INDEX

1. Theory 03 - 47

2. Exercise 48 - 57

3. Answers Key 58
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES THEORY 3

Human Health and Diseases

1. Introduction

Health was earlier considered a state of mind where there was a balance of certain ‘humors’. Humorism, the humoral theory, or
humoralism, was a system of medicine detailing a supposed makeup and workings of the human body, adopted by Ancient Greek
and Roman physicians and philosophers. Even Hippocrates and the Indian Ayurvedic system believed the same.

Hippocrates is usually credited with applying this idea to medicine. He suggested that the four humors blood, phlegm, yellow
bile, and black bile are the vital bodily fluids. The extreme excess or deficiency of any of the humors (bodily fluid) in a person can
be a sign of illness. Hippocrates, and then Galen, suggested that a moderate imbalance in the mixture of these fluids produces
behavioral patterns.
4 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

It was thought that persons with ‘black bile’ belonged to a hot personality and would have fevers. This idea was arrived at by pure
reflective thought.

Humorism began to fall out of favor in the 1850s with the advent of germ theory, which was able to show that many diseases
previously thought to be humoral were in fact caused by microbes. It was after the discovery of blood circulation by Willian
Harvey through experimentation and demonstration of normal body temperature in persons with black bile using a thermometer
disproved the ‘good humor’ hypothesis of health.

In later years, it was discovered that mind influences, through the neural system and endocrine system, our immune system and
that our immune system maintains our health.
Our health is affected by –
(i) Genetic disorders – deficiencies with which a child is born and deficiencies/defects which the child inherits from parents from
birth;
(ii) Infections
(iii) Lifestyle including food and water we take, rest and exercise we give to our bodies, habits that we have or lack etc.

1.1 Health
Health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. It simply does not mean ‘absence of disease’ or
‘physical fitness’.

Benefits of having healthy people in society are:

● Healthy people are more efficient at work.
● This increases productivity and brings economic prosperity
● Health also increases longevity of people and reduces infant and maternal mortality
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 5

Ways to maintain a good health are:

Fig 8.1: Ways to maintain good health

When the functioning of one or more organs or systems of the body is adversely affected, characterised by appearance of various
signs and symptoms, we say that we are not healthy, i.e., we have a disease (means: ill at ease).

1.2 Diseases
A disease is an abnormal condition that negatively affects the structure or function of all or part of an
organism, and that is not due to any immediate external injury.
6 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

Diseases can be classified into:

● Congenital diseases: Congenital diseases are those diseases or disorders which are present in the child since birth. E.g.,
Down syndrome, Cystic fibrosis, Haemophilia
● Acquired diseases: The diseases which are not present since birth nor they are inherited. They develop these diseases during
their life. E.g. AIDS, Cancer, Tuberculosis.
● On the basis of mode of spread of diseases:
● Communicable diseases (Infectious diseases): Diseases which are easily transferred from infected person to healthy
person are called infectious diseases. E.g., Dengue, Malaria, Typhoid
● Non-communicable diseases (Non-infectious diseases): Diseases which cannot transfer from an infected person to a
healthy person are called non communicable diseases. E.g. can be :
● Degenerative diseases: Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease
● Deficiency diseases: Rickets, Scurvy
● Allergies: Asthma, Hay fever
● Cancer
● Autoimmune diseases: Myasthenia gravis

1.3 Diseases in Humans

A wide range of microorganisms are responsible for a variety of diseases. Such diseases causing microbes are called pathogens.
Pathogens can be bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa or helminths etc.
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 7

Fig 8.2: Different disease causing microbes

Most parasites can also be called pathogens as they cause harm to the host by living in (or on) them. Pathogens can enter our body
by various means, multiply and interfere with normal vital activities, resulting in morphological and functional damage. Upon
entering the body, pathogens have to adapt to life within the environment of the host. For example, the pathogens that enter the
gut must know a way of surviving in the stomach at low pH and resisting the various digestive enzymes.
Vectors is an organism that transmits the causative agent or disease-causing organism from the reservoir to the host. Vector is
derived from Latin, from “vehere”, meaning “carrier“. It can also be called an intermediate host or carrier.
Depending upon the causative agent of diseases, various types of diseases are:
 Bacterial diseases
 Viral diseases
 Protozoan diseases
 Helminthic diseases
 Fungal diseases

2. Bacterial Diseases
2.1 Typhoid (Gastric Fever, Enteric Fever)
● It is a common worldwide illness. It is transmitted by the ingestion of food or water contaminated with the faeces of an
infected person, which contains the bacterium Salmonella typhi.

Fig 8.3: Salmonella typhi

● Salmonella typhi is pathogenic gram- negative bacterium predominantly found in intestinal lumen.
● Its pathogenicity is due to an outer membrane consisting largely of lipopolysaccharide.
● Slow progressive fever as high as 39 0 - 40 0C , weakness, stomach pain, constipation, headache and loss of appetite are some
8 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

of the common symptoms of this disease. Intestinal perforation and death may occur in severe cases. Less commonly a rash of
flat, rose-coloured spots may appear.

Fig 8.4: Symptoms of typhoid fever

● Typhoid fever could be confirmed by Widal test

● There are two vaccines currently recommended by WHO for prevention of typhoid: these are live oral Ty21a vaccine (Vivotif
Berna) and injectable Typhoid polysaccharide vaccine (Typhim Vi / Typherix)

2.2 Pneumonia
Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lungs, especially inflammation of the alveoli or when the lungs fill with the fluid.

Fig 8.5: Pneumonia affected lung and normal lung

● A healthy person acquires the infection by inhaling the droplets/aerosols released by an infected person or even by sharing
glasses and utensils with an infected person
● Pneumonia is due to infections caused primarily by bacteria or viruses and less commonly by fungi and parasites
● Viral pneumonia is caused by viruses such as influenza virus, adenovirus or Para virus. Bacterial pneumonia is caused by
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 9

Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae.

Fig 8.6: Streptococcus pneumonia Fig 8.7: Haemophilus influenzae.

● The symptoms of pneumonia include fever, chills, cough producing greenish or yellow sputum and headache. In severe cases,
the lips and fingernails may turn gray to bluish in colour.
● Pneumonia is typically diagnosed based on a combination of physical signs and often a chest X-ray.
● Antibiotics by mouth, rest, simple analgesics, and fluids usually suffice for complete treatment of the disease.

2.3 Cholera

Fig 8.8: Vibrio cholerae

● Cholera was discovered by Robert Koch. It is caused by Vibrio cholerae.

● Cholera is transmitted through contaminated food and water.
● The patient starts passing stools frequently, which are white like rice water and gets repeated vomiting.

Fig 8.9: Symptoms of Cholera

10 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

● The treatment includes rapid replacement of fluid and electrolytes by oral rehydration therapy. Drugs like tetracycline and
chloramphenicol are also used.

2.4 Tuberculosis (Koch’s Disease)

Fig 8.10: Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Tuberculosis is caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This bacterium damages the tissue and releases a toxin called
tuberculin which produces this disease. The infection is spread by inhalation of droplets expelled by tubercular patients, infection
of food and drink contaminated with bacteria of tuberculosis, milk from tubercular cows.
Symptoms of disease include fever, cough, blood containing sputum, pain in chest and loss of wait, excessive fatigue, failure of
weight, slight rise of temperature in evening, hoarseness of throat, night sweating and rapid pulse.

Fig 8.11: Symptoms of Tuberculosis

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 11

Diagnosis of tuberculosis is done by the Mantoux test. Tuberculosis is a curable disease. Bacillus-Calmette-Guerin or BCG
vaccine gives protection against tuberculosis. Antibiotics like rifampicin and streptomycin are used to treat tuberculosis.

3. Viral Diseases
3.1 Common Cold or Rhinitis
It is one of the most infectious human ailments that is caused by rhinovirus. It attacks the nose and the respiratory passage but not
the lungs. The virus is transmitted through the inhalation of droplets from infected persons or through contaminated objects.
The symptoms are nasal congestion and discharge, sore throat, hoarseness, cough, headache, tiredness, etc., which usually last for
3-7 days.

Fig 8.12: Symptoms of common cold

Antihistamines and decongestants are used as drugs to treat common colds. No vaccine is available.

3.2 Poliomyelitis
Poliomyelitis is also called infantile paralysis. It is caused by one of the smallest viruses, enterovirus, also called poliovirus.

