INTRODUCTION TO METALS

INTRODUCTION TO METALS
Metals are aiming the most useful building materials.
• ORES - Metals exist in nature as compounds like oxides,
carbonates, sulphides and phosphates.
• METALS are derived from ORES by removing the impurities.
• Metals used for engineering purposes are classified as:
– Ferrous metals - contains iron, magnetic, little resistance
to corrosion.
– Non ferrous metals – does not contain iron, not magnetic,
more resistance to corrosion.
The advent of commercial steel production in the late 19th
century was a result of Sir Henry Bessemer's creation of an
efficient way to lower the carbon content in cast iron.
By lowering the amount of carbon in iron to about 2 percent, the
much harder and more malleable metal product of steel is
produced
PROPERTIES OF METAL (MECHANICAL)
1. HARDNESS - ability of a metal to resist abrasion, penetration, cutting
action or permanent distortion.
2. BRITTLENESS - property of metal that allows little bending or
deformation without shattering.
3. MALLEABILITY - ability of steel to be hammered, rolled or pressed into
various shapes without cracking and breaking
4. DUCTILITY - a property that permits the metal to be permanently
drawn, bent or twisted without breaking it.
5. ELASTICITY – property that enables a metal to return to its original
shape.
6. TOUGHNESS – when a metal can withstand tearing or shearing or
deform without breaking.
7.FUSBILITY – ability of a metal to become liquid by the application o
heat.
8. CONDUCTIVITY – property that enables a metal to carry heat or
electricity.
9. DENSITY – weight of a unit volume of a material.
PROPERTIES OF METAL (PHYSICAL)

1. STRONG & HARD

2. LUSTER – metal shine because of its properties which is metallic
bonding.
3. HEAT CONDUCTORS – able to conduct heat and take it from a high
temperature place to a lower temperature. Heat transfer occurs due
to the combination of vibrations from molecules.
4. ELECTRIC CONDUCTORS – metals consists FREE electrons which
makes is a good electrical conductor.
5. DENSE – tightly balance, packed crystal in the metal structure.
CLASSIFICATION OF METALS
METALS

FERROUS METALS NON-FERROUS METALS

PURE FERROUS FERROUS METALS PURE NON- NON-FERROUS

METALS ALLOYS FERROUS METALS METALS ALLOYS
PIG IRON BESSEMER STEEL
ALUMINIUM BRASS
WROUGHT
FOUNDRY LOW
IRON LOW
ALLOY CARBON COPPER BRONZE
FORGE STEEL
CAST IRON
MEDIUM
GREY MOTTLED HIGH CARBON ZINC
ALLOY
WHITE STEEL HIGH
CARBON
LEAD
MOTTLED
CHILLED
STAINLESS STEEL NICKEL STEEL INVAR STEEL
MALLEBLE
VANADIUM STEEL MAGNESIUM STEEL MOLYBDENUM STEEL
TOUGHENED
INTRODUCTION TO METALS - FERROUSMETALS
• Iron is by for the most important of the metals used in
engineering construction.
• The ores of iron are classed according to the iron mineral
which is predominant.
• The iron content of the main ores are as follows:
– Magnetite (Fe3O4) — 70–75%,
– Haematite (Fe2O3) — 70%,
– Limonite (2Fe3O3.3H2O)— 60%, it is hydrated haematite,
– Iron pyrite (FeS3) — 47%, and
– Siderite (FeCO3) — 40%
• Heating the ores in the presence of a reducing agent will
result in the formation of CO or CO2, liberated as a gas, and
metallic iron
INTRODUCTION TO METALS
• Metals are widely used in construction field.
• Out of the various metals iron is the most popular one
• Based on the carbon content in iron, it can be classified into 3 as
Carbon Content in Iron
Wrought iron Does not exceed 0.15%
Steel Below 0.25% to 1.50% maxi
Cast-iron (pig iron) 2 to 4%

• Based on the carbon content in steel, it can be classified into 3 as

Name of steel Carbon Content in Steel
Very low carbon steel(dead steel) < 0.1%
Mild steel Up to 0.25 %
Medium carbon Steel 0.25 – 0.7 %
High carbon Steel (hard steel) 0.7 – 1.5%
INTRODUCTION TO METALS
Types of Steel Properties Uses
Mild Steel Soft and malleable steel is For making motor
used for rolling into thin body, sheet metal,
sheets boiler plates, tin plates,
structural steel etc
Medium Carbon Very soft and ductile steel For making springs,
Steel used for drawing into tyres, stamping and
wires pressing dies, rails

High Carbon Very hard and brittle steel For making chisels,
Steel used for making tools hammers, saw, smithy
tools, stone mason’s
tool, axes, drills,
knives
INTRODUCTION TO METALS

