to exclude 'outsiders.'"
Speech style/registers are used in all
forms of communication, including written,
spoken, and signed. Depending on grammar,
syntax, and tone, the register may be
extremely rigid or very intimate. You don't even
need to use an actual word to communicate
effectively. A huff of exasperation during a
debate or a grin while signing "hello" speaks
volumes.
Types of Linguistic Speech
Styles/Registers:
1) Frozen: This form is sometimes called the
static register because it refers to historic
language or communication that is intended to
remain unchanged, like a constitution or
prayer. Examples: The Bible, the United States
Constitution, the Bhagavad Gita, "Romeo and
Juliet."
2) Formal: Less rigid but still constrained, the
formal register is used in professional,
academic, or legal settings where
communication is expected to be respectful,
uninterrupted, and restrained. Slang is never
used, and contractions are rare. Examples: a
TED talk, a business presentation, the
Encyclopaedia Brittanica, "Gray's Anatomy,"
by Henry Gray.
3) Consultative: People use this register often
in conversation when they're speaking with
someone who has specialized knowledge or
who is offering advice. Tone is often respectful
(use of courtesy titles) but may be more casual
if the relationship is longstanding or friendly (a
family doctor.) Slang is sometimes used,
people may pause or interrupt one another.
Examples: the local TV news broadcast, an
annual physical, a service provider like a
plumber.
4) Casual: This is the register people use
when they're with friends, close acquaintances
and co-workers, and family. It's probably the
one you think of when you consider how you
talk with other people, often in a group setting.
Use of slang, contractions, and vernacular
grammar is all common, and people may also
use expletives or off-color language in some
settings. Examples: a birthday party, a
backyard barbecue.
5) Intimate: Linguists say this register is
reserved for special occasions, usually
between only two people and often in private.
Intimate language may be something as
simple as an inside joke between two college
friends or a word whispered in a lover's ear.
6) Passive: Individuals who use the passive
communication style often act indifferently,
yielding to others. Passive communicators
usually fail to express their feelings or needs,
allowing others to express themselves.
Frequently, a passive communicator’s lack of
outward communication can lead to
misunderstanding, anger build-up or
resentment. At the same time, these
communicators can be safer to speak with
when a conflict arises, because they most
likely will avoid a confrontation or defer to
others.
Passive communicators often display a lack of
eye contact, poor body posture and an inability
to say “no.” Passive communicators also act in
a way that states “people never consider my
feelings.
But passive communicators are also easy to
get along with as they follow others and “go
with the flow.”
7) Aggressive: It’s often apparent when
someone communicates in an aggressive
manner. You’ll hear it. You’ll see it. You may
even feel it. The aggressive communication
style is emphasized by speaking in a loud and
demanding voice, maintaining intense eye
contact and dominating or controlling others by
blaming, intimidating, criticizing, threatening or
attacking them, among other traits.
8) Assertive: Thought to be the most effective
form of communication, the assertive
communication style features an open
communication link while not being
overbearing. Assertive communicators can
express their own needs, desires, ideas and
feelings, while also considering the needs of
others. Assertive communicators aim for both
sides to win in a situation, balancing one’s
rights with the rights of others. Assertive
communicators can express their own needs,
desires, ideas and feelings, while also
considering the needs of others.
One of the keys to assertive communication is
using “I” statements, such as “I feel frustrated
when you are late for a meeting,” or, “I don’t
like having to explain this over and over.” It
indicates ownership of feelings and behaviours
without blaming the other person.
Speech Acts
J. L. Austin's development of performative
utterances and his theory of locutionary,
illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts.
Speech acts can be analysed on three levels:
1) Locutionary act: the performance of an
utterance: the actual utterance and its
apparent meaning, comprising any and all of
its verbal, social, and rhetorical meanings, all
of which correspond to the verbal, syntactic
and semantic aspects of any meaningful
utterance.