Fig 8.13: Enterovirus

12 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

Poliovirus usually enters the body via the alimentary canal through the faeco-oral route and reaches the nervous system through
the bloodstream. Polioviruses usually harm the motor neurons by damaging the anterior horn cells of the spinal cord. It produces
inflammation of the nervous system. Stiffness of the neck is an important sign. Paralysis starts following the weakness of
particular skeletal muscles. It starts with high fever, chilliness, pain all over the body and headache.

Fig 8.14: Person with polio infected legs

Prevention of Polio
Steps that can be taken for the prevention of poliomyelitis include:
● Adequate arrangement of proper disposal of urine and faeces of the patients. Overcrowding of schools, playground and
cinema halls should be avoided.
● Polio vaccine is safe and effective. The first polio vaccine was prepared by Jonas Salk called salk vaccine. Sabin et al
prepared an oral polio vaccine.

3.3 Rabies (Hydrophobia)

Fig 8.16: Rabies virus

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 13

Rabies or Hydrophobia is caused by the rabies virus. This virus spreads through the bite of a rabid (mad) dog. It can also spread
through rabid jackals, wolves and cats. Fear of water is the most characteristic symptom of this disease. It is because the infection
causes intense such spasms in the throat when a person tries to swallow that even the thought of swallowing water can cause
spasm making it appear that the individual is afraid of water. Other symptoms include saliva from mouth, severe headache, high
fever and damage to brain and spinal cord.
There should be compulsory immunization of the cat and dog population. Wounds of bitten dogs should be immediately washed
with soap and water and anti rabies vaccine should be given to patients immediately.

4. Protozoan Diseases
4.1 Malaria
Malaria is a mosquito borne infectious disease of humans caused by protists Plasmodium known as malarial parasite. It is
widespread in tropical and sub-tropical regions including Africa, Asia and America.

Fig 8.17: Plasmodium

Four species of Plasmodium can infect and be transmitted by humans.These are : Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale,
Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium falciparum.
Plasmodium is a digenetic parasite. The life cycle of malarial parasites is complicated and involves two hosts, human and female
Anopheles mosquito. The disease is transmitted to humans when an infected Anopheles mosquito bites a person and injects the
malarial parasite into the blood.

Fig 8.18: Female Anopheles Mosquito

4.1.1 Transmission of the Malarial Parasite:

● The malarial parasite completes its life cycle in mosquitoes and humans.
● Mosquito is the primary host of the parasite. Sexual reproduction of the parasite takes places inside the mosquito.
● Asexual reproduction takes place inside the humans making them the secondary host.
14 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

4.1.2 Life Cycle of Malarial Parasite:

Fig 8.19: Complete life cycle of Plasmodium

4.1.2.1 Life Cycle of Malarial Parasite in Anopheles Mosquito

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 15

Fig 8.20: Life cycle of Plasmodium inside mosquito

Only female mosquitoes feed upon the human blood while males feed upon the plant sap. Females require albumin protein
for the formation of eggs and they derive this albumin from the human blood. Hence, they are responsible for the
transmission of disease causing microbes and not the males

4.1.1.2 Life Cycle of a Malarial Parasite in Human

Pre-erythrocytic phase:
● It involves the infection of the liver.
● When a mosquito bites a person, sporozoites enter the bloodstream and migrate to the liver.
● They infect the liver cells (hepatocytes) where they multiply into merozoites.
● Merozoites rupture the liver cells and escape into the bloodstream.
Erythrocytic phase
● Merozoites infect the red blood cells, where they develop into the ring forms, trophozoites and then schizonts which in turn
produce merozoites.
● Within the erythrocytes, the parasites multiply asexually, periodically breaking out of their host bodies (RBCs) to invade
fresh red blood cells.
16 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

● Several such amplification cycles occur. Thus classical description of waves of merozoites escaping and infecting red
blood cells.

Fig 8.21: Plasmodium malariae in the schizont stage inside infected RBC

Fig 8.22: Parasites multiply asexually, periodically breaking out of RBCs

4.1.3 Symptoms of Malaria
The common symptoms of malaria include:
● Fever, shivering, arthralgia (joint pain), vomiting, anemia, haemoglobinuria and convulsions.
● A classical symptom of malaria is cyclical occurrence of sudden coldness followed by rigor and then fever and sweating
lasting four to six hours occurring every two days in P. vivax and P. ovale infections, while every three days for P. malariae.
● Severe malaria is almost exclusively caused by P. falciparum.
● Splenomegaly (enlarged spleen), severe headache, cerebral ischemia, hepatomegaly, hypoglycemia and haemoglobinuria with
renal failure may occur.

4.1.4 Prevention of Malaria

Malarial transmission can be reduced by preventing mosquito nets and insect repellents or by mosquito control measures such as
spraying insecticides and draining standing water where mosquitoes lay their eggs. The mosquito larvae can be controlled by
release of Gambusia fish.
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 17

Fig 8.24: Mosquito Fish, Gambusia affinis underwater view

Fig 8.25: Mosquito repellent nets

4.2 Amoebiasis (Amoebic Dysentery)

Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite in the large intestine of humans which causes amoebiasis.
18 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

Fig 8.26: Entamoeba histolytica

● Drinking water and food contaminated by the faecal matter are the main source of infection. Infection spreads through
ingestion of the cyst form of parasite.
● Non -encysted amoeba or trophozoites which die quickly after leaving the body are not a source of infection.
● Houseflies act as mechanical carriers and serve to transmit the parasite from faeces of infected persons to food and food
products, thereby contaminating them.
● Symptoms of this disease include constipation, abdominal pain and cramps, stools with excess mucus and blood clots.
Prevention:
● Avoid consuming raw vegetables that are grown using human faeces as fertilizers and drink boiled water
● Wash your hands thoroughly.

5. Helminthic Diseases
5.1 Ascariasis
● Ascariasis is caused by Ascaris lumbricoides.
● It is generally seen in children as they generally have a habit of eating soil and clay which might be infected with the eggs
of Ascaris.

Fig 8.27: Female Ascaris and male Ascaris

● There is no secondary host in the life cycle of this parasite.

● Symptoms of these diseases include internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anemia, diarrhoea, vomiting and blockage of the
intestinal passage.

5.2 Filariasis (Elephantiasis)

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 19

Fig 8.28: Inflammation in one of the lower limbs due to elephantiasis

● Filariasis is caused by a number of worms. There are 9 known filarial nematodes which use humans as their definitive host.
They are divided into three groups:
● Lymphatic filariasis
● Subcutaneous filariasis
● Serous cavity filariasis
● In India, lymphatic filariasis is caused mainly by two types of worms which are Wuchereria bancrofti and Wuchereria malayi.

Fig 8.29: Wuchereria bancrofti

● The pathogens are transmitted to a healthy person through the bite by the female Culex mosquito vectors.

Fig 8.30: Life cycle of Wuchereria bancrofti

● Symptoms include edema with thickening of skin and underlying tissues, chronic inflammation of the organs where these
worms live for many years, usually the lymphatic vessels of the lower limbs. It can affect legs, arms, vulva, breast and
scrotum (hydrocele formation).

6. Fungal Diseases
6.1 Ringworm or Tinea
20 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

Fig 8.31: Ringworm infection, Dermatophytosis on skin.

● Fungi belonging to genera Trichophyton, Microsporum and Epidermophyton are responsible for ringworm or Tinea in humans.

Fig 8.32: Trichophyton Fig 8.33: Microsporum canis

Fig 8.34: Epidermophyton floccosum

The infection is generally acquired from soil or by using towels, clothes or even combs of the infected person. . Heat and moisture
help these fungi to grow, which makes them thrive in skin folds such as those in the groin or between the toes.
Effects caused by Trichophyton, Epidermophyton and Microsporum given below
● Trichophyton: It affects the skin, hair and nails.
● Epidermophyton: It affects the skin and hair but not the nails.
● Microsporum: It infects the hair and skin but usually not the nails.

Some types of Tinea or ringworm are :

● Tinea pedis : Ringworm of foot
● Tinea capitis: Ringworm of head
● Tinea cruris: Ringworm of groin and perineum
● Tinea barbae: Ringworm involve bearded area of face and neck
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 21

Fig 8.35: Tinea pedis Fig 8.36: Tinea capitis

Appearance of dry, scaly lesions on various parts of the body such as skin, nails and scalp are the main symptoms of the disease.
These lesions are accompanied by intense itching. Heat and moisture help these fungi to grow, which makes them thrive in skin
folds such as those in the groin or between the toes.