Properties of mild steel & hard steel

Mild Steel Hard Steel
Tougher & elastic than wrought Tougher & elastic than mild steel
iron
Can be readily forged & welded Cannot be readily forged & welded
Cannot be easily hardened & Can be easily hardened &
tempered tempered
It has fibrous structure It has granular structure
Melting point 1400 C Melting point 1300 C
Specific gravity 7.80 Specific gravity 7.90
Can be magnetised permanently
Not easily attacked by salt water
It rusts easily and rapidly
MANUFACTURE OF PIG IRON
1. Dressing
2. Calcination and Roasting
3. Smelting
DRESSING:

 The iron ores as obtained from mines are crushed into pieces of sizes
of 25 mm diameter.
 If ores contain clay, loam and other earthy matter, they are washed in
a stream to remove such impurities.
 The perforated trays may be kept in water to remove pebbles and
sand.
 To work in dry condition, the magnetic separators are used to remove
the impurities contained in the iron ores.
MANUFACTURE OF PIG IRON
2)CALCINATION AND ROASTING:

 After the iron ores are dressed, they are calcined and roasted.
 The calcination consists in heating ores in presence of air so
that they are oxidized.
 The water and carbondioxide are removed from ores by
calcination.
 The roasting consists of making the ores hot and very dry.
 It is adopted to dissipate the volatile parts, especially sulphur,
by heat.
 Hence the roasting will not be necessary, if ore is an oxide.
MANUFACTURE OF PIG IRON
3) SMELTING

 The melting so as to separate metal from ore is known as the

smelting.
 It is carried out in a special type of furnace, known as the blast
furnace.
 It is in form of vertical cylinder

WORKING OF BLAST FURNACE

 i) The raw materials consists of iron ores, fluxing material and

fuel. The fluxing material is the substance which can be easily
fused. It mixes with the impurities present in iron ores and
forms fusible slag. The commonly used fluxing material is
limestone which is also crushed to the same size as iron ore.
For fuel, the coke is widely used in most of the plants. the charcoal may
be also used as fuel.
ii)A mixture of raw materials is prepared in the required proportions
and it is elevated upto the top of furnace. This mixture is then allowed
to descend through throat portion of the furnace.
iii)Following reaction occur between carbon or carbon monoxide and
iron ore to form iron.
iv)The pig iron which thus formed collects in the hearth furnace. the slag
which is formed by reaction between fluxing material and impurities in
ore also collects in the hearth of furnace and as it is light in weight, it
floats on the pig-iron.
v)The hot gases and dust escape from the outlet which is provided in
the throat portion of furnace. The slag is removed, usually after two
hours, through an outlet which is provided at higher level. The molten
iron is taken out, usually after four hours, through tap hole provided at
suitable height.
-The molten iron is led into the sand moulds where it becomes
solid.it is taken out in short lengths from these Moulds. These are
known as the sows and pigs as they exhibit curved surfaces, when
removed.

vii)The pig-iron, as obtained above, contains about 93 to 95 percent

of iron, about 4 to 5 percent of carbon and the remaining being
sulphur, silicon, manganese, phosphorus, etc. The slag, as obtained
above, contains about 45 percent of lime, about 35 percent of silica,
about 12 per cent of alumina and remaining being other impurities
such as magnesia, calcium sulphate, maganese oxide, etc. This slag
may be used for

a)In cement concrete as coarse aggregate,

b)In making roads as road metal,
c)In railways as ballast,
d)In the manufacture of blast furnace cement, etc.
MANUFACTURE OF PIG IRON

Blast Furnace - manufacture of PIG IRON

FERROUS METALS – PIG IRON

Metal Composition Metal Uses Properties

3–4% Carbon Columns, Base It is hard and brittle(
plates, difficult to bend)
0.5–3.5% Silicon Pipes, Sinks, Melts easily with fusion
Cylinders, etc.. temperature of 1200°C
0.5–2% Storage tanks, Its compressive strength is
Manganese high but is weak
in tension and shear.
0.02–0.1% Cylinder Pig iron does not rust and
Sulphur cannot be riveted or
welded
0.03–1% Doors, Railings It is neither ductile nor
Phosphorus. malleable
FERROUS METALS – PIG IRON
Pig iron is further classified as
• Bessemer pig,
• Foundry pig,
• Forge pig, and
• Mottled pig.

1-BESSEMER PIG:
 This is obtained from haematite ores.
 It should be free from copper, phosphorus and sulphur.
 The presence of silicon and manganese in small amounts improves
the quality of pig.
 This pig is used in the manufacture of steel bessemer or acid open-
hearth process.
2-GREY PIG:
 This is also known as the foundary pig.
 It is produced when the furnace is provided sufficiently with furl and
the raw materials are burnt at a very high temperature.
 The grey colour is exhibited by the fracture of this pig.
 Depending upon the amount of carbon,it is classified in various
grades.
 This is a soft variety of pig and it is mainly used for the cast-iron
castings.