2) Illocutionary act: the active result of the
implied request or meaning presented by the
locutionary act. For example, if the locutionary
act in an interaction is the question "Is there
any salt?" the implied illocutionary request is
"Can someone pass the salt to me?";
3) Perlocutionary act: the actual effect of the
locutionary and illocutionary acts, such as
persuading, convincing, scaring, enlightening,
inspiring, or otherwise getting someone to do
or realize something, whether intended or not.
[1]
Teaching Speaking: Activities to Promote
Speaking in a Second Language
Activities To Promote Speaking
Discussions
a discussion can be held for various reasons.
The students may aim to arrive at a
conclusion, share ideas about an event, or find
solutions in their discussion groups. Before the
discussion, it is essential that the purpose of
the discussion activity is set by the teacher. In
this way, the discussion points are relevant to
this purpose, so that students do not spend
their time chatting with each other about
irrelevant things. For example, students can
become involved in agree/disagree
discussions. In this type of discussions, the
teacher can form groups of students,
preferably 4 or 5 in each group, and provide
controversial sentences like “people learn best
when they read vs. people learn best when
they travel”. Then each group works on their
topic for a given time period, and presents
their opinions to the class. It is essential that
the speaking should be equally divided among
group members. At the end, the class decides
on the winning group who defended the idea in
the best way. This activity fosters critical
thinking and quick decision making, and
students learn how to express and justify
themselves in polite ways while disagreeing
with the others. For efficient group discussions,
it is always better not to form large groups,
because quiet students may avoid contributing
in large groups. The group members can be
either assigned by the teacher or the students
may determine it by themselves, but groups
should be rearranged in every discussion
activity so that students can work with various
people and learn to be open to different ideas.
Lastly, in class or group discussions, whatever
the aim is, the students should always be
encouraged to ask questions, paraphrase
ideas, express support, check for clarification,
and so on.
Role Play
One other way of getting students to speak is
role-playing. Students pretend they are in
various social contexts and have a variety of
social roles. In role-play activities, the teacher
gives information to the learners such as who
they are and what they think or feel. Thus, the
teacher can tell the student that "You are
David, you go to the doctor and tell him what
happened last night, and…" (Harmer, 1984)
Simulations
Simulations are very similar to role-plays but
what makes simulations different than role
plays is that they are more elaborate. In
simulations, students can bring items to the
class to create a realistic environment. For
instance, if a student is acting as a singer, she
brings a microphone to sing and so on. Role
plays and simulations have many advantages.
First, since they are entertaining, they motivate
the students. Second, as Harmer (1984)
suggests, they increase the self-confidence of
hesitant students, because in role play and
simulation activities, they will have a different
role and do not have to speak for themselves,
which means they do not have to take the
same responsibility.
Information Gap
In this activity, students are supposed to be
working in pairs. One student will have the
information that other partner does not have
and the partners will share their information.
Information gap activities serve many
purposes such as solving a problem or
collecting information.  Also, each partner
plays an important role because the task
cannot be completed if the partners do not
provide the information the others need. These
activities are effective because everybody has
the opportunity to talk extensively in the target
language.
Brainstorming
On a given topic, students can produce ideas
in a limited time. Depending on the context,
either individual or group brainstorming is
effective and learners generate ideas quickly
and freely. The good characteristics of
brainstorming is that the students are not
criticized for their ideas so students will be
open to sharing new ideas.
Storytelling
Students can briefly summarize a tale or story
they heard from somebody beforehand, or
they may create their own stories to tell their
classmates. Story telling fosters creative
thinking. It also helps students express ideas
in the format of beginning, development, and
ending, including the characters and setting a
story has to have. Students also can tell
riddles or jokes. For instance, at the very
beginning of each class session, the teacher
may call a few students to tell short riddles or
jokes as an opening. In this way, not only will
the teacher address students’ speaking ability,
but also get the attention of the class.
Interviews
Students can conduct interviews on selected
topics with various people. It is a good idea
that the teacher provides a rubric to students
so that they know what type of questions they
can ask or what path to follow, but students
should prepare their own interview questions.
