The Anatomy and Physiology of the skin

The anatomy of the skin

The skin is the body's largest organ. It covers the entire body. It serves as a protective shield
against heat, light, injury, and infection. The skin also:

 Regulates body temperature

 Stores water and fat
 Is a sensory organ
 Prevents water loss
 Prevents entry of bacteria
 Acts as a barrier between the organism and its environment
 Helps to make vitamin D when exposed to the sun

Your skin takes on different thickness, color, and texture all over your body. For example,
your head contains more hair follicles than anywhere else. But the soles of your feet have
none. In addition, the soles of your feet and the palms of your hands are much thicker than
skin on other areas of your body.

The skin is made up of 3 layers. Each layer has certain functions:

 Epidermis
  Dermis
 Subcutaneous fat layer (hypodermis)

Epidermis The epidermis is the thin outer layer of the skin. It consists of 3
types of cells:

 Squamous cells. The outermost layer is continuously shed is

called the stratum corneum.

 Basal cells. Basal cells are found just under the squamous

cells, at the base of the epidermis.

 Melanocytes. Melanocytes are also found at the base of the

epidermis and make melanin. This gives the skin its color.

Dermis The dermis is the middle layer of the skin. The dermis contains the
following:

 Blood vessels

 Lymph vessels

 Hair follicles

 Sweat glands

 Collagen bundles

 Fibroblasts

 Nerves

 Sebaceous glands

The dermis is held together by a protein called collagen. This layer

gives skin flexibility and strength. The dermis also contains pain
and touch receptors.

Subcutaneous fat The subcutaneous fat layer is the deepest layer of skin. It consists of
layer(hypodermis) a network of collagen and fat cells. It helps conserve the body's heat
 and protects the body from injury by acting as a shock absorber.

The physiology of the skin

The skin is the main interface between the individual and the environment. It therefore has
essential physiological functions which allow the individual to live safely, even under
changing external conditions which might pose potential threats. The most important
physiological function of the skin is protection against various forms of noxious stimuli
including physical and chemical trauma, micro-organisms and radiation. The skin and its
appendages such as hair are also vital for thermoregulation. Several modalities of sensation
are mediated via the skin allowing the individual to recognize the context of their relationship
to the environment. The skin is a significant water storage organ, particularly in
the hypodermis layer. Although it mainly acts as a barrier, the skin does have some ability to
absorb various substances, particularly lipophilic compounds. Emotions such as fright, anger
or joy can be expressed via the skin, due to changes in blood supply, the position of hairs, or
movements of those muscles which insert directly into the skin. Synthesis of vitamin
D occurs in sun-exposed skin and is the major site of production in normal health. It is
important for surgeons to understand the functions of the skin in order to recognize when
clinical problems occur and to appreciate how patients with disordered skin physiology are
likely to respond to traumatic or surgical injury.

Normal changes in skin condition with aging

Changes in the skin can be recognized as visual information and are associated with the
visual impression of aging. Factors of aging in visual impressions from the viewpoint of
beauty are the decline of skin texture, fine lines and wrinkles, a dull aspect, the decline of
elasticity and resilience, the loss of firm and supple skin texture and the decline of skin
functions.

Perceived age for aging skin appearance

People tend to judge others’ age by physical appearance. Facial skin appearances could be an
influential information source for perception, such as the conditions of wrinkles, firmness,
sagging, complexion, radiance and texture . Perceived age does not necessarily correspond to
chronological age. Perceived age could be greatly different from chronological age,
depending on life environments, life styles, eating habits and other factors. Especially parts of
the body like the face, which is usually visible to others, are easily recognized as signs of
aging.

The decline of smooth texture

Area cutanea on the surface of the skin contributes to aging. Sulcus cutis are ridges on the
surface of the skin and runs lengthwise and breadthwise extending radially from follicles as
the center. Crista is surrounded by sulucus cutis and area cutanea is formed from crista. The
skin texture of the young is smooth and even, and has a structure with a clear and well-
ordered concavity and convexity, which forms a smooth skin texture with the feel that is
delicate and dense.

However, the sulcus cutis becomes shallow and unclear with age, and the follicles become
bigger. The cutanea area changes and the quality of the texture declines in advanced ages.
The skin feels and looks rough and sandy. These conditions of the skin provide visual
impressions of aging.

