Unit-V: Evaluation of Shear

Characteristics and Applications

of Shear Strength of Soil

N. Darga Kumar
JNTUHCE Manthani
Definition of Shear Strength of Soil
Shear Failure in Soil
Shear Failure in Soil
Mohr’s – Coulomb Failure Criteria
TYPES OF SHEAR TESTS BASED ON DRAINAGE CONDITIONS
Before considering various methods of conducting shearing strength
tests on a soil, it is necessary to consider the possible drainage
conditions before and during the tests since the results are
significantly affected by these.

A cohesionless or a coarse-grained soil may be tested for shearing

strength either in the dry condition or in the saturated condition.

A cohesive or fine-grained soil is usually tested in the saturated

condition.

Depending upon whether drainage is permitted before and during

the test, shear tests on such saturated soils are classified as follows:

 Unconsolidated Undrained Test

 Consolidated Undrained Test
 Consolidated Drained Test
 Unconsolidated Undrained Test (UU Test)
Drainage is not permitted at any stage of the test, that is,
either before the test during the application of the normal
stress or during the test when the shear stress is applied.

Hence no time is allowed for dissipation of pore water

pressure and consequent consolidation of the soil; also, no
significant volume changes are expected.
Unconsolidated Undrained Test (UU Test) Contd…
Usually, 5 to 10 minutes may be adequate for the whole
test, because of the shortness of drainage path.

However, undrained tests are often performed only on soils

of low permeability (Clays and Silts).

This is the most unfavourable condition which might occur

in geotechnical engineering practice and hence is simulated
in shear testing.

Since a relatively small time is allowed for the testing till

failure, it is also called the ‘Quick test.’ It is designated UU, Q,
or Qu test
Consolidated Undrained Test (CU Test)
Drainage is permitted fully in this type of test during the
application of the normal stress and no drainage is permitted
during the application of the shear stress.

Thus volume changes do not take place during shear and excess
pore pressure develops.

Usually, after the soil is consolidated under the applied normal

stress to the desired degree, 5 to 10 minutes may be adequate for
the test.

This test is also called ‘consolidated quick test’ and is designated

CU or Qc test, These conditions are also common in geotechnical
engineering practice.
Consolidated Drained Test (CD Test)
Drainage is permitted fully before and during the test, at every
stage. The soil is consolidated under the applied normal stress and is
tested for shear by applying the shear stress also very slowly while
drainage is permitted at every stage.

Practically no excess pore pressure develops at any stage and

volume changes take place.

It may require 4 to 6 weeks to complete a single test of this kind in

the case of cohesive soils, although not so much time is required in
the case of cohesionless soils as the latter drain off quickly.
Consolidated Drained Test (CD Test) Contd…

This test is seldom conducted on cohesive soils except for

purposes of research. It is also called the ‘Slow Test’ or
‘consolidated slow test’ and is designated CD, S, or Sc test.

The shear parameters c and φ vary with the type of test

or drainage conditions. The suffixes u, cu, and d are used for
the parameters obtained from the UU-, CU- and CD-tests
respectively.
Where do we Apply UU, CU and CD Tests Data

The choice as to which of these tests is to be used

depends upon the types of soil and the problem on
hand.

For problems of short-term stability of foundations,

excavations and earth dams UU-tests are appropriate.

For problems of long-term stability, either CU-test or

CD tests are appropriate, depending upon the drainage
conditions in the field.
SHEARING STRENGTH TESTS
Determination of shearing strength of a soil involves the
plotting of failure envelopes and evaluation of the shear
strength parameters c &  for the necessary conditions
(Drainage Conditions).