6.2 Other Diseases:

Mode of Prevention and
Diseases Causative agent Symptoms
transmission treatment
Spasm of muscles of
Tetanus Clostridium tetani Wound infection jaw and face, severe DPT vaccine
pain often fatal
Bacterial Sore throat,
Corynebacterium
Diphtheria Droplet infection hoarseness, difficulty DPT vaccine
diphtheria
in breathing
Onset of high fever,
Spreads through the severe frontal
Dengue Dengue virus bite of Aedes aegypti headache, muscle No vaccine available
mosquito and joint pains, loss
of appetite.
Spreads through the
Fever, crippling joint
Viral Chikungunya Chikungunya virus bite of Aedes aegypti No vaccine available
pains, conjunctivitis
mosquito
Parental, sexual Fever, headache,
contact, blood, gastrointestinal Genetically modified
Hepatitis B
HBV needle, body disturbance, dark vaccine
secretion urine, jaundice
Patient becomes
unconscious and
Sleeping Bite of Glossina Antiparasitic
Trypanosoma lethargic, hence this
sickness (Tse-Tse fly) medicines
disease is called
Protozoan sleeping sickness
Continuous fever,
Bite of Phlebotomus Antiparasitic
Kala Azar Leishmania anaemia enlargement
(Sandfly) medicines
of spleen, liver

7. Immunity
22 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

Immunity is the ability of the body to protect against all types of foreign bodies like bacteria, viruses and toxic substances etc
which enter the body. Immunity is also called disease resistance. The lack of immunity is known as susceptibility.

The science dealing with various phenomena of immunity, induced sensitivity and allergy is called immunology.

Immunity can be of the following types:

● Innate immunity
● Acquired or Adaptive immunity

7.1 Innate Immunity

Innate or nonspecific immunity is the defense system with which we are born. It protects us against all antigens by involving
barriers that keep harmful materials from entering the body. These barriers form the first line of defense in the immune response.
Barriers of innate immunity can be of the following types:
● Physical Barriers: They are mechanical barriers to many microbial pathogens. They are of two types:
● Skin: It is a physical barrier of the body. It’s outer layer, the stratum corneum, prevents the entry of bacteria and viruses.
● Mucous membrane: Mucous secreted by mucous membrane traps microorganisms and immobilizes them.
● Physiological Barriers: Some examples of physiological barrier are :
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 23

● Cellular Barriers:
24 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

Fig 8.37: Cells involved in innate immunity

● Neutrophils: They are also called polymorpho-nuclear leucocyte. They constitute about 60-65% of the leucocytes. They
are short lived and are phagocytic in nature.
● Monocytes: They are the largest of all leucocytes and somewhat amoeboid in shape. They constitute 6-8% of leucocytes.
They change into macrophages after entering into tissue spaces.
● Macrophages: Monocytes circulate in the bloodstream for about 8 hours during which they enlarge and migrate in
tissues and differentiate into tissue macrophages. Macrophages are of two types- fixed macrophages and wandering
macrophages.
● Natural Killer cells (NK cells): There are natural killer cells (NK cells) that are a type of lymphocytes and are present in
spleen, lymph nodes and lymphocytes. They do not have antigen receptors and can cause cellular destruction in at least
two ways-
● NK cells produce perforins. These perforins are chemicals that are inserted into the plasma membrane of microbes to
cause cytolysis.
● Another function of NK cells is apoptosis which means natural cell death.
● Cytokine barriers: Cytokine (chemical messengers of immune cells) are low molecular weight proteins that stimulate or
inhibit the proliferation, differentiation or function of immune cells. They are involved in cell to cell communication. The
different kinds of cytokine are interleukins produced by leucocytes, lymphokines produced by lymphocytes, Tumor necrosis
factor and interferons. Interferons protect against the viral infection of cells.
7.2 Acquired Immunity (Adaptive or Specific Immunity):
The immunity that an individual acquires after the birth is called acquired or adaptive or specific immunity.
Characteristic of acquired immunity are:
● Specificity: It is the ability to differentiate between various foreign molecules.
● Diversity: It can recognize a vast variety of foreign molecules.
● Discrimination between self and non self: It can recognize and respond to foreign molecules and can avoid response to those
molecules that are present within the body of the animal.
● Memory: When the immune system encounters the foreign body for the first time, it generates immune response and
eliminates the invader. This is called the first encounter. The immune system retains the memory for the first encounter. As a
result, a second encounter occurs more quickly and abundantly than the first encounter.
Innate Immunity Acquired Immunity
First line of defense against pathogens Second line of defense against the pathogen
Acts rapidly, vital to triggering of adaptive response Relatively slow to develop
Triggered by threat / damage Triggered by exposure to specific antigen
Activated by microbial general patterns and damage Very focused, target a specific pathogen
Acts through pathogen class specific mechanism of Acts through antigen specific and non-
neutralization control specific effectors
No recall response in the subsequent exposure to Rapid recall response on subsequent
the same threat exposure to same antigen

7.3. Immune Response

An immune response is of two types:
● Primary immune response
● Secondary immune response
7.3.1 Primary immune response
● After an initial contact with the antigen, no antigen is present for a period of several days. Then a slow rise in the antibody
titre occurs, first IgM and then IgG, followed by a gradual decline in antibody titre. This is called antibody titre.
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 25

7.3.2 Secondary immune response

● Memory cells may remain in the body for decades. Every new encounter with the same antigen results in the rapid
proliferation of memory cells. This is called booster response.
● The antibody titre after subsequent encounters is far greater than during the primary response and consists mainly of
IgG antibody.
● Antibodies produced during secondary immune response have a higher affinity for the antigen.

Fig 8.38: Antibody production in primary and secondary immune response

Primary Immune Response Secondary Immune Response
This immunity response occurs as a result of first This immune response occurs at the second and subsequent
contact with an antigen. exposure of the same host to the same antigen.
It takes a longer time to establish immunity. It is more rapid.
It declines rapidly. It lasts for longer periods

7.4 Cells of Acquired Immune System

● Two major groups of cells are involved in acquired immunity, which are collectively known as lymphocytes.

7.4.1 Lymphocytes

Fig 8.39: Lymphocytes

26 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

● These are the chief cells of a specific immune system of the body. They are of two types: T-lymphocytes and
B-lymphocytes.
● Both these cells are produced from the stem cells in the bone marrow by a process called haematopoiesis.
● The mature lymphocytes circulate in the body fluids and many of them reside in lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes,
spleen etc.
● On being sensitized, both types of lymphocytes undergo division.
● T-lymphocytes are responsible for cell mediated or cellular immunity while B-lymphocytes generate antibody-mediated or
humoral immunity.

Mechanism of action of T-lymphocytes to antigens:

On coming in contact with an antigen a T-lymphocyte forms a clone of T cells which are similar but they perform different
functions. They are:
● Helper T cells: Sensitized helper T-cells produce lymphokines for performing several types of functions like
proliferation of other T cells, stimulation of B- lymphocytes, attraction of macrophages.
● Killer T-cells or Cytotoxic T-cells: They directly attack and destroy invading microbes, infected body cells and cancer
cells. Killer T cells bind to infected cells and secrete perforins. It also releases cell killing substances, hence the name
cytotoxic T-cell.
● Suppressor T cells: These cells suppress the entire immune system to attack on their own body cells.
● Memory T-cells: These cells were previously sensitized and retain the sensitization for future.

Fig 8.40: Types of T-cells

Mechanism of action of B-lymphocyte to antigens:

● B-lymphocytes are sensitized both directly by antigens as well as by helper T-cells.
● Activated B-lymphocytes multiply very fast to produce clones of plasma cells and memory cells.
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 27

Fig 8.41: Mechanism of action of B-lymphocytes

● The plasma cells produce specialized glycoproteins called antibodies which are passed through body fluids like blood
and lymph.
Antibodies have three main functions:
● Agglutination or the clumping of cells such as bacteria or red blood cells in the presence of an antibody. The antibody or
other molecule binds multiple particles and joins them, creating a large complex. This increases the efficacy of microbial
elimination by phagocytosis as large clumps of bacteria can be eliminated in one pass, versus the elimination of single
microbial antigens.
● Opsonization or coating of bacteria to facilitate their subsequent phagocytosis by macrophages
● Neutralization of toxins released by bacteria.

7.4.2. Antigen Presenting cells (APCs)

Fig 8.42: APC presenting an antigen to T-lymphocytes

They are specialized cells which include macrophages (monocytes, histiocytes), B-lymphocytes and dendritic cells. Antigen
28 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

presenting cells engulf invading pathogens and process the antigens. The processed antigens are then presented on their surface.
These cells can deliver a co-stimulatory signal that is necessary for helper T-cell activation.