3-WHITE PIG:
 Tthis is also known as the forge pig.
 It is produced when the furnace is not provided with sufficient fuel or
when the raw materials are burnt at low temperature or when ore or
furl contains a higher percentage of sulphur.
 It is an inferior variety of grey carbon and it contains more percentage
of combined carbon.
 It is therefore unfit for superior castings.
 It is hard and strong.
 It can be easily melted.
 It is used in the manufacture of wrought iron.

4-MOTTLED PIG:

 This variety of pig lies somewhere between grey pig and white pig.
 The fracture of this pig is mottled.
 It is stronger and it contains a large proportion of combined
carbon.
 It is unfit for light and ornamental castings.
 It is used for heavy foundary castings.
FERROUS METALS – CAST IRON
• Pig iron is remelted with limestone
(flux) and coke and refined in Cupola
furnace.
• Blast of cold air is forced from the
bottom and impurities are removed
by oxidation.
• The pure iron in the molten stage is
taken out from the bottom of the
furnace and collected in moulds of
different shape to form cast-iron
castings.

Cupola Furnace
FERROUS METALS – CAST IRON
Cast iron is further classified as

1) Grey Cast-iron
2) White Cast-iron
3) Mottled Cast-iron
4) Chilled Cast-iron
5) Malleable Cast-iron
6) Toughened Cast-iron

1) GREY CAST-IRON:

 This is prepared from grey pig.

 Its color is grey with a coarse crystalline structure. It is soft and it
melts readily.
 It is somewhat weak in strength. It is extensively used for making
castings.
FERROUS METALS – CAST IRON
2) WHITE CAST-IRON:
 Its color is silvery white.
 It is hard and it melts with difficulty.
 It is not easily worked on machine. It cannot be used for delicate
casting.

3) MOTTLED CAST-IRON:
 It is an intermediate variety between grey cast-iron.
 The fracture of this variety is mottled.
 This variety is used for small castings.

4)CHILLED CAST-IRON:
 The chilling consists of making some portion of cast-iron hard
and other portion soft.
 This variety of cast-iron is hard to a certain depth from the
exterior surface and it is indicated by white iron.
 The interior portion of the body of casting is soft and it is made up
of grey iron.
 It is used to provide wearing surfaces to the castings.

5)MALLEABLE CAST-IRON:
 The composition of this variety of cast-iron is so adjusted that it
becomes malleable.
 It is done by extracting a portion of carbon from cast-iron.
 It is used for railway equipment, automobiles, pipe fittings,
agriculture implements, door fastenings, hinges, etc..

6)TOUGHENED CAST-IRON:
 This variety of cast-iron is obtained by melting cast-iron with
wrought-iron scrap.
 The proportion of wrought –iron scrap is about ¼th to 1/7th of
weight of cast-iron.
FERROUS METALS – WROUGHT IRON
• Wrought iron considered to be pure iron, is produced by
removing the impurities of cast iron.
• The total impurities are limited to 0.5 per cent with a maximum
percentage of carbon as 0. 15%, silicon 0.15–0.2%, Phosphorus
0.12–0.16%, sulphur 0.02–0.03% and manganese 0.03–0.1%.
• It is manufactured in reverberatory or puddling furnace by
Astor’s process.
FERROUS METALS – WROUGHT IRON
Refining:
• The molten pig iron is first refined by blasting air in the
furnace.
• The metal is cooled suddenly to make it brittle. This is
known as refined pig iron and poured into moulds.
Puddling:
• Conversion of refined pig iron into wrought iron by stirring
in a molten state is known as puddling.
• It is then melted in reverberatory furnace where iron
melts due to burning of gas.
• The iron becomes thick and assumes the shape of white
spongy balls called as puddle balls.
FERROUS METALS – WROUGHT IRON
Shingling:
• Puddle balls are passed through squeezing machine and
the balls formed are referred to as bloom which is in red
hot condition.
Rolling:
• The bloom is sent to grooved rollers to form flat bars. The
process is repeated several times to remove the
impurities and achieve the desired wrought iron.
FERROUS METALS – STEEL
• Steel is the most suitable building material among metallic
materials.
• This is due to a wide range and combination of physical
and mechanical properties that steels can have.
• By suitably controlling the carbon content, alloying
elements and heat treatment, a desired combination of
hardness, ductility and strength can be obtained in steel.
• On the basis of carbon content steel may be classified as
under
PIG IRON CAST IRON WROUGHT IRON