The increase of wrinkles

Wrinkles show morphological changes on the macro level in comparison to the skin texture.
Wrinkles begin to appear, around thirty years old, around eyes and mouths and on foreheads
and necks . Wrinkles increase in number and become deeper with aging. The appearances of
wrinkles on the face and neck are related to the movement of muscles and the exposure to
ultraviolet light. Skin tissue fibers are ruptured by ultraviolet sun light, lose elasticity and
reduce resilience against deformation.

The increase of dull aspect

The color tone of the skin is determined mainly by melanin (brown), carotene (yellow) and
hemoglobin (red or blueish red). Further, light reflection and absorption affects the color tone
due to the thickness of stratum corneum or the condition of the skin surface of texture and
wrinkles. The changes in the tone of the skin accompanied by aging causes a decrease in
redness, an increase in yellowness and the decline of brightness of color. As a result, the
color of the skin looks dark and dull . The factors of dullness of the skin are diversified such
as pigmentation, the decline of blood flow, thickened stratum corneum, and glycation,
oxidation and carbonylation of skin proteins.

The decline of firmness and elasticity

Denatured collagen or elastin in the dermis due to glycation forms a protein cross-linking
disorder. As collagen and elastin are associated with firmness and elasticity of the skin, the
elasticity and resilience are lost.

The decline of the skin function

The epidermis decreases the proliferation of basal cells and becomes thin as aging progresses.
Then, its turnover time is prolonged .The fibroblast of dermis is reduced in proliferation
functions and synthesis capability of matrix components. Thus, the dermis atrophies and the
skin become less supple and radiant. One of the factors of reduced functions of tissues is that
hormones and growth factors have insufficient reaction to skin tissues. The changes of skin
functions induce the delay of barrier function recovery of stratum corneum, the decline of
water retention function (dryness), the changes of the amount of sebum secretion due to the
changes of sex hormone secretion, the decline of skin blood flow, and the changes in the
metabolism of lipid and carbohydrate.

Skin color variation and causes. 

 The amount of melanin in the skin, the amount of UV exposure, genetics, the
quality of melanosomes, and pigments present in the skin all play a role in racial variation.
The different colors present in human skin are caused by 4 chromophores: carotenoids,
hemoglobin, melanin, and oxyhemoglobin. By absorbing unique light wavelengths and
allowing red to be reflected, oxyhemoglobin and hemoglobin lead to the pinkish color of
Caucasian skin. Melanin is responsible for the different brown shades seen in black and sun-
tanned skin. Carotenoids cause yellow-orange pigmentation. A mixture of all the pigments
causes other hues. Orthoquinones are produced during melanogenesis, and they have a high
predisposition for interacting with protein and nucleic acids and covalently adhering to them.
Differences in skin pigmentation are caused by melanosome arrangement variations and the
quantity of melanin present.

Basic types of lesions

What are the different types of primary skin lesions?

Birthmarks are primary skin lesions, as are moles and acne. Other types include the
following.

1. Blisters

Blisters are skin lesions filled with a clear fluid. Small blisters measuring less than 1 cm in
size are also called vesicles. Larger blisters are called bullae or, simply, blisters. 

These lesions can be the result of: 

 sunburns

 steam burns

 insect bites

 friction from shoes or clothes

 viral infections

2. Macules

Macules are small spots that are typically brown, red, or white. They’re usually about 1 cm in
diameter. Examples include freckles and flat moles.

3. Nodules

A nodule is a term used to describe growths that occur under the skin, such as certain types
of cysts. Nodules are typically under 2 cm. If the nodule becomes big enough, it can affect
the overlying skin too. 

4. Papules
A papule is a raised lesion, and most of them develop with many other papules. 

A patch of papules or nodules is called a plaque. Plaques are common in people

with psoriasis.

5. Pustules

Pustules are small lesions filled with pus. They’re typically the result of acne, boils,
or impetigo.

6. Rashes

Rashes are lesions that cover small or large areas of skin. They can be caused by an allergic
reaction. A common allergic reaction rash occurs when a person touches poison ivy.

7. Wheals

A wheal is a skin lesion caused by an allergic reaction. Hives are an example of wheals.

What are the different types of secondary skin lesions?

When primary skin lesions are irritated, they can develop into secondary skin lesions. The
most common secondary skin lesions include:

1. Crusts

A crust, or a scab, is created when dried blood forms over a scratched and irritated skin
lesion.