The following tests are available for this purpose:

Laboratory Tests
1. Direct Shear Test
2. Triaxial Compression Test
3. Unconfined Compression Test
4. Laboratory Vane Shear Test
5. Torsion Test
6. Ring Shear Tests

Field Tests
1. Vane Shear Test
2. Penetration Test
Direct Shear Test
Load is applied horizontally and the shearing failure takes
place along the horizontal plane. Both load and shearing of
soil are in the same direction, it is called as Direct Shear
Test.
Stress Controlled and
Strain Controlled Tests
Strength Envelop
Mohr’s circle representation of stress
conditions in direct shear test
Limitations of Direct Shear Test
Triaxial Compression Test
The triaxial compression test, introduced
by Casagrande and Terzaghi in 1936, is by far
the most popular and extensively used
shearing strength test, both for field
application and for purposes of research.

As the name itself suggests, the soil

specimen is subjected to three compressive
stresses in mutually perpendicular
directions, one of the three stresses being
increased until the specimen fails in shear.

Usually a cylindrical specimen with a

height equal to twice its diameter is used.
Triaxial Compression Test Contd…

The desired three-dimensional stress system is achieved

by an initial application of all-round fluid pressure or
confining pressure through water. While this is increased
gradually and at a uniform rate.

The axial stress thus constitutes the major principal

stress and the confining pressure acts in the other two
principal directions, the intermediate and minor principal
stresses being equal to the confining pressure.
Principle and stress conditions of triaxial
compression test
Triaxial cell with accessories
The apparatus, consists of a
lucite or perspex cylindrical
cell, called ‘triaxial cell’, with
appropriate arrangements for
an inlet of cell fluid and
application of pressure by
means of a compressor, outlet
of pore water from the
specimen if it is desired to
permit drainage which
otherwise may serve as pore
pressure connection and axial
loading through a piston and
loading Cap.
Triaxial Test Procedure

The essential steps in the conduct of the test are as follows:

(i) A saturated porous stone is placed on the pedestal and the

cylindrical soil specimen is placed on it.

(ii) The specimen is enveloped by a rubber membrane to isolate

it from the water with which the cell is to be filled later; it is
sealed with the pedestal and top cap by rubber ‘‘O’’ rings.

(iii) The cell is filled with water and pressure is applied to the
water, which in turn is transmitted to the soil specimen all-round
and at top. This pressure is called ‘cell pressure’, ‘chamber
pressure’ or ‘confining pressure’.
 Triaxial Test Procedure Contd…
(iv) Additional axial stress is applied while keeping the cell
pressure constant.

Additional axial stress introduces shearing stresses on all

planes except the horizontal and vertical planes, on which the
major, minor and intermediate principal stresses act, the last
two being equal to the cell pressure on account of axial
symmetry.

(v) The additional axial stress is continuously increased until

failure of the specimen occurs.
Determination of Shear Parameters
Peak Stress Versus Residual Stress
Strength Envelop
Mohr’s Circle for Triaxial Test
The stress conditions in a triaxial test may be represented by a
Mohr’s circle, at any stage of the test, as well as at failure.
Mohr’s circle at failure for one
particular cell pressure for triaxial
test
Relationship between the principal stresses at failure.
The Mohr’s circles at failure for one particular cell pressure are shown for the three
typical cases of a general c–φ soil, a φ-soil and a c-soil.
The relationship between the major and minor principal stresses at failure may be
established from the geometry of the Mohr’s circle, as follows:

Equation define the relationship between the

principal stresses at failure. This state of stress
is defined as ‘Plastic equilibrium condition’,
when failure is imminent.
Mohr’s circles for triaxial tests with different cell pressures
and strength envelope
From one test, a set of σ1 and σ3 is known; however, it can be seen
from Equation, that at least two such sets are necessary to
evaluate the parameters c and φ. Conventionally, three or more
such sets are used from a corresponding number of tests.
Types of Failure of a Triaxial Compression Test Specimen
A triaxial compression test specimen may exhibit a particular pattern
or shape as failure is reached, depending upon the nature of the soil
and its condition.

In the case of plastic failure, the strain goes on increasing slowly

at a reduced rate with increasing stress, with no specific stage to
pin-point failure. In such a case, failure is assumed to have taken
place when the strain reaches an arbitrary value such as 20%.
Merits of Triaxial Compression Test

(1) Failure occurs along the weakest plane unlike along the
predetermined plane in the case of direct shear test.