7.5. Antibodies

Fig 8.43: Antibodies Attacking Contagious Virus Cells and Pathogens

Antibodies are glycoproteins which are highly specific to specific antigens. They are also known as immunoglobulins (Ig).
Antibodies are produced by the plasma cells which in turn are formed by B-lymphocytes. The plasma cells produce about 2000
molecules of antibodies per second.

Fig 8.44: Structure of an antibody

Structure of antibodies
● Y-shaped structure consisting of four polypeptide chains, two heavy or H chains and two light or L chains. These four chains
are held together by disulfide bonds to form a Y shaped structure.
● The region holding arms and stem of antibody is termed as hinge. Each chain in antibodies includes two distinct regions, the
variable region and the constant region.
● Variable regions constitute the antigen-binding site (paratope). This part of the antibody recognizes and binds to specific
antigen forming an antigen-antibody complex.
● There are five types of antibodies depending upon the variable region of heavy chains. They are :

7.6 Antigens
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 29

Fig 8.45: Epitope

Antigens are the substances which when introduced into the body stimulate the production of antibodies.

Structure of antigen
● Antigen determinants or epitopes are components of antigen. Each antigen carries many epitopes.
● Each Y-shaped antibody has at least two binding sites that can attach to specific epitopes on an antigen.
● Antigens combine with the antibodies. The combination is very much like lock and key analogy.
● Antigens which are present on the body's own cell are called autoantigens or self-antigen. The antigen on self-cells are known
as foreign antigens or non-self antigens.
Antibodies (Immunoglobulins) Antigens (Immunogens)
Antibody is a protein molecule. Antigen is a protein or polysaccharide molecule
It is synthesized by an animal to combat It is usually a foreign material that stimulates
foreign material. antibody formation.
Antibody occurs on the surface of a plasma Antigen may occur on the surface of a microbe
cell and also in body fluids. or as a free molecule.
Antibody directly joins an antigen to Antigen binds to a macrophage to reach a helper
destroy the latter. T cell to initiate immune response.

7.7. Active and Passive Immunity

Acquired immunity may be active or passive.
30 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

Fig 8.46: Active and Passive immunity

7.7.1. Acquired active immunity

● It is the resistance developed by an individual as a result of an antigenic stimulus of an invading pathogen or vaccine. This
immunity is acquired by activating the immune system of the body and results in production of antibodies. It is of two types:
Naturally acquired active immunity:
● Immunity acquired due to infection is called natural acquired active immunity.
● It is developed after the entry of pathogens in the body. For e.g. a person who recovered from the attack of measles develops
natural acquired active immunity to measles for life time.
Artificially acquired active immunity:
● This immunity is acquired artificially by vaccination.
● Vaccines contain dead or live-but-attenuated (artificially weakened) pathogens or toxins consisting of microbial components
or toxins secreted by the pathogens.
● Vaccine is introduced into the body to stimulate the formation of antibodies by the immune system. E.g, Polio vaccine, BCG
vaccine etc.
7.7.2 Acquired Passive Immunity:
Passive immunity is acquired when readymade antibodies are received by the body. It can be acquired either naturally or
artificially.
Naturally acquired passive immunity:
● Before birth, maternal antibodies are transferred from the mother to foetus through the placenta (Ig G). After birth antibodies
are transferred from mother to infants through colostrum (Ig A).
● The antibodies received by the child from the mother remain in the body for a short time. Therefore, naturally acquired
passive immunity is short lived.
Artificially acquired passive immunity:
● This immunity is developed by injecting previously prepared antibodies using serum from humans or animals. For e.g
Antibodies obtained from hyperimmunized horses are injected to humans against rabies pathogens.
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 31

7.8 Vaccination and Immunisation

The principle of immunisation or vaccination is based on the property of ‘memory’ of the immune system. They are essential in
providing protection to the body before a pathogen has been encountered, and they work by activating the immune system against
the pathogen before infection.

Fig 8.47: Vaccination provides immunity against diseases

In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic proteins of pathogen or inactivated/weakened pathogen (vaccine) are introduced into the
body. The antibodies produced in the body against these antigens would neutralise the pathogenic agents during actual infection.
The vaccines also generate memory – B and T-cells that recognise the pathogen quickly on subsequent exposure and overwhelm
the invaders with a massive production of antibodies.
If a person is infected with some deadly microbes to which quick immune response is required as in tetanus, we need to directly
inject the preformed antibodies, or antitoxin (a preparation containing antibodies to the toxin). Even in cases of snakebites, the
injection which is given to the patients, contain preformed antibodies against the snake venom. This type of immunisation is
called passive immunisation.

7.9 Allergies
● Allergy is hypersensitiveness of a person to some foreign substance to some substance meeting or entering the body.
● The substances that cause allergic reactions are called allergen such as pollens, dust, spores and molds.
● It generally affects the skin and mucous membrane. Symptoms include sneezing, watery eyes, running nose and difficulty
in breathing.
● Allergy involves mainly IgE antibodies and chemicals like histamine and serotonin from the mast cells. The allergic tendency
is genetically passed on from parents to children and is characterized by presence of large quantities of IgE in the blood.
32 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

Fig 8.48: Mechanism of Allergic reaction

● For determining the cause of allergy, the patient is exposed to or injected with very small doses of possible allergens, and the
reactions studied.

Fig 8.49: Allergy test on hand

● The use of drugs such as antihistamine, adrenaline and steroids quickly reduced the symptoms of allergy.
7.10. Autoimmunity
● If the immune system fails to recognize self from the non-self cells and start destroying the body’s own protein. This leads to
some malfunctions which are called autoimmune diseases.
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 33

Fig 8.50: Mechanism of Autoimmune disease

7.10.1 Major causes of development of autoimmune diseases are:

Genetic factors:
● Some individuals are genetically more susceptible to autoimmune diseases as compared to others. This happens when a
certain gene starts showing abnormalities. Autoimmune disorders occur more in women than in men.
Environmental Factors:
● Environment also plays an important role in the induction of autoimmune diseases. Besides, autoimmune diseases can be
manifested because of certain drugs, chemicals, pesticides, and toxins.

Disease Organ or tissue Signs and symptoms

Under Secretion of adrenal cortex hormones, weakness,
Addison’s disease Adrenal cortex nausea, weight loss, low blood sodium, low blood
volume and pressure, dark ended skin pigmentation
Diabetes mellitus (Type I) Beta cells of pancreas Undersecretion of insulin, high blood sugar

Grave’s disease Thyroid Oversecretion of thyroid hormone, high metabolic rate

Multiple sclerosis Myelin sheath around nerve cells Loss of precise muscle control

Myasthenia gravis Muscles Muscular weakness and fatigue

Immune complexes of IgM, IgG and complement are
deposited in the joints. Mutants IgM attacks IgG,
Rheumatoid arthritis Joints
inflaming joints, destroying articular cartilage and
fusing bones.

8. Immune System in the Body

The human immune system consists of lymphoid organs, tissues, cells, and soluble molecules like antibodies. Immune system is
34 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

unique in the sense that it recognizes foreign antigens, responds to these and remembers them. The immune system also plays an
important role in allergic reactions, auto-immune diseases, and organ transplantation.

Fig 8.51: Immune system in humans

8.1. Lymphoid Organs:

● Lymphoid organs are those organs where maturation and proliferation of lymphocytes takes place.
● There are two types of lymphoid organs:

8.1.1. Primary lymphoid organs:

Fig 8.52: Bone marrow Fig 8.53: Thymus

● Primary lymphoid organs are those where T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes mature and acquire their antigen
specific receptors.
● After maturation, the lymphocytes migrate to the secondary lymphoid organs.
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 35

● Primary lymphoid organs include bone marrow and thymus.

● Bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ. Here, all the blood cells are formed and maturation of B-lymphocytes takes place.
● Thymus is the site of T-lymphocyte maturation.

8.1.2. Secondary lymphoid organs

Fig 8.54: Secondary Lymphoid organs

● After maturation, B-lymphocyte and T-lymphocyte migrate via blood vascular and lymphatic system to the secondary
lymphoid organs where they undergo proliferation and hibernation.
● Acquired immune responses to antigens usually develop in these organs and become effector cells.
● In secondary lymphoid tissues, the lymphocytes do not remain and move from one lymphoid organ to another through blood
and lymph.
● The secondary lymphoid organs are lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, peyer’s patches of small intestine and mucosa associated
lymphoid tissues (MALT).