2. Scales

Scales, such as those caused by actinic keratosis, are patches of skin cells that build up and
then flake off the skin.

3. Scars
Some scratches, cuts, and scrapes will leave scars that aren’t replaced with healthy, normal
skin. Instead, the skin returns as a thick, raised scar. This scar is called a keloid.

4. Skin atrophy

Skin atrophy occurs when areas of your skin become thin and wrinkled from poor circulation
or overuse of topical steroids.

5. Ulcers

Ulcers are typically caused by a bacterial infection or physical trauma. They’re often

accompanied by poor circulation.

Introduction
The skin is the body’s largest organ, made of water, protein, fats and minerals. Your skin
protects your body from germs and regulates body temperature. Nerves in the skin help you
feel sensations like hot and cold.

Your skin, along with your hair, nails, oil glands and sweat glands, is part of the
integumentary system. “Integumentary” means a body’s outer covering.

It is one of the tissues in our body that duplicates the most and the fastest. The
skin has three main functions:  protection, regulation and sensation.

Acknowledgment
Primarily I would like to thank God for being able to complete this project with success.
Then I would like to thank my instructor Ms. Thompson whose instructions has a serves as
the major contributor towards the completion of this project.

Then I would like to thank my friends who have helped me with their valuable suggestions
and guidance been helpful in various phases of the completion of this project.

Bibliography
https://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/topic/default?id=anatomy-of-the-skin-85-P01336

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0263931921002398

https://www.toukastress.jp/webj/article/2018/GS18-08.pdf

https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/518826

https://www.healthline.com/health/skin-lesions#treatment

Glossary
1. Epidermis - The surface epithelium of the skin, overlying the dermis.
2. Dermis - The thick layer of living tissue below the epidermis which forms the true
skin, containing blood capillaries, nerve endings, sweat glands, hair follicles, and
other structures.
3. Skin - The thin layer of tissue forming the natural outer covering of the body of a
person or animal.
4. Body - The physical structure, including the bones, flesh, and organs, of a person or
an animal.
5. Organism - An individual animal, plant, or single-celled life form.
6. Fat - A natural oily substance occurring in animal bodies, especially
when deposited as a layer under the skin or around certain organs.
7. Cell - The smallest structural and functional unit of an organism, which is
typically microscopic and consists of cytoplasm and a nucleus enclosed in a
membrane.
8. Thermoreglutation - regulate temperature, especially one's own body temperature.
9. Blister - A small bubble on the skin filled with serum and caused by friction, burning,
or other damage.
10. Lesion -A region in an organ or tissue which has suffered damage through injury or
disease, such as a wound, ulcer, abscess, or tumour.
11. Wrinkle - A slight line or fold in something, especially fabric or the skin of the face.
12. Sunburn - Reddening, inflammation, and, in severe cases, blistering and peeling of the
skin caused by overexposure to the ultraviolet rays of the sun.
13. Scar - A mark left on the skin or within body tissue where a wound, burn, or sore has
not healed completely and fibrous connective tissue has developed.
14. Ulcer - An open sore on an external or internal surface of the body, caused by a break
in the skin or mucousmembrane which fails to heal. Ulcers range from small,
painful sores in the mouth to bedsores and serious lesions of the stomach or intestine.
15. Scale- A thick, dry flake of skin.
16. Moles - A small, often slightly raised blemish on the skin made dark by a high
concentration of melanin.
17. Acne - A skin condition characterized by red pimples on the skin, especially on the
face, due to inflamed or infected sebaceous glands and prevalent chiefly among
adolescents.
18. Rash - An area of redness and spots on a person's skin, appearing especially as a result
of allergy or illness.
19. Pigmentation - Abnormal colouring of a person's skin, typically resulting from
disease.
20. Follicle - A small secretory cavity, sac, or gland.
21. Hypodermic - Relating to the region immediately beneath the skin.
22. Trauma - Physical injury.
23. Birthmark - An unusual, typically permanent, mark on someone's body which is there
from birth.
24. Melanin - A dark brown to black pigment occurring in the hair, skin, and iris of the
eye in people and animals. It is responsible for tanning of skin exposed to sun

Table of content
Introduction 1
Acknowledgement 2
The anatomy and physiology of the skin 3
Normal changes in skin condition associated with aging 6
Skin colour variation and causes 8
Basic types of lesions 9
Bibliography 12
Glossary 13

Assess skin status and implement preventive/ corrective

measures.