The crude impure iron, Cast iron is Wrought iron is almost

which is extracted manufactured by re- pure and it hardly
from iron ores, is melting pig iron with contains carbon more
known as pig-iron and coke and limestone. than 0.15 percent. But
it forms the basic This re-melting is done the process of its
material for the in a furnace known as manufacture is
manufacture of cast- cupola furnace, laborious and tedious.
iron, wrought iron and Wrought iron is
steel. manufactured by four
The pig iron is operations
manufactured by the 1.Refining
following operations 2.Puddling
(i) Dressing: 3.Shingling
(ii) Calcination and 4.Rolling
roasting:
(iii)Smelting
PIG IRON CAST IRON WROUGHT IRON

Pig iron is hard, wear •Brittle, has a soft •It can be easily
resistant, fairly core beneath a hard forged and welded
fusible and very skin. •It can be used to
brittle. It is not useful •Strong in form temporary
directly as a material compression magnets
except for limited •Snaps before it will •It is ductile,
applications. It has a bend malleable and tough
low melting point as •Drilling – crumbles •It is moderately
compared to steel easily elastic
•Ling – produces fine •It is unaffected by
black powder saline water
•It resists corrosion
in a better way
PIG IRON CAST IRON WROUGHT IRON
•For making cisterns, water It is used for rivets,
Pig iron is a solid pipes, gas pipes and sewers, chains, ornamental
form of hot metal, manhole covers and sanitary iron work, railway
obtained from iron fittings. couplings, water
ore or scrap •For making ornamental and steam pipes,
recycling, and it is castings like brackets, gates, bolts and nuts,
processed with blast lampposts etc. horse shoe bars,
furnace or electric •For making parts of hand rails, straps
arc furnace. Pig iron machinery which are not for timber roof
is used as a raw subjected to shock loads. trusses, boiler
material for iron •For manufacture of tubes, roofing
steel making and compression members. sheets etc.
most of this material •For preparing rail chairs,
was imported. carriage wheels etc.
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL

The steel becomes harder and tougher as its carbon content goes
on increasing and at the maximum level of 1.5%,all the carbon gets
into chemical combination with iron and none of it exists in its free
state.

MANUFACTURE OF STEEL:

1) Bessemer process
2) Cementation process
3) Crucible steel process
4) Duplex process
5) Electric process
6) L.D process
7) Open-hearth process.
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL
1.BESSEMER PROCESS:

 Depending upon the nature of lining material of converter , this

process may be acidic or basic.
 In acidic process, the lining material is acidic in nature such as
clay, quartz, etc.
 It is adopted when iron ores are free from or when they contain
very small amount of sulphur and phosphorus.
 In basic process,the lining material is basic in nature such
lime,magnesia,etc.
 Bessemer converter is wide at bottom and narrow at top.
 It is mounted on two horizontal trunnions so that it can be tilted
or rotated at suitable angle.
 The tuyeres are provided at the bottom to allow passage of air
from the air duct to the pig-iron.
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL

1)The converter is tilted and it is charged with molten pig-iron from

cupola furnace or sometimes even directly from the blast furnace.

2)The converter is brought in an upright position and a blast of hot

air is forced through the tuyeres.
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL
3)The air passes through the molten pig-iron.it oxidizes impurities of
pig-iron and a brilliant reddish-yellow flame is seen at the nose of
converter.
4)The flame is accompanied by a loud roaring sound and within 10
to 15 mins. All the impurities of pig-iron are oxidized. The order of
oxidation of various impurities is silicon, carbon, manganese,
sulphur and phosphorus.
5.When the intensity flame has considerably reduced, the blast is
shut off and the required amount of suitable material as such as
ferro-manganese, spiege-leisen, etc.is added to make steel of
desired quality.
6.The blast of air is started for a few minutes.the converter is then
tilted in discharge position and the molten metal is carried into
ladles or containers.
7.The molten metal is poured into large rectangular moulds for
solidification. Such solidified mass is known as the ingot. These
ingots are then further treated to form steel of commercial pattern.
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL
2.CEMENTATION PROCESS:
This process was formerly used to manufacture steel. It is costly and it
is now therefore practically not adopted. It consists in converting pig-
iron to almost pure wrought –iron and then preparing steel by
adjusting carbon content.
1.The bars of pure wrought-iron are taken and they are placed between
the layers of powdered charcoal. The dome-shaped furnace known as
the cementation furnace is generally used for this purpose.
2.The furnace is heated and the bars are subjected to an intense heat
for a period of 5 to 15 days.
3.The wrought iron combines with carbon and steel of desired
composition is formed. This steel is covered with blisters or thin
bubbles and it is therefore known as the blister steel. Its structure is
not homogeneous and it is full of cavities and fissures. The blister steel
cannot be used for making edge tools.it can only used for machine
parts.
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL

CEMENTATION FURNACE
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL
3.CRUCIBLE STEEL PROCESS:
 This process is adopted to produce
small quantity
of high carbon steel.
 In this process, the fragments of
blister steel or short bars of wrought
iron are taken and they are mixed
with charcoal.
 They are then placed in fire clay
crucible and heated. the molten iron
is poured into suitable moulds.
 The steel produced by this process is
known as the cast steel.
 It is hard and uniform in quality.it is
used for making surgical
instruments, cultlery..etc.
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL
4.DUPLEX PROCESS:
This process is a combination of the two process..
1.Acid bessemer process
2.Basic open hearth process

1.The molten pig-iron is given treatment in acid-lined bessemer

converter. The impurities such as silica, manganese and carbon
are eliminated at this stage.