Conducting interviews with people gives
students a chance to practice their speaking
ability not only in class but also outside and
helps them becoming socialized. After
interviews, each student can present his or her
study to the class. Moreover, students can
interview each other and "introduce" his or her
partner to the class.
Story Completion
This is a very enjoyable, whole-class, free-
speaking activity for which students sit in a
circle. For this activity, a teacher starts to tell a
story, but after a few sentences he or she
stops narrating. Then, each student starts to
narrate from the point where the previous one
stopped. Each student is supposed to add
from four to ten sentences. Students can add
new characters, events, descriptions and so
on.
Reporting
Before coming to class, students are asked to
read a newspaper or magazine and, in class,
they report to their friends what they find as
the most interesting news. Students can also
talk about whether they have experienced
anything worth telling their friends in their daily
lives before class.
Playing Cards
In this game, students should form groups of
four. Each suit will represent a topic. For
instance:
Diamonds: Earning money
Hearts: Love and relationships
Spades: An unforgettable memory
Clubs: Best teacher
Each student in a group will choose a card.
Then, each student will write 4-5 questions
about that topic to ask the other people in the
group. For example:
If the topic "Diamonds: Earning Money" is
selected, here are some possible questions:
Is money important in your life? Why?
What is the easiest way of earning money?
What do you think about lottery? Etc.
However, the teacher should state at the very
beginning of the activity that students are not
allowed to prepare yes-no questions, because
by saying yes or no students get little practice
in spoken language production.  Rather,
students ask open-ended questions to each
other so that they reply in complete sentences.
Picture Narrating
This activity is based on several sequential
pictures. Students are asked to tell the story
taking place in the sequential pictures by
paying attention to the criteria provided by the
teacher as a rubric. Rubrics can include the
vocabulary or structures they need to use
while narrating.
Picture Describing
Another way to make use of pictures in a
speaking activity is to give students just one
picture and having them describe what it is in
the picture. For this activity students can form
groups and each group is given a different
picture. Students discuss the picture with their
groups, then a spokesperson for each group
describes the picture to the whole class. This
activity fosters the creativity and imagination of
the learners as well as their public speaking
skills.
Find the Difference
For this activity students can work in pairs and
each couple is given two different pictures, for
example, picture of boys playing football and
another picture of girls playing tennis. Students
in pairs discuss the similarities and/or
differences in the pictures.
____________________________________
LESSON 6: Segmentals and
Suprasegmentals_
If we investigate phonetic or phonological
detail in this way, we are working on the
segmental level since each phoneme is
usually assumed to be one segment of
speech. Once we move on to look at larger
chunks of speech that span a number of
segments, such as whole words or phrases,
etc., we are dealing with features on the
suprasegmental level.
========
Types of Speech Delivery
1) Impromptu speaking is the presentation of
a short message without advance preparation.
Impromptu speeches often occur when
someone is asked to “say a few words” or give
a toast on a special occasion. You have
probably done impromptu speaking many
times in informal, conversational settings. Self-
introductions in group settings are examples of
impromptu speaking: “Hi, my name is Steve,
and I’m a volunteer with the Homes for the
Brave program.” Another example of
impromptu speaking occurs when you answer
a question such as, “What did you think of the
documentary?”
The advantage of this kind of speaking is that
it’s spontaneous and responsive in an
animated group context. The disadvantage is
that the speaker is given little or no time to
contemplate the central theme of his or her
message. As a result, the message may be
disorganized and difficult for listeners to follow. 4) Memorized speaking is the rote recitation
of a written message that the speaker has
2) Extemporaneous speaking is the committed to memory. Actors, of course, recite
presentation of a carefully planned and from memory whenever they perform from a
rehearsed speech, spoken in a conversational script in a stage play, television program, or
manner using brief notes. By using notes movie scene. When it comes to speeches,
rather than a full manuscript, the memorization can be useful when the
extemporaneous speaker can establish and message needs to be exact and the speaker
maintain eye contact with the audience and doesn’t want to be confined by notes.
assess how well they are understanding the
speech as it progresses. The opportunity to
assess is also an opportunity to restate more
The advantage to memorization is that it
clearly any idea or concept that the audience
enables the speaker to maintain eye contact
seems to have trouble grasping.
with the audience throughout the speech.