9. AIDS
The word AIDS stands for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. This means deficiency of the immune system, acquired during
the lifetime of an individual indicating that it is not a congenital disease. ‘Syndrome’ means a group of symptoms. AIDS was first
reported in 1981 and in the last twenty-five years or so, it has spread all over the world killing more than 25 million people.
AIDS is caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), a member of a group of viruses called retrovirus, which have an
envelope enclosing the RNA genome. These viruses are lentivirus with a long incubation period.
9.1. Structure of HIV
HIV is enclosed by a phospholipid envelope which is produced by the host cell. This phospholipid envelope has a docking
36 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

glycoprotein called gp120 and transmembrane glycoprotein called gp41. On the inner side of the phospholipid envelope, there is a
protein coat or capsid. Outer protein coat is p17 and the inner protein layer is p24.

Fig 8.55: Structure of HIV

The genetic material of HIV comprises of two single stranded RNA molecules. Apart from the genetic material, there are
three enzymes:
● Reverse transcriptase: It is responsible for formation of viral DNA from RNA.
● Integrase: It is responsible for the attachment of viral DNA into the host DNA.
● Protease: It is responsible for the breakdown of the protein coat.

9.2 Transmission of HIV Infection

Fig 8.56: Ways of transmission of HIV

Transmission of HIV-infection generally occurs by:

(a) sexual contact with infected person
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 37

(b) by transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products

(c) by sharing infected needles as in the case of intravenous drug abusers
(d) from infected mother to her child through placenta
People who are at high risk of getting this infection includes:
● Individuals who have multiple sexual partners
● Drug addicts who take drugs intravenously
● Individuals who require repeated blood transfusions
● Children born to an HIV infected mother

9.3. Mechanisms of Action of HIV

HIV infection occurs through the following steps:
● After getting into the body of the person, the virus enters macrophages where the RNA genome of the virus replicates to form
viral DNA with the help of the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
● This viral DNA gets incorporated into the host cell’s DNA and directs the infected cells to produce virus particles.
● The macrophages continue to produce viruses and in this way acts like a HIV factory.

Fig 8.57: Mechanism of action of HIV

● Simultaneously, HIV enters into helper T-lymphocytes (TH ), replicates and produces progeny viruses. The progeny viruses
released in the blood attack other helper T-lymphocytes.
● This is repeated leading to a progressive decrease in the number of helper T-lymphocytes in the body of the infected person.
● During this period, the person suffers from bouts of fever, diarrhoea and weight loss.
● Due to decrease in the number of helper T lymphocytes, the person starts suffering from infections that could have been
otherwise overcome such as those due to bacteria, especially Mycobacterium, viruses, fungi and even parasites
like Toxoplasma.
● The patient becomes so immuno-deficient that he/she is unable to protect himself/herself against these infections.

9.4. Diagnosis of Disease

AIDS can be diagnosed by ELISA and western blotting tests. Western blotting test is employed for confirmation of ELISA
positive cases.

9.5. Treatment of Disease

There is no cure for AIDS. Certain anti-retroviral drugs can be used in treating AIDS patients. They can only prolong the life of
the patient but cannot prevent death.
38 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

9.6. Prevention of Disease

In our country the National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) and other non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are doing a
lot to educate people about AIDS. WHO has started a number of programmes to prevent the spreading of
HIV infection. These include:
● Making blood (from blood banks) safe from HIV
● Ensuring the use of only disposable needles and syringes in public and private hospitals and clinics.
● Promotion of safe sex and free distribution of condoms
● Controlling drug abuse
● Promoting regular check-ups for HIV in susceptible populations

10. Cancer
Cancer is an abnormal and uncontrolled division of cells that invade and destroy the surrounding tissues. In other words,
it can be defined as uncontrolled proliferation of cells without any differentiation. Cancer cells proliferate in an unregulated
manner and form clones of cells which can expand irregularly. This uncontrolled growth is called tumour and neoplasm.

Fig 8.58: Uncontrolled cell growth resulting in tumor formation

10.1 Properties of Cancer Cells:

Though cancer can be of different types, all cancer cells possess some common properties. These are:
● Uncontrolled proliferative ability
● Extracellular growth factors are not required
● Overgrowth and ability to invade new sites
● Cancer cells resist induction of cell death which promotes development of tumours.

Difference between cancer cells and normal cells:

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 39

Fig 8.59: Normal cells and Cancer cells

Cancer Cells Normal Cells

These cells divide in an unregulated/uncontrolled manner. These cells divide in a regulated manner
Their life span is not definite They have a definite life span
These cells do not respond to control mechanisms and do not They live in a complex interdependent manner
show contact inhibition. and show the phenomenon of contact inhibition.

10.1 Types of Cancers

Depending upon the damage caused, there are two types of cancer- Benign tumour and malignant tumour.

Fig 8.61: Benign and Malignant tumour

Benign Tumour Malignant Tumour

It remains confined to the affected organs. It also spreads to the other organs of the body.
Rate of growth is usually slow Rate of growth is usually rapid
There is no latent stage There is latent stage
There is no metastasis There is metastasis
It is non-cancerous It is cancerous

Depending upon the basis tissue origin, cancer is of three types:

40 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

● Carcinoma: This type is mainly derived from epithelial cells. They include cervical, breast cancer, skin cancer, brain
cancer and stomach cancer. About 80% of cancers are carcinomas.
● Sarcoma: These cancers are derived from mesoderm. They include the cancers of bone, cartilage, tendons, adipose tissue
and lymphoid tissue.
● Leukemia: They are characterized by abnormal increase in the number of white blood corpuscles due to their increased
formation in bone marrow. They are commonly called blood cancer.

10.2 Causes of Cancer

Transformation of normal cells into cancerous neoplastic cells may be induced by physical, chemical or biological agents. These
agents are called carcinogens.
The different types of carcinogens are as follows:
● Physical Carcinogens: It includes ionizing radiations like X-rays and gamma rays and non-ionizing radiations like UV that
cause DNA damage leading to neoplastic transformation.
● Chemical Carcinogens: It includes a number of chemicals such as chemicals present in cigarette smoke, tobacco smoke and
mustard gas that cause lung cancer.
● Biological Carcinogens: Some viruses and parasites are also responsible for cancer. Cancer causing viruses called oncogenic
viruses have genes called viral oncogenes. Furthermore several genes called cellular oncogenes (c-onc) or proto oncogenes
have been identified in normal cells which, when activated under certain conditions, could lead to oncogenic transformation
of the cells

10.3 Detection of Cancer

A number of methods are used to diagnose cancer.

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 41

Fig 8.62: A number of methods are used to diagnose cancer

10.4. Treatment of Cancer

Different modes of treatment have been employed so far to control the growth of cancerous cells and check tumour progression.
These include:
● Surgery: It involves the removal of entire cancerous tissue.
● Radiotherapy: It involves the exposure of cancerous parts of the body which destroy the rapidly growing cells without
damaging the surrounding cells. E.g. Cobalt (Co-60) and Iodine (I-131) are the radioactive isotopes which are used
in radiotherapy.
● Chemotherapy: It involves the administration of certain anti-cancer drugs. These drugs check cell division by inhibiting
DNA synthesis.
● Immunotherapy: It involves a natural anti-cancer immunological defense mechanism.The patients are given substances
called biological response modifiers such as α- interferon which activate the immune system and help in destroying
the tumour.

11. Drug and Alcohol Abuse

Drug (French: Dorgue- a dry herb) is the single active chemical entity present in a medicine that is used for diagnosis, prevention,
treatment/cure of a disease. This disease-oriented definition of drugs does not include contraceptives or use of drugs for
improvement of health.
WHO has given a comprehensive definition – Drug is any substance or product that is used or intended to be used to modify or
explore physiological systems or pathological states for the benefit of the recipient.
42 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

Fig 8.64: Drug and Alcohol abuse

Drugs are normally used as medicines to help patients cope with mental illnesses like depression, insomnia and so on. But when
drugs are taken for the purpose other than their normal clinical use in an amount, concentration and frequency that impairs one’s
physical, physiological and psychological functions, it constitutes drug abuse.
The term abuse with respect to drugs means
● Non medical use
● Non prescribed use
● Use for pleasure
● A person who takes the drug for a non-medical use is called a drug abuser and drugs are called habituating drugs or
addictive drugs.
● The drugs, which are commonly abused are opioids, cannabinoids and coca alkaloids. Majority of these are obtained from
flowering plants. Some are obtained from fungi.

11.1 Tobacco Addiction/ Tobacco Abuse

11.1.1 Sources of tobacco
● Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum and Nicotiana rustica) belongs to the family Solanaceae. It is native to South America where
Red Indians first started smoking dried and curved leaves of its young form.