2.It is then treated in basic lined open-hearth.the impurities

such as sulphur and phosphorus are eliminated at this stage.

 This process is economical and saving of time.

 To improve the quality of steel further, The duplex process
may be extended to the triplex process. The molten pig iron,
as obtained from basic lined open hearth, is further treated in
electric furnace to produce steel of high quality.
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL
5.ELECTRIC PROCESS:

In this process, the electricity is used for heating and melting the
metal. The other procedure is same as in case of bessemer process
or open hearth process.
 An electric furnace may either be rectangular or circular. It is
made from steel plates. It is lined with basic refractory material.
 It is mounted on roller so that it can be tilted as required. It is
provided with electrodes.
 When electric current is switched on, the electric arcs are
formed between the electrodes and the surface of metal and
with the intense heat of these arcs, the metal is heated and
melted.
 The capacity of electric furnace is about 100 to 150kn and
therefore not suitable for manufacturing of large scale..used to
prepare special steel on a small scale.
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL

Advantages:
1.The heat is quickly supplied and it is possible to have a wide
range of possible temperatures.
2.It presents a neat and clean operation.
3.The temperature can be properly controlled.
4.The quantity of slag formed is small.
5.There is absence of ash and smoke.
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL
6.L.D.PROCESS:

 This process is a modification of bessemer process.it is named as

the linz-donawitz process or L.D process.
 In this process, the pure oxygen is used instead of air.
 In L.D converter, a pure oxygen is blown at extraordinary speed
on molten metal.
 The high temperature developed in the converter burns away
impurities of metal and highly pure low carbon steel is prepared.
 The furnace vessel is similar to that of the bessemer converter
except that the capacity is between 500 to 1000kn.
 The process is economical in initial costs as well as in
maintenance cost.
 This is the only process where sulphur can be effectively
reduced.this process of steel making is specifically suitable for
the Indian pig-irons and it has been adopted for large scale
projects.
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL
 The L.D. process using basic lined oxygen vessels is much
quicker and cheaper and it has practically replaced the open
hearth process.

Disadvantages:

1.An oxygen plant to prepare oxygen is required.

2.It cannot treat pig-iron of all grades and varieties.
3.It is not possible to control temperature precisely
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL
7.OPEN HEARTH PROCESS:

The open hearth process may either be acidic or basic as in case of

.
bessemer process. The basic open-hearth process is more commonly
adopted.

Working:

 The hearth is filled with molten pig-iron from cupola furnace or

sometimes even directly from the blast furnace.
 A mixture of pre heated air and coal gas is allowed to pass over the
hearth. This mixture catches fire and because of the peculiar shape of
the roof, it attacks the molten metal. This produces intense heat and
impurities of metal are oxidized.
 When impurities of metal are removed to the desired extent, suitable
material such as ferro-manganese, spiege-leisen,etc.is added to make
steel of required quality.
 The molten metal is then poured into moulds for forming ingots. These
are then further treated to form steel of commercial pattern.
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL
Advantages:
1.The basic slag obtained from the open hearth process contains
phosphorus. This slag in powder form can therefore be used as good
fertilizer.
2.The great economy can be achieved by providing regenerative
chambers on either side of hearth. These chamber make use of the
waste heat of hot gases of combustion. The hot gases are allowed to
pass through brick gratings of regenerative chamber before they escape
through chimney.
3.The directions of entering and leaving for air and gases are removed at
regular short intervals. The heated bricks gratings pass on heat
preserved by them to the entering air and gas.
4.The operation involved in the process are simple.
5.This process makes it possible to utilize a high percentage of scrap and
this scrap is converted into new useful steel by this process.
6.The time required to remove the impurities is short.
7.The steel manufactured by this process is homogeneous in character.
FERROUS METALS – MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STEEL
CASTING OF INGOTS