Being free of notes means that you can move
Speaking extemporaneously has some
freely around the stage and use your hands to
advantages. It promotes the likelihood that
make gestures. If your speech uses visual
you, the speaker, will be perceived as
aids, this freedom is even more of an
knowledgeable and credible. In addition, your
advantage. However, there are some real and
audience is likely to pay better attention to the
potential costs. First, unless you also plan and
message because it is engaging both verbally
memorize every vocal cue (the subtle but
and nonverbally. The disadvantage of
meaningful variations in speech delivery,
extemporaneous speaking is that it requires a
which can include the use of pitch, tone,
great deal of preparation for both the verbal
volume, and pace), gesture, and facial
and the nonverbal components of the speech.
expression, your presentation will be flat and
Adequate preparation cannot be achieved the
uninteresting, and even the most fascinating
day before you’re scheduled to speak.
topic will suffer. You might end up speaking in
a monotone or a sing-song repetitive delivery
Because extemporaneous speaking is the
pattern. You might also present your speech in
style used in the great majority of public
a rapid “machine-gun” style that fails to
speaking situations, most of the information in
emphasize the most important points. Second,
this chapter is targeted to this kind of
if you lose your place and start trying to ad lib,
speaking.
the contrast in your style of delivery will alert
your audience that something is wrong. More
3) Manuscript speaking is the word-for-word
frighteningly, if you go completely blank during
iteration of a written message. In a manuscript
the presentation, it will be extremely difficult to
speech, the speaker maintains his or her
find your place and keep going.
attention on the printed page except when
using visual aids.
Speaking Formats
The advantage to reading from a manuscript is
The three types of speaking formats are:
the exact repetition of original words. As we
Interaction, Transaction and Performance.
mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, in
some circumstances this can be extremely
1) Interaction:
important. For example, reading a statement
-It creates social interaction.
about your organization’s legal responsibilities
-Focus on participants and their social needs.
to customers may require that the original
-Interactive, requiring two-way participation
words be exact. In reading one word at a time,
-May be casual or formal
in order, the only errors would typically be
-Reflects speakers’ identity
mispronunciation of a word or stumbling over
complex sentence structure.
Examples:
Greetings
However, there are costs involved in
Small talk and chit chat
manuscript speaking. First, it’s typically an
Recounting recent experiences
uninteresting way to present. Unless the
Compliments
speaker has rehearsed the reading as a
complete performance animated with vocal
2) Transaction:
expression and gestures (as poets do in a
-Giving or obtaining information, or getting
poetry slam and actors do in a reader’s
goods and services
theater), the presentation tends to be dull.
-Focus on message
Keeping one’s eyes glued to the script
-Making oneself understood completely
precludes eye contact with the audience. For
-Grammatical accuracy may not be a priority
this kind of “straight” manuscript speech to
-Communication strategies
hold audience attention, the audience must be
already interested in the message before the
Examples:
delivery begins.
Classroom group discussion and problem
solving activities.
It is worth noting that professional speakers,
Discussing needed repairs to a computer with
actors, news reporters, and politicians often
a technician.
read from an autocue device, such as a
Making a telephone call to obtain flight
TelePrompTer, especially when appearing on
information.
television, where eye contact with the camera
Asking someone for directions on the street.
is crucial. With practice, a speaker can achieve
Ordering food from a menu in a restaurant.
a conversational tone and give the impression
of speaking extemporaneously while using an
3) Performance:
autocue device. However, success in this
medium depends on two factors: (1) the
An audience 
speaker is already an accomplished public
Speaker creates a “product” 
speaker who has learned to use a
A single speaker -produces longer stretches of
conversational tone while delivering a pr
discourse 
epared script, and (2) the speech is written in a
Recognizable “scripts” 
style that sounds conversational.