11.1.2 Modes of tobacco use

● Inhaling tobacco smoke from the cigars, cigarettes, pipes and bidis
● Tobacco in powder form is chewed with paan
● When powdered tobacco is taken from the nose it is called snuffing.
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 43

11.1.3 Development of tobacco addiction

● People start chewing or smoking tobacco due to imitation of elders, show off, fun, curiosity, defiance to elders, relaxation,
working long hours, peer group or group pressure, adventure, sense of freedom, advertisement and scene of movies.

11.1.4 Effect of Nicotine

● Smoking was known to produce a feeling of tranquility and in some cases made people alert and active.
● Nicotine is the major stimulatory component of tobacco products including cigarettes.
● It is highly poisonous and habit forming alkaloid. It stimulates the release of adrenaline leading to blood pressure and
heartbeat rate.
● The increased blood pressure caused by smoking leads to increased risk of heart diseases.
● In pregnant women, nicotine causes retardation and abnormal growth of foetus.
● In males, it produces infertility.

11.1.5 Effect of carbon monoxide

● Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas that interferes with oxygen transport and utilization.
● As cigarette smoke contains 2 to 6 % Carbon monoxide, the smokers inhale concentration as high as 400 parts per million
(ppm) and develop elevated carboxyhemoglobin levels.
● Smoking increases carbon monoxide (CO) content in blood and reduces the concentration of oxyhaemoglobin and myoglobin.
This causes oxygen deficiency in the body.

11.1.6 Diseases caused due to smoking

Fig 8.78: Diseases Caused by Smoking

11.1.6 Withdrawal Symptoms and deaddiction

● It includes anxiety, nervousness, irritability, nervousness, depression, insomnia, dryness of throat, disturbed bowels, lack of
concentration, increased appetite and craving for tobacco.
44 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

● Deaddiction involves psychotherapy when patients are informed about the harmful effects of smoking on self and
family members.
● Prevention: Primary smoking prevention in the adolescent age group may be the most effective programme. Young people are
trained to resist the social pressure and understand the health consequences of smoking.

11.2 Adolescence and Drug/Alcohol Abuse

● Adolescence means both ‘a period’ and ‘a process’ during which a child becomes mature in terms of his/her attitudes and
beliefs for effective participation in society.
● The period between 12-18 years of age may be thought of as adolescent period.
● In other words, adolescence is a bridge linking childhood and adulthood.
● As adolescence is accompanied by several biological and behavioural changes, it is a very vulnerable phase of mental and
psychological development of an individual.
What attracts the adolescents towards drug and alcohol use?
● Curiosity, need for adventure and excitement, and experimentation, constitute common causes, which motivate youngsters
towards drug and alcohol use.
● A child’s natural curiosity motivates him/her to experiment. This is complicated further by effects that might be perceived as
benefits of alcohol or drug use.
● Thus, the first use of drugs or alcohol may be out of curiosity or experimentation, but later the child starts using these to
escape facing problems and later to avoid stress, from pressures to excel in academics or examinations.
● The perception among youth that it is ‘cool’ or progressive to smoke, use drugs or alcohol, is also in a way a major cause for
youth to start these habits. Television, movies, newspapers, and the internet also help to promote this perception.
● Other factors that have been seen to be associated with drug and alcohol abuse among adolescents are unstable or
unsupportive family structures and peer pressure.

11.4. Addiction and Dependence

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 45

Drugs are frequently used repeatedly for their perceived benefits. But the most important thing, which one fails to realise, is the
inherent addictive nature of alcohol and drugs. Addiction refers to a psychological attachment to certain effects –such as euphoria
and a temporary feeling of well-being – associated with drugs and alcohol. These drive people to take them even when these are
not needed, or even when their use becomes self-destructive. With repeated use of drugs, the tolerance level of the receptors
present in our body increases. Consequently, the receptors respond only to higher doses of drugs or alcohol leading to greater
intake and addiction.
However, it should be clearly borne in mind that use of these drugs even once, can be a fore-runner to addiction. Thus, the
addictive potential of drugs and alcohol, pull the user into a vicious circle leading to their regular use (abuse) from which he/she
may not be able to get out. In the absence of any guidance or counselling, the person gets addicted and becomes dependent on
their use.
Dependence is the tendency of the body to manifest a characteristic and unpleasant withdrawal syndrome if regular dose of
drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinued. This is characterised by anxiety, shakiness, nausea and sweating, which may be relieved
when use is resumed again. In some cases, withdrawal symptoms can be severe and even life threatening and the person may need
medical supervision. Dependence leads the patient to ignore all social norms in order to get sufficient funds to satiate his/her
needs. These result in many social adjustment problems.

11.5 Effects of Drug/Alcohol Abuse

The immediate adverse effects of drugs and alcohol abuse are manifested in the form of reckless behaviour, vandalism
and violence.
● Effect on health: Excessive doses of drugs may lead to coma and death due to respiratory failure, heart failure or cerebral
hemorrhage. A combination of drugs or their intake along with alcohol generally results in overdosing and even deaths.
● Effect on studies: The most common warning signs of drug and alcohol abuse among youth include drop in academic
performance, unexplained absence from school/college.
● Effect on psychology and behaviour : Abusers often show lack of interest in personal hygiene, withdrawal, isolation,
depression, fatigue, aggressive and rebellious behaviour, deteriorating relationships with family and friends, loss of interest in
hobbies, change in sleeping and eating habits, fluctuations in weight, appetite, etc.
● Effect on society: If an abuser is unable to get money to buy drugs/alcohol he/she may turn to stealing.
● Effect on family: At times, a drug/alcohol addict becomes the cause of mental and financial distress to his/her entire family
and friends.
● AIDS and Hepatitis: Those who take drugs intravenously (direct injection into the vein using a needle and syringe), are
much more likely to acquire serious infections like AIDS and Hepatitis B. The viruses, which are responsible for these
diseases, are transferred from one person to another by sharing infected needles and syringes. Both AIDS and Hepatitis B
infections are chronic infections and ultimately fatal.
46 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

● Long term effects: It could lead to heavy drinking in adulthood. The chronic use of drugs and alcohol damages the nervous
system and causes cirrhosis in the liver.

Fig 8.79: Healthy liver (left) and cirrhosis (right)

● During pregnancy: The use of drugs and alcohol during pregnancy is also known to adversely affect the foetus.

11.6 Prevention and Control

It is true that habits such as smoking, taking drugs or alcohol are more likely to be taken up at a young age, more during
adolescence. Hence, it is best to identify the situations that may push an adolescent towards use of drugs or alcohol, and to take
remedial measures well in time. In this regard, the parents and the teachers have a special responsibility. Parenting that combines
with high levels of nurturance and consistent discipline, has been associated with lowered risk of substance
(alcohol/drugs/tobacco) abuse.

Some of the measures mentioned here would be particularly useful for prevention and control of alcohol and drugs abuse among
adolescents:-
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 47

● Avoid undue peer pressure - Every child has his/her own choice and personality, which should be respected and nurtured.
A child should not be pushed unduly to perform beyond his/her threshold limits; be it studies, sports or other activities.
● Education and counselling - Educating and counselling him/ her to face problems and stresses, and to accept
disappointments and failures as a part of life. It would also be worthwhile to channelise the child’s energy into healthy
pursuits like sports, reading, music, yoga and other extracurricular activities.
● Seeking help from parents and peers - Help from parents and peers should be sought immediately so that they can guide
appropriately. Help may even be sought from close and trusted friends. Besides getting proper advice to sort out their
problems, this would help young people to vent their feelings of anxiety and guilt.
● Looking for danger signs - Even friends, if they find someone using drugs or alcohol, should not hesitate to bring this to the
notice of parents or teacher in the best interests of the person concerned. Appropriate measures would then be required to
diagnose the malady and the underlying causes. This would help in initiating proper remedial steps or treatment.
● Seeking professional and medical help - A lot of help is available in the form of highly qualified psychologists,
psychiatrists, and deaddiction and rehabilitation programmes to help individuals who have unfortunately got in the quagmire
of drug/alcohol abuse. With such help, the affected individual with sufficient efforts and will power, can get rid of the
problem completely and lead a perfectly normal and healthy life.
48 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