The next step in steel making process is the shaping of the molten
steel into a solid form.
Reactions which takes place during the solidification of an ingot.
• significant amounts of oxygen and other gases can dissolve in
the molten metal during steel making. Most o these gases are
rejected during the solidification o the metal, because the
solubility limit of the gases in the metal decreases sharply as its
temperature decreases.
• Rejected oxygen combines with carbon to form carbon
monoxide, which causes porosity in the solidified ingot.
• Depending on the amount of gas evolved during solidification the
types o steel ingots can be produced : killed, semi killed and
rimmed.
CASTING OF INGOTS – CONTINUOUS CASTING
CASTING OF INGOTS – CONTINUOUS CASTING
FERROUS METALS - METHODS OF CASTING
Sand Casting:
• The most common casting procedure involves pouring molten
metal into a cavity in a mass of packed sand. Wooden patterns
are used for moulds which are removed when the sand has
dried.
• Each mould has a hole for casting through which the molten
iron is poured. Air and hot gases escape through another hole.
• Cast material is taken out by breaking the mould after iron cools
down.
Hollow Casting:
• Hollow Casting is used for making columns and piles. For hollow
casting of the objects a solid core is placed where the hollow is
to be maintained.
• After casting the core and mould are taken out. Cast material
becomes hollow due to the core.
FERROUS METALS - METHODS OF CASTING

Vertical Sand Casting:

• The mould box and the solid core is kept in vertical position.
Alter cooling the core is taken out by crane.
• Good quality pipes can be obtained by this method.

Centrifugal Casting:
• Many blow holes are left in ordinary casting because of little
control over temperature and the sand mould.
• The problem is overcome by centrifugal casting.
• Molten material is poured in a revolving metallic cylindrical
mould in a controlled manner, rotating at the rate of 10,000
revolutions per minute.
• Large diameter pipes, gun barrels, etc. are cast by this method.
FERROUS METALS - METHODS OF CASTING

• Large diameter pipes, gun barrels, etc. are cast by this method.
• The castings are dense and have a fine-grained structure with
uniform and high physical properties.
• They are least subjected to directional variations on properties
than static castings.

Die Casting:
• Die casting is cheap for commercial production. Casting is done
under pressure, which may be as high as 140 MN/mm2, into a
split die cavity.
• Since the die is water cooled, the molten metal solidifies
quickly, permitting early removal of the casting.
FERROUS METALS – PROPERTIES IN GENERAL
• Ductility : ability to be drawn into wire without fracture
• Malleability : ability to be rolled / beaten into sheets
without fracture
• Tensile strength : maximum load that it can support without
yielding
• Elastic deformation : deformation to an extent that the
original shape can be regained when the applied load is
removed.
• Plastic deformation : deformation that is permanent.
FERROUS METALS – MECHANICAL TREATMENT OF STEEL
The purpose - to give desired shape to the ingots so as to make
steel available in market forms. Hot working or cold working.
Following are the operations involved in the mechanical treatment
of steel:
(1) Drawing
(2) Forging
(3) Pressing
(4) Rolling.
Drawing:
• to reduce the cross-section and to
increase the length proportionately.
• the metal is drawn through dies or
specially shaped tools.
• drawing is continued till wire of required
diameter or cross-section is obtained.
• used to prepare wires and rods.
FERROUS METALS – MECHANICAL TREATMENT OF STEEL
Forging:
• metal is heated above the critical temperature range.
• placed on anvil and subjected to blows of a hammer.
• increases the density and improves grain size of metal.
• riveting belongs to forging operations.
•used for the manufacture of bolts, camps, etc.
• steel may be either forged free or die-forged.
•the steel is free to spread in all directions as it is hammered.
•the steel flows under the blows of a hammer to fill the inside of a die
and the excess material is forced out through a special groove and
then it is cut off.
FERROUS METALS – MECHANICAL TREATMENT OF STEEL
Pressing:
• a slow process carried out in an equipment called press.
• does not involve any shock.
• press consists of die and punch.
• metal placed on die and punch is then
lowered under a heavy pressure.
• article of desired shape is obtained.
FERROUS METALS – MECHANICAL TREATMENT OF STEEL
Rolling:
• carried out in specially prepared rolling mills.
•The ingots, while still red hot, are passed in succession through
different rollers until articles of desired shape are obtained.
•The various shapes such as angles, channels, flats, joists, rails, etc.
are obtained by the process of rolling.
•It is possible to prepare joint less pipe with the help of this process.
•The solid rod is bored by rollers in stages until the pipe of required
diameter and thickness is obtained.
FERROUS METALS – HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
Heat Treating – defined as the controlled heating and cooling of
metals for the primary purpose of altering their properties (strength,
ductility, hardness, toughness, machinability, etc)
The purposes of heat treatment :
(1) to alter the magnetic and electrical properties of steel,
(2) to change the structure of steel,
(3) to increase the resistance to heat and corrosion,
(4) to increase the surface hardness,
(5) to make the steel easily workable, and
(6) to vary the strength and hardness.
HEAT TREATMENT

Softening Hardening

Case
Annealing Normalizing Tempering Quenching
Hardening
FERROUS METALS – HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
SOFTENING

• done to reduce the strength or hardness

•Remove residual stress
•Improve toughness
•Restore ductility
•Refine grain size or change the electro magnetic properties of steel.