Speech is monitored for accuracy 
Monologue rather than dialogue 
Language more formal -more like written
language 
Reflects organization and sequencing 
Examples:
Morning talks
Public announcements
Welcome speech
Business presentation
LESSON 7:Lesson Design in Teaching
Speaking
LESSON 7: Lesson planning is undoubtedly
one of the most important factors for us to
consider, as ESL educators. So here we will
outline few teacher’s reflections on what
makes a lesson plan effective, and offer some
of our top tips for things to consider before
starting your plan.
Many people claim that perhaps the most
important part of teaching is the lesson plan
itself. Despite all the other essential
‘ingredients’ that make up a class, like teacher
enthusiasm, teacher knowledge and student
inputs, without a well thought out plan, things
can go downhill fast!
In order to help students make progress and
become successful in their use of English, an
effective lesson plan is essential. Preparation
or lack of preparation can make or break a
class and will impact on how successful the
class outcome is and how satisfied students
feel.
So what do we need to create an effective ESL
lesson plan and teach an excellent class?
Read on to find out!
We always find teachers themselves provide
the best ideas due to their experience in the
classroom, so we asked some of our ESL
teachers for their input. They mentioned the
following:
“Tip 1: A hook at the start of the class is a
great way to get students interested,
especially teenagers!”
We agree that using an image, a video clip, a
song, or playing an interactive game are all
great ways to start any class. This sets a
positive tone for the class and makes a
change from just starting with a quick review
from the previous class. This also allows for
latecomers (and ensures they don’t miss
anything too essential) and warms the group
up ready for the rest of the lesson.
“Tip 2: For me stepping away from the
textbook or using it in creative ways is
essential to make sure students don’t get
bored.”
Often schools require teachers to follow a set
of coursebook. This can often aid in planning,
and is of course hugely important in preparing
students for exams. However for students,
constantly following the textbook, doing the
tasks, checking their answers and so on can
become repetitive. Bringing some change in
this process is important, especially
considering the different learning styles you
will find in any classroom.
Why not consider a running dictation task?
You can use a phrase from the textbook, but
have students work in pairs to complete this
interactive task by acting as scribe and
reporter, and running up to the phrase stuck
on the wall and reporting back to their partner.
This is an effective way to practice reading,
speaking and listening skills and can be
adapted for any age or level.
Another easy way to ‘jazz up’ the course book
is to make tasks into competitions or timed
activities with a clock counting down. If you
don’t have a clock or a way of displaying time,
then simply shout out 1 minute, 30 seconds
etc.
This encourages teamwork, and many
students enjoy a bit of healthy competition!
Even enlarging an activity from the textbook
and making a copy can make things a bit more
fun. Cut a task up into sections and then play a
game. Students must run up and collect one at
a time and complete in their pair or team
before collecting the next one, so the textbook
task is completed but in a less tedious way
than normal!
“Tip 3: Taking into account the needs of
your students is massively important – pair
and group them carefully while considering
their needs and personality.”
Adapting your class activities to suit the
differing needs of students is often overlooked,
but it is equally important. Although your
students are more than likely to be grouped by
their levels, their needs and abilities will still
vary. Try to think about a range of activities
covering kinesthetic learners, auditory learners
and visual learners. Also, ensure you consider
the louder boisterous students and the quieter
more timid individuals who may not get
involved as much.
Materials and Resources in Teaching
Speaking AND Performance-Based
Assessment in Teaching Speaking
Performance-based tasks enable students’ to
demonstrate their learning progress in
authentic ways. They also provide foreign
language teachers with opportunities to
challenge their students to use the language
and therefore, assess the development of their
skills
What is Performance-Based Learning and
Assessment, and Why is it Important?
In the act of learning, people obtain content
knowledge, acquire skills, and develop work
habits—and practice the application of all three
to “real world” situations. Performance-based
learning and assessment represent a set of
strategies for the acquisition and application of
knowledge, skills, and work habits through the
performance of tasks that are meaningful and
engaging to students.
Balance in Literacy
Performance-based learning and assessment
achieve a balanced approach by extending
traditional fact-and-skill instruction.