EXERCISE (Basic Exercise) 3. Immuno-suppressants are administered

to burn-patients or during organ
1. Given below are two statements:
transplantation to suppress:
Statement : Autoimmune disorder is a
(a) Innate immunity
condition where body defense
(b) Cytokine storm
mechanism recognized its own cells as
(c) Humoral immunity
foreign bodies Statement II:
(d) Cell-mediated immunity
Rheumatoid arthritis is a condition
4. Give below are two statements :
where body does not attack self cells In
Statement - I: When an infected female
the light of the above statements,
Anopheles mosquito bites, it release
choose the most appropriate answer
gametocytes of plasmodium into the
from the options given below:
healthy person.
(a) Statement is incorrect but statement
Statement - II: The female Anopheles
II is correct
mosquito takes up sporozoites of
(b) Both statement and statement II are
Plasmodium with blood meal form an
correct
infected person, suffering from
(c) Both statement I and statement II
malaria. In the light of the above
are incorrect
statements, Choose the most
(d) Statement is correct but statement
appropriate answer from the options
II is incorrect
give below:
2. Select the incorrect statement with
(a) Statement -I is correct but
respect to acquired immunity.
Statement - II is incorrect
(a) Acquired immunity is non-specific
(b) Statement -I is incorrect but
type of defense present at the time of
Statement - II is correct
birth.
(c) Both Statement - I and Statement -
(b) Primary response is produced when
II are correct
our body encounters a pathogen for the
(d) Both Statement - I and Statement -
first time.
II are incorrect
(c) Anamnestic response is elicited on
5. Match List-I with List-II
subsequent encounters with the same
List-I List-II
pathogen.
(a) Filariasis Haemophilus
(d) Anamnestic response is due to
influenzae
memory of first encounter.
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 49

(b) (ii) Trichophyton (d) (iv)

Amoebiasis Malaria Haemop
(c) (ii) Wuchereria hilus
Pneumonia bancrofti (a) (a) - iii; (b) - iv; (c) - i; (d) - ii
(d) (iv) Entamoeba (b) (a) - ii; (b) - i; (c) - iii; (d) - iv
Ringworm histolytica (c) (a) - iv; (b) - i; (c) - ii; (d) - iii
Choose the correct answer from the (d) (a) - i; (b) - iii; (c) - ii; (d) - iv
options given below. 8. Identify the wrong statement with a
(a) (a) - i; (b) - ii; (c) - iv; (d) - iii reference to immunity.
(b) (a) - ii; (b) - iii; (c) - i; (d) - iv (a) When ready-made antibodies are
(c) (a) - iv; (b) - i; (c) - iii; (d) - ii directly given, it is called "Passive
(d) (a) - iii; (b) - iv; (c) - i; (d) - ii immunity".
6. The infectious stage of plasmodium (b) Active immunity is quick and gives
that enters the human body is: a full response.
(a) Sporozoites (c) Foetus receives some antibodies
(b) Female gametocytes from the mother, it is an example of
(c) Male gametocytes passive immunity
(d) Trophozoites (d) When exposed to antigen(living or
7. Match the following diseases with the dead) antibodies are produced in the
causative organism and select the host's body. It is called "Active
correct option. immunity
Colum Column- 9. Match the following columns and
n-I II select the correct option:
(a) (i) Column – I Column - II
Typhoi Wuchere (i) Typhoid (a) Haemophilus
d ria influenzae
(b) (ii) (ii) Malaria (b) Wuchereria
Pneum Plasmodi bancrofti
onia um (iii) Pneumonia (c) Plasmodium
(C) (iii) vivax
Filarias Salmonel (iv) Filariasis (d) Salmonella typhi
is la
50 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

(a) (i) – (d), (ii) - (c), (iii) - (a), (iv) - (d) Macrophages
(b) 13. Identify the correct pair representing
(b) (i) - (c), (i) - (d), (iii) - (b), (iv) - (a) the causative agent of typhoid fever
(c) (i) - (a), (ii) - (c), (iii) - (b), (iv) - and the confirmatory test for typhoid.
(d) (a) Salmonella typhi/Widal test
(d) (i) - (a), (ii) - (b), (iii) - (d), (iv) - (b) Plasmodium vivax/UTI test
(c) (c) Streptococcus pneumoniae/Widal
10. The yellowish fluid "colostrum" test
secreted by mammary glands of the (d) Salmonella typhi/Anthrone test
mother during the initial days of 14. Drug called 'Heroin' is synthesized by:
lactation has abundant antibodies (IgA) (a) nitration of morphine
to protect the infant. This type of (b) methylation of morphine
immunity is called as: (c) acetylation of morphine
(a) Passive immunity (d) glycosylation of morphine
(b) Active immunity 15. Humans have acquired immune system
(c) Acquired immunity that produces antibodies to neutralize
(d) Autoimmunity pathogens. Still innate immune system
11. Which of the following immune is present at the time of birth because
responses is responsible for rejection (a) is very specific and uses different
of kidney graft? macrophages,
(a) Cell mediated immune response (b) produces memory cells for
(b) Auto-immune response mounting fast secondary response.
(c) Humoral immune response (c) has natural killer cells which can
(d) Inflammatory immune response phagocytose and destroy microbes
12. Colostrum, the yellowish fluid, (d) provides passive immunity.
secreted by mother during the initial 16. Coca alkaloid or cocaine is obtained
days of lactation is very essential to from
impart immunity to the newborn (a) Papaver somniferum
infants because it contains: (b) Atropha belladona
(a) Immunoglobulin A (c) Erythroxylum coca
(b) Natural killer cells (d) Datura
(c) Monocytes
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 51

17. Which part of poppy plant is used to (b) 70%

obtain the drug Smack? (c) 10%
(a) Flowers (d) 50%
(b) Latex 22. Which of the following sets of diseases
(c) Roots is caused by bacteria?
(d) Leaves (a) Cholera and tetanus
18. Which of the following is not an (b) Typhoid and smallpox
autoimmune disease? (c) Tetanus and mumps
(a) Psoriasis (d) Herpes and influenza
(b) Rheumatoid arthritis 23. Which of the following is correct
(c) Alzheimer's disease regarding AIDS causative agent HIV?
(d) Vitiligo (a) HIV is enveloped virus containing
19. In which disease does mosquito one molecule of single-stranded RNA
transmitted pathogen cause chronic and one molecule of reverse
inflammation of lymphatic vessels? transcriptase
(a) Elephantiasis (b) HIV is enveloped virus that
(b) Ascariasis contains two identical molecules of
(c) Ringworm disease single-stranded RNA and two
(d) Amoebiasis molecules of reverse transcriptase
20. Transplantation of tissues/organs fails (c) HIV is not enveloped retrovirus
often due to non-acceptance by the (d) HIV does not escape but attacks the
patient's body. Which type of immune- acquired immune response
response is responsible for such 24. Asthma may be attributed to
rejections? (a) allergic reaction of the mast cells in
(a) Autoimmune response the lungs
(b) Cell-mediated immune response (b) inflammation of the trachea
(c) Hormonal immune response (c) accumulation of fluid in the lungs
(d) Physiological immune response (d) bacterial infection of the lungs
21. MALT constitutes about _______ 25. In higher vertebrates the immune
percent of the lymphoid tissue in system can distinguish self-cells and
human body. non-self. If this property is lost due to
(a) 20%
52 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

genetic abnormality and it attacks self- cough toxin

cells, then it leads to C. Diphtheria 3. Killed
(a) graft rejection bacteria
(b) auto-immune disease D. Polio 4. Harmless
(c) activate immunity bacteria
(d) allergic response (a) (A) - 2; (B) - 1; (C) - 3; (D) - 4
26. Antivenom injection contains (b) (A) - 3; (B) - 2; (C) - 4; (D) - 1
preformed antibodies while polio drops (c) (A) - 4; (B) - 3; (C) - 2; (D) - 1
that are administered into the body (d) (A) - 1; (B) - 2; (C) - 3; (D) - 4
contain 29. If you suspect major deficiency of
(a) harvested antibodies antibodies in a person, to which of the
(b) gamma globulin following would you look for
(c) attenuated pathogens confirmatory evidence?
(d) activated pathogens (a) Fibrinogen in plasma
27. Which of the following statements is (b) Serum albumins
not true for cancer cells in relation to (c) Haemocytes
mutations? (d) Serum globulins
(a) Mutations destroy telomerase 30. Grafted kidney may be rejected in a
inhibitor patient due to
(b) Mutations inactivate the cell (a) Humoral immune response
control (b) Cell-mediated immune response
(c) Mutations inhibit production of (c) Passive immune response
telomerase (d) Innate immune response
(d) Mutations in proto-oncogenes 31. Whic of the following diseases is
accelerate the cell cycle caused by a protozoan?
28. Match each disease with its correct (a) Syphilis
type of vaccine. (b) Influenza
(c) Babesiosis
Column- I Column- II (d) Blastomycosis
A Tuberculosis 1. Harmless 32. Which of the following viruses is not
virus transferred through semen of an
B. Whooping 2. Inactivated infected male?
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 53