•When an annealed part is allowed to cool in the furnace, it is called

a full anneal heat treatment.

•When an annealed part is removed from the furnace and allowed

to cool in air, it is called a normalizing heat treatment.

•The process of normalizing is to remove the internal stress induced

by heat treating, welding, casting, forging, forming or machining.
FERROUS METALS – HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL

Normalizing:
• object of this process is to restore steel structure to normal
condition.

• procedure – the steel is heated to a point 40 to 50 deg c.

• it is maintained at that temperature for a short duration.
• it is then allowed to cool down in still air at room temperature.
• it is also known as the air quenching.

Tempering:
• done following the hardening process.
• the hardened steel is in a stressed condition and very brittle and
cannot be used for practical purposes.
•Tempering imparts a desired amount of toughness and ductility
FERROUS METALS – HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL

procedure – the article after being quenched in hardening process is

reheated to suitable temperature and maintained for some period.
•The article is then allowed to cool down in still air.

Low temperature tempering: 150 to 200 deg c. reduce the internal

stresses and increase the toughness.
Medium temperature tempering: 350 to 400 deg c. used to toughen
the steel.
High temperature tempering: 500 to 650 deg c. used to eliminate the
internal stresses.
FERROUS METALS – HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
Annealing:
• a heat treatment wherein a material is altered,
causing changes in its properties such as
strength and hardness.
• the main object of this process is to make the
steel soft.
• this process reduces the tensile strength and
increases the ductility.
• process of heating solid metal to high
temperatures and cooling it slowly so that its
particles arrange into a defined lattice.
• the temperature depends upon the carbon
content and it is around 50 to 55 deg c.
FERROUS METALS – HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
HARDENING

• done to increase the strength and wear properties.

•One of the pre requisite or hardening is sufficient carbon and alloy
content.
•It the carbon content is sufficient then steel can be directly
hardened.

Quenching:
• The metal (cast iron or steel) must be heated into the austenitic
crystal phase and then quickly cooled.
•Depending on the alloy the cooling may be done with forced air or
other gas (nitrogen), oil, polymer dissolved in water or brine.
•The quenched hardness of a metal depends upon its chemical
composition and quenching method.
FERROUS METALS – HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
Case hardening:
• a heat treatment where the core remains tough and ductile but the
surface becomes hard .
• achieved by increasing the carbon content at the surface.
• this process is carried out by diffusion of carbon from the
surrounding medium at high temperature.
• is important for components like gears, bearing surfaces, etc,.
• procedure – the article to be carburized is held in the
carburizing mixture for a definite time and at definite temperature.
• the time and temperature depends upon the depth of case required
and composition of steel.
•the usual period is 6 to 8 hrs and
temperature is 900 to 950 deg c.
• after carburizing it is quenched
and cooled slowly in the box and
then it is reheated and quenched.
FERROUS METALS – HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
Cementing:
• a heat treatment where the skin of the steel is saturated with
carbon.
• the process consists in heating of the steel in a carbon rich medium.
• the temperature is between 880 to 950 deg c.

Cyaniding:
• a heat treatment to produce hard cases on the surfaces of low or
medium carbon steels .
• consists in adding carbon and nitrogen to the surface.
• the steel is heated in a molten cyanide salt bath at a temp. of 950
deg c and it is then followed by water or oil quenching.

Hardening:
• reverse of annealing process.
• the steel is made hard by this process.
FERROUS METALS – HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
Hardening:
•the process is similar to annealing except that there is a difference
in the rate of cooling.
• the cooling is carried out at a controlled rate and this is known as
quenching.
• mediums of quenching are: air, molten salts, oil and water.

Air:
• hot article is cooled down in still air.
• mild quench is obtained.
• thin sections such as knife blades are hardened by this process.

Molten salts:
• steeped quenching by interruption is known as martempering.
• quenching at constant temperature is known as austempering.
FERROUS METALS – HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
Oil:
• hot article dropped in oil to cool down.
• quite slow, more suitable for quenching alloy steels than plain
carbon steel.

Water:
• most commonly adopted medium for quenching.
• hot article dropped in water to cool down.
• used for carbon steels and medium carbon low alloy steels.

Nitriding:
• process of saturating the surface layer of steel with nitrogen by
heating is known as the nitriding.
• heating is carried out in an atmosphere of ammonia.
FERROUS METALS – HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
•Nitrogen diffused into surface being treated.
•Nitrogen reacts with steel to form very hard iron and alloy nitrogen
compounds.
•Process does not require quenching – big advantage.
•The case can include a white layer which can be brittle – which can
be a disadvantage

Reduction process: 2NH3 2N + 3H2

FERROUS METALS – CORROSION OF METALS

Corrosion of Metals

• Corrosion is the disintegration of an engineered material into

its constituent atom due to chemical reactions with its
surroundings.