Performance-based learning and assessment
are not a curriculum design. Whereas you
decide what to teach, performance-based
learning and assessment constitute a better
way to deliver your curriculum. Teachers do
not have to “give up” units of study or favorite
activities in a performance-based classroom.
Because authentic tasks are rooted in
curriculum, teachers can develop tasks based
on what already works for them. Through this
process, assignments become more authentic
and more meaningful to students.
Content Knowledge
The subject area content can come from
already defined curriculums or can be
enhanced by the adoption of a set of themes
or topics by the department, grade-level team,
school, or school system.
Process Skills
Higher-order thinking or process skills can
come from the various disciplines, such as
writing or proofreading from language arts or
math computation and problem-solving skills.
Other process skills cut across subject area
lines or may be identified as areas of need
based on standardized testing (e.g., analogies,
categorizing information, drawing inferences,
etc.).
Work Habits
Time management, individual responsibility,
honesty, persistence, and intrapersonal skills,
such as appreciation of diversity and working
cooperatively with others, are examples of
work habits necessary for an individual to be
successful in life.
Performance Tasks
Performance tasks build on earlier content
knowledge, process skills, and work habits and
are strategically placed in the lesson or unit to
enhance learning as the student “pulls it all
together.” Such performance tasks are not
“add-ons” at the end of instruction. They are
both an integral part of the learning and an
opportunity to assess the quality of student
performance. When the goal of teaching and
learning is knowing and using, the
performance-based classroom emerges.
Performance tasks range from short activities
taking only a few minutes to projects
culminating in polished products for audiences
in and outside of the classroom. In the
beginning, most performance tasks should fall
on the short end of the continuum. Teachers
find that many activities they are already doing
can be shaped into performance-learning
tasks.
Two initial concerns of teachers moving toward
performance-based classrooms include the
amount of time needed for performance tasks
and the subjectivity traditionally associated
with teacher assessment and assigning
“grades.”
Time
The initial move to any new method involves
an investment in time. The development of
performance-assessment tasks is no
exception. With a little practice, however,
teachers find that they can easily and quickly
develop performance tasks and assessment
lists. This process is further simplified as
teachers and schools begin to collect and
maintain lists of generic tasks and
assessments that teachers can adapt for
individual lessons. Teachers find assessment
lists a more efficient way of providing feedback
to students than traditional methods, thus
saving time in the long run. Finally, as students
work with performance assessment, the quality
of their work improves, reducing the time
teachers must spend assessing and grading
student work.
PERFORMANCE-BASED TASKS FOR
ASSESSING SPEAKING SKILLS
Countless are the activities that teachers can
adapt for promoting and assessing students’
speaking skills individually and cooperatively.
Ellen (2002) suggests a set of assessment
tasks that can be adapted for this purpose.
These activities include:
● Constructed response:open-ended
statement with which learner is asked to
agree (listing example to justify the answer)
or disagree (explaining what an alternative
answer is and why it was chosen)
● Cooperative–group work: group project only
is assessed; contributions by individuals are
assessed as well as the group's’ result;
bonus points are given when certain members
or when all members achieve; or individual
points are added to form a total group score.
● Demonstration: illustration of a procedure
with the performance of necessary steps and
explanation of results.
● Display: poster, photo, chart, graph, etc.,
about a project, accompanied by verbal
explanations.
● Draw and tell test: picture or diagram drawn
as a model to represent a concept.
● Problem-solving: staging of the hands-on
problem to solve, accompanied by a verbal
explanation.
● Student conference/oral interview:
discussion about activities, interests or
experiences between students and teacher
and/or other adults.
● Exhibitions: … real-world demonstrations not
only of what students know but also of what
they are able to do with their knowledge …the
student must exhibit the products of his
learning…what may be required of
students: demonstration, use of information,
research skills, descriptive skills,
communication skills, imaginative skills, verbal
explanation, defense of work, convincing
arguments, fielding of questions, explanations
of how and why.
● Class presentation: select different tasks for
class production.
● Debate team: select, research, and present
opposing viewpoints.