(a) Hepatitis B virus (d) Innate immune response

(b) Human immunodeficiency virus 37. Which of the following endoparasites
(c) Chikungunya virus of humans does show viviparity?
(d) Ebola virus (a) Ancylostoma duodenale
33. The active form of Entamoeba (b) Enterobius vermicularis
histolytica feed upon (c) Trichinella spiralis
(a) Erythrocytes, mucosa and (d) Ascaris lumbricoides
submucosa of colon 38. HIV that causes AIDS, first starts
(b) Mucosa and submucosa of colon destroying
only (a) B-lymphocytes
(c) Food in intestine (b) leucocytes
(d) Blood only (c) helper T-lymphocytes
34. Which of the following (d) thrombocytes
immunoglobulins does constitute the 39. Which is the particular type of drug
largest percentage in human milk? that is obtained from the plant whose
(a) IgD one flowering branch is shown below?
(b) IgM
(c) IgA
(d) IgG
35. If you suspect major deficiency of
antibodies in a person, to which of the
following would you look for (a) Hallucinogen
confirmatory evidence? (b) Depressant
(a) Fibrinogen in plasma (c) Stimulant
(b) Serum albumins (d) Pain-Killer
(c) Haemocytes 40. At which stage of HIV infection does
(d) Serum globulins one usually show symptoms of AIDS?
36. Grafted kidney may be rejected in a (a) Within 15 days of sexual contact
patient due to with an infected person
(a) Humoral immune response (b) When the infected retro virus enters
(b) Cell-mediated immune response host cells
(c) Passive immune response
54 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

(c) When HIV damages large number (d) pneumonia pathogen infects alveoli
of helper T-Lymphocytes whereas the common cold affects nose
(d) When the viral DNA is produced and respiratory passage but not the
by reverse transcriptase lungs
41. The cell-mediated immunity inside the 45. Which one of the following is not a
human body is carried out by property of cancerous cells, whereas
(a) T-lymphocytes the remaining three are?
(b) B-lymphocytes (a) They compete with normal cells for
(c) thrombocytes vital nutrients.
(d) erythrocytes (b) They do not remain confined in the
42. Motile zygote of Plasmodium occurs in area of formation
(a) gut of female Anopheles (c) They divide in an uncontrolled
(b) salivary glands of Anopheles manner
(c) human RBCS (d) They show contact inhibition
(d) human liver 46. Cirrhosis of liver is caused by the
43. Widal test is carried out to test chronic intake of
(a) malaria (a) opium
(b) diabetes mellitus (b) alcohol
(c) HIV/AIDS (c) tobacco (chewing)
(d) typhoid fever (d) cocaine
44. Common cold differs from pneumonia 47. A certain patient is suspected to be
in that suffering from acquired immuno
(a) pneumonia is a communicable deficieny syndrome. Which diagnostic
disease, whereas the common cold is a technique will you recommend for its
nutritional deficiency disease detection ?
(b) pneumonia can be prevented by a (a) MRI
live attenuated bacterial vaccine, (b) Ultra Sound
whereas the common cold has no (c) WIDAL
effective vaccine (d) ELISA
(c) pneumonia is caused by a virus, 48. Which one of the following acts as a
while the common cold is caused by physiological barrier to the entry of
the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae microorganisms in human body?
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 55

(a) Tears (a) The HIV can be transmitted

(b) Monocytes through eating food together with an
(c) Skin infected person
(d) Epithelium of urogenital tract (b) Drug addicts are least susceptible to
49. Where will you look for the HIV infection
sporozoites of the malarial parasite? (c) AIDS patients are being fully cured
(a) Red blood corpuscles of humans cent percent with proper care and
suffering from malaria nutrition
(b) Spleen of infected humans (d) The causative HIV retrovirus enters
(c) Salivary glands of freshly moulted helper T-lymphocytes thus reducing
female Anopheles mosquito their numbers
(d) Saliva of infected female 53. Consider the following four
Anopheles mosquito statements(1-4) regarding kidney
50. Select the correct statement from the transplant and select the two correct
ones given below ones out of these.
(a) Barbiturates when given to (1) Even if a kidney transplant is
criminals make them tell the truth proper the recipient may need to take
(b) Morphine is often given to persons immune suppresants for a long time
who have undergone surgery as a pain (2) The cell-mediated immune
killer response is responsible for the graft
(c) Chewing tobacco lowers blood rejection
pressure and heart rate (3) The B-lymphocytes are responsible
(d) Cocaine is given to patients after for rejection of the graft
surgery as it stimulates recovery (4) The acceptance of rejection of a
51. Ringworm in humans is caused by kidney transplant depends on specific
(a) bacteria interferons
(b) fungi The two correct statements are
(c) nematodes (a) (2) and (3)
(d) viruses (b) (3) and (4)
52. Which one of the following statements (c) (1) and (3)
is correct with respect to AIDS? (d) (1) and (2)
56 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

54. Which of the following is a pair of (d) thymus

viral diseases ? 59. The most active phagocytic white
(a) Ringworm, AIDS blood cells are
(b) Common cold, AIDS (a) neutrophils and eosinophils
(c) Dysentery, common cold (b) lymphocytes and macrophages
(d) Typhoid, tuberculosis (c) eosinophils and lymphocytes
55. Use of anti-histamines and steroids (d) neutrophils and monocytes
give a quick relief from 60. Which one of the following is the
(a) allergy correct statement regarding the
(b) nausea particular psychotropic drug specified?
(c) cough (a) Hashish causes alter thought
(d) headache perceptions and hallucinations
56. Globulins contained in human blood (b) Opium stimulates nervous system
plasma are primarily involved in and causes hallucinations
(a) defence mechanisms of body (c) Morphine leads to delusions and
(b) osmotic balance of body fluids disturbed emotions
(c) oxygen transport in the blood (d) Barbiturates cause relaxation and
(d) clotting of blood temporary euphoria
57. Which one of the following statements 61. Increased asthmatic attacks in certain
is correct? seasons are related to:
(a) Patients, who had undergone (a) hot and humid environment
surgery are given cannabinoids to (b) eating fruits preserved in tin
relieve pain containers
(b) Benign tumours show the property (c) inhalation of seasonal pollen
of metastasis (d) low temperature
(c) Heroin accelerates body functions 62. Mast cells secrete:
(d) Malignant tumours may exhibit (a) hippurin
metastasis (b) myoglobin
58. The letter Tin T-lymphocyte refers to (c) histamine
(a) thyroid (d) Haemoglobin
(b) thalamus 63. Antibodies in our body are complex:
(c) tonsil (a) lipoproteins
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 57

(b) steroids 67. Human Immunodeficiency Virus

(c) prostaglandins causes aids by attacking a type of
(d) glycoproteins white blood cell called_
64. Both sickle cell anaemia and (a) CD4
Huntington's chorea are (b) CD3
(a) bacteria-related diseases (c) CD8
(b) congenital disorders (d) None of the above
(c) pollutant-induced disorders 68. Plague is caused by the bacterium
(d) virus-related diseases (a) Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
65. Carcinoma arises from the (b) Yersinia pestis
(a) Epithelial cells (c) Yersinia enterocolitica
(b) Bone Marrow (d) None of the above
(c) Pigment containing Cells 69. Elephantiasis is caused by
(d) None of the above (a) Filarial worms
66. Melanoma is a type of cancer that (b) Flatworms
develops from (c) Tapeworms
(a) Granulocytes (d) None of the above
(b) Melanocytes 70. Which of the following is a Congenital
(c) Adipocyte Disease?
(d) None of the above (a) Kwashiorkor
(b) Sickle-cell anaemia
(c) Goitre
(d) Rheumatoid Arthritis
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 3

Answers Key
EXERCISE (Basic Exercise)
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (d)
6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (a)
11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (c)
16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (b)
21. (d) 22. (a) 23. (b) 24. (a) 25. (b)
26. (c) 27. (c) 28. (c) 29. (d) 30. (b)
31. (c) 32. (c) 33. (a) 34. (c) 35. (d)
36. (b) 37. (c) 38. (c) 39. (a) 40. (c)
41. (a) 42. (a) 43. (d) 44. (d) 45. (d)
46. (b) 47. (d) 48. (a) 49. (d) 50. (b)
51. (b) 52. (d) 53. (d) 54. (b) 55. (a)
56. (a) 57. (d) 58. (d) 59. (d) 60. (a)
61. (c) 62. (c) 63. (d) 64. (b) 65. (a)
66. (b) 67. (a) 68. (b) 69. (a) 70. (b)