• When an particle made up of iron is exposed to the

atmosphere, it is observed that a reddish coat has been
formed on the surface of the particle. This coating is known as
rust, it is actually an oxide of the metal formed by the
reaction with the oxygen present in the atmosphere.

• When the surface of a metal is attacked by moisture or any

other substances around it, then the metal surface is known
to be corroded and the phenomenon is known as corrosion.
FERROUS METALS – CORROSION OF METALS
Effects of Corrosion
• Reduces strength
• Life time is reduced
• Metallic properties are lost
• Wastage of metal
Importance of Corrosion data
• Mils per year or MPY is used to give the corrosion rate in a
pipe, a pipe system or other metallic surfaces. It is used to
calculate the material loss or weight loss of a metal surfaces.
Mpy values Description
5 mpy Good corrosion
Resistant material
5mpy – 50 mpy Low corrosion
Resistant material
50 mpy Unsuitable as construction material
FERROUS METALS – TYPES OF METAL CORROSION

Types of Metal corrosion

• Uniform corrosion
• Galvanic corrosion
• Pitting corrosion
• Stress corrosion
• Microbial corrosion
• Erosion corrosion
FERROUS METALS – TYPES OF METAL CORROSION

Uniform corrosion

• Corrosion occurs evenly over the surface

• Can be a good or bad thing
• Oxide layer can be very tough – magnetite

Galvanic corrosion
• Chemical reactions - electrons removed from one reactant
travel through an external circuit
• Material tends to disappear
FERROUS METALS – TYPES OF METAL CORROSION
Pitting corrosion

Stress corrosion
• Brittle cracks form at the site of stress
• Failure can be fast
• Failure can occur at stress load
• Three main conditions required for common are metal under
tensile stress, dissolved oxygen, chloride ion.
FERROUS METALS – TYPES OF METAL CORROSION
Erosion corrosion
• Flow removes protective layer
• New protective layer forms using up metal

Microbial corrosion
• Similar to pitting corrosion de to bacteria presence in water.
FERROUS METALS – PREVENTION OF METALS CORROSION

Prevention of Metals

• Keep the area around the metal surface dry.

• Use drying agents and moisture barrier products.

• Make sure underground piping is laid in a layer of backfill, such

as limestone.

• Make sure any electrical components are cleaned regularly

• a coating of grease or oil maintained on a metal surface

• Painting is another method of preventing metal corrosion.

FERROUS METALS – METAL COATINGS

Coating of Metals
A coating is a covering that is applied to the surface of an object.
The purpose of applying the coating may be decorative,
functional, or both. The coating itself may be an all-over coating,
completely covering the substrate, or it may only cover parts of
the substrate.

Types of Coating in Metals

ELECTROPLATING SPRAYING GALVANIZING

FERROUS METALS – METAL COATINGS
ELECTROPLATING
• Electroplating is a process that uses electric current to reduce
dissolved metal cations so that they form a coherent metal coating
on an electrode.

• Electroplating is primarily used to change the surface properties of

an object (e.g. abrasion and wear resistance, corrosion protection,
lubricity, aesthetic qualities, etc.), but may also be used to build up
thickness on undersized parts or to form objects by electroforming.

• The process used in electroplating is called electro deposition. It is

analogous to a galvanic cell acting in reverse. The part to be plated is
the cathode of the circuit. In one technique, the anode is made of
the metal to be plated on the part. Both components are immersed
in a solution called an electrolyte containing one or more dissolved
metal salts as well as other ions that permit the flow of electricity.
FERROUS METALS – METAL COATINGS
ELECTROPLATING

• A power supply supplies a direct current to the anode, oxidizing

the metal atoms that it comprises and allowing them to dissolve in
the solution.

• At the cathode, the dissolved metal ions in the electrolyte solution

are reduced at the interface between the solution and the cathode,
such that they "plate out" onto the cathode.
FERROUS METALS – METAL COATINGS
METAL SPRAYING

• The term “thermal metal spraying” refers to a process in which

metals are
melted and sprayed on a surface to form a coating. The metals may
be melted
using combustion (i.e., oxy fuel) or electrical processes (i.e., arc,
plasma arc,
or plasma induction).
FERROUS METALS – METAL COATINGS
GALVANIZING
• Galvanization is the process of applying a protective zinc coating
to steel or iron, to prevent rusting. The most common method is
hot-dip galvanization, in which parts are submerged in a bath of
molten zinc. Galvanizing protects in two ways:
• It forms a coating of corrosion-resistant zinc which prevents
corrosive substances from reaching he more delicate part of the
metal.
• The zinc serves as a sacrificial anode so that even if the coating is
scratched, the exposed steel will still be protected by the remaining
zinc.