● Group investigation: take on a specific role
within a group and prepare projects, research
or report to share with the class.
● Interviewing: form questions, interview
someone, record answers and organize a
report; paired interview.
● List of concerns: generate a personal list of
concerns, questions, and ideas about a topic
and share/compare with another learner.
● Panel discussion: select a moderator and effort to follow up. Let recipients know you are
present a topic for the class; panel of experts: available if they have questions, and, if
develop a set of questions and answers about appropriate, ask for another opportunity to
a topic, they assume roles of moderator, provide more feedback in the future.
quizzer, judge and recorder for their group. LESSON 8: Nature and Purposes of Writing
● Personal picture: respond, with a personal
solution to an open-ended problem by role- "Writing" is the process of using symbols
playing. (letters of the alphabet, punctuation and
● Tell/retell: tell ideas to a partner, then tell spaces) to communicate thoughts and ideas in
another pair each other’s idea, then join a readable form.
another four and retell only the ideas not
previously told, ending with a group recap of "Writing" can also refer to the work/career of
all eight ideas. an author, as in: "Shakespeare didn't make
much money from writing."
Feedbacking in Assessing Speaking
Giving effective feedback Generally, we write using a pen/pencil
Prioritize your ideas. Limit your feedback to the (handwriting) or a keyboard (typing). With a
most important issues. Consider the pen/pencil we usually write on a surface such
feedback’s potential value to the receiver and as paper or whiteboard. A keyboard is
how you would respond – could you act on the normally attached to a typewriter, computer or
feedback? As well, too much feedback mobile device. Voice recognition programs
provided at a single time can be overwhelming allow those who can't see or use their hands to
to the recipient. have their thoughts transcribed.
•Concentrate on the behaviour, not the person. Writing is the fourth of the four language skills,
One strategy is to open by stating the which are:
behaviour in question, then describing how  Listening
you feel about it, and ending with what you  Speaking
want. This model enables you to avoid
 Reading
sounding accusatory by using “I” and focusing
 Writing
on behaviours, instead of assumed
interpretations. Example: “I haven’t seen you
In our own language, writing is usually the
in class in for a week. I’m worried that you are
fourth language skill that we learn.
missing important information. Can we meet
soon to discuss it?”
Mechanics and Process of Writing
Instead of: “You obviously don’t care about this
course!”
Grammar is the structure of written or spoken
•Balance the content. Use the “sandwich
language. It refers to the parts of speech and
approach.” Begin by providing comments on
how they combine together to form sentences.
specific strengths. This provides reinforcement
Mechanics refers to the rules of the written
and identifies the things the recipient should
language, such as capitalization, punctuation
keep doing. Then identify specific areas of
and spelling. An understanding of both
improvement and ways to make changes.
grammar and mechanics is required to clearly
Conclude with a positive comment. This model
communicate your ideas in a paper.
helps to bolster confidence and keep the weak
areas in perspective. Example: “Your
Here are some strategies to help you improve
presentation was great. You made good eye
your grammar and mechanics:
contact, and were well prepared. You were a
-Keep a list of your most common errors. For
little hard to hear at the back of the room, but
example, if you often get feedback from your
with some practice you can overcome this.
instructors that you are using commas
Keep up the good work!” Instead of: “You
incorrectly and writing many run-on sentences,
didn’t speak loudly enough. However, the
make note of these errors.
presentation went well.”
-When you are proofreading your work, refer to
•Be specific. Avoid general comments that
your list of frequent errors and carefully read
may be of limited use to the receiver. Try to
for correctness in these areas.
include examples to illustrate your statement.
-Read your paper out loud (or listen to
As well, offering alternatives rather than just
someone else read your writing). If you have
giving advice allows the receiver to decide
access to reading software such as Read and
what to do with your feedback
Write, make use of its audio function.
•Be realistic. Feedback should focus on what
-As you listen to your paper, you will likely be
can be changed. It is useless and frustrating
able to pick out sections that "sound right" and
for recipients to get comments on something
sections that don't. Then, go back to the rules
over which they have no control. Also,
of grammar and mechanics to fix any problem
remember to avoid using the words “always”
areas.
and “never.” People’s behaviour is rarely that
-Use the spelling and grammar checking tool
consistent.
in your word processor. However, be careful!
•Own the feedback. When offering evaluative
These tools simply make suggestions but may
comments, use the pronoun “I” rather than
not always provide the correct solution. You
“they” or “one,” which would imply that your
need to decide if these suggestions are going
opinion is universally agreed on. Remember
to make your writing better or worse.
that feedback is merely your opinion.
-Read more about your problem areas, view
•Be timely. Seek an appropriate time to
examples and practice your skills.
communicate your feedback. Being prompt is
key since feedback loses its impact if delayed
In composition, writing mechanics are the
too long. Delayed feedback can also cause
conventions governing the technical aspects of
feelings of guilt and resentment in the recipient
writing, including spelling, punctuation,
if the opportunity for improvement has passed.
capitalization, and abbreviations. Getting your
As well, if your feedback is primarily negative,
main points together can be a challenge, and
take time to prepare what you will say or write.
one solution is to put together a draft of main
•Offer continuing support. Feedback should be
ideas before writing. Some writing textbooks
a continuous process, not a one-time event.
also include issues related to usage and
After offering feedback, make a conscious
organization under the broad heading of
mechanics. Here are the basics of writing
mechanics for students and writers.
Writing Mechanics
"Teachers using a traditional, product-oriented
approach tend to focus on the formal
mechanical and technical aspects of writing
while paying little attention to the individual
writer's communicative purposes. Thus with
this approach there is a danger that, for many
children, writing will become an exercise in
formal mechanics divorced from personal
content and intentions."
their ideas to the reader. Revising is not a
simply activity of checking language errors but
it is done to improve global content and
organization of the ideas so the writer’s
intention is clearer for the reader.
4) Editing
At this stage, the students are focused on
tidying up their works as they prepare the final
draft to be evaluated by the teacher. The main
activity done by the students at this stage is
editing their mistakes on grammar, spelling,
punctuation, sentences, diction and etc.

Spelling To sum up, the arrangement of the steps

the correct arrangement of letters that form cannot be separated because it works like a
words. To improve spelling skills, you can use wheel. Each stage in the process of writing will
a memory device known as mnemonics. This work in line to help the students in composing
memorable phrase, acronym or pattern can the text.
come in handy for remembering something like
the spelling of a word. You can also increase
your reading skills, make a list of common
words you often misspell or mark words in a
dictionary that seem to give you trouble
repeatedly.

Punctuation
the set of marks used to regulate texts and
clarify their meanings, mainly by separating or
linking words, phrases, and clauses.

Capitalization
Capitalization is the practice of using capital
letters in writing or printing. Proper nouns, key
words in titles, and beginnings of sentences
are generally capitalized. You will also want to
capitalize the letter "I" under all circumstances.

Abbreviations
An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word
or phrase, such as "D.C." for "District of
Columbia."

Process of writing
Richards and Renandya (2002: 316) state that
the process of teaching writing consists of four
basic stages. They are planning, drafting,
revising, and editing. For each stage, various
learning activities that can support the learning
of specific writing skills are suggested. For
instance, in the planning stage, teachers can
help their students to improve their writing
skills in generating ideas by giving activities,
such as brain storming, clustering, and rapid
free writing.
The planned writing experiences for the
students can be described as follows:

1) Planning
Planning or pre-writing is an activity of writing
that aimed to encourage and stimulate the
students to write. Since its function is to
stimulate students’ ideas to write, the writing
activities must be prepared to provide them
learning experiences of writing, such as brain
storming and etc.

2) Drafting
At this stage, the students will focus on the
fluency of writing and write without having
much attention to the accuracy of their works.
During the process of writing, the students
must also focus on the content and the
meaning of the writing. Besides, the students
18 may be encouraged to deliver their
messages to different audience, such as
peers, other classmates and etc.

3) Revising
The students review and reexamine the text to
see how effectively they have communicated