(2) The stress distribution on the failure plane is much more uniform
than it is in the direct shear test.

(3) Complete control of the drainage conditions is possible with the

triaxial compression test; this would enable one to simulate the field
conditions better.

(4) The possibility to vary the cell pressure or confining pressure also
affords another means to simulate the field conditions for the
sample.
 Merits of Triaxial Compression Test (Contd..)
(5) Precise measurements of pore water pressure and volume changes
during the test are possible.

(6) The state of stress within the specimen is known on all planes and
not only on a
predetermined failure plane as it is with direct shear tests.

(7) The state of stress on any plane is capable of being determined not
only at failure but also at any earlier stage.

(8) Special tests such as extension tests are also possible to be

conducted with the triaxial testing apparatus.

(9) It provides an ingenious and a symmetrical three-dimensional

stress system better suited to simulate field conditions.
Unconfined Compression (UCS) Test
This is a special case of a triaxial compression test; the confining
pressure being zero.

A cylindrical soil specimen, usually of the same standard size as that for
the triaxial compression, is loaded axially by a compressive force until
failure takes place.

Since the specimen is laterally unconfined, the test is known as

‘unconfined compression test’.

No rubber membrane is necessary to encase the specimen. The axial

or vertical compressive stress is the major principal stress and the
other two principal stresses are zero.

This test may be conducted on undisturbed or remoulded cohesive

soils.
Unconfined Compression (UCS) Test Contd….
It cannot be conducted on coarse-grained soils such as sands
and gravels as these cannot stand without lateral support.

Also the test is essentially a quick or undrained one because

it is assumed that there is no loss of moisture during the
test, which is performed fairly fast.

Owing to its simplicity, it is often used as a field test, besides

being used in the laboratory.

The failure plane is not predetermined and failure takes

place along the weakest plane.
Unconfined Compression Apparatus
Mohr’s Circle for Unconfined Compression (UCS)
Test

The Mohr’s circles for the unconfined compression test are shown in Figure.
Confining pressure, σ3 = 0.

1 = qu = 2c
Thus, the shearing strength or cohesion value for a saturated clay from unconfined
compression test is taken to be half the unconfined compression strength.
Shear parameters in UCS test are: c = qu/2 and  = 0
 Vane Shear Test

The shear strength is determined by a

device called the Shear Vane for soft and
ultra soft clats or sensitive clays.

The vane shear test may also be

conducted in the laboratory. The
laboratory shear vane will be usually
smaller in size as compared to the field
vane.

The shear vane usually consists of four

steel plates welded orthogonally to a
steel rod.
 Vane Shear Test Contd…
The applied torque is measured by a
calibrated torsion spring, the angle of
twist being read on a special gauge.

A uniform rotation of about 1° per

minute is used.

The vane is forced into the soil

specimen or into the undisturbed
soil at the bottom of a bore-hole in a
gentle manner and torque is applied.

The torque is computed by

multiplying the angle of twist by the
spring constant.
Vane Shear Test (Contd…)
PORE PRESSURE PARAMETERS
Pore water pressures play an important role in determining the
strength of soil.

The change in pore water pressure due to change in applied stress

is characterized by dimensionless coefficients, called ‘Pore pressure
coefficients’ or ‘Pore pressure parameters’ A and B.

These parameters have been proposed by Prof. A.W. Skempton

(Skempton, 1954) and are now universally accepted.

In an undrained triaxial compression test, pore water pressures

develop in the first stage of application of cell pressure or confining
pressure, as also in the second stage of application of additional axial
stress or deviator stress.
Pore Pressure Parameter - B
The ratio of the pore water pressure developed to the applied
confining pressure is called the B-parameter:

The value of B is also

known to vary
somewhat with stress-
change.
 Pore Pressure Parameter - A
Pore water pressures develop during the application of the deviator
stress also in a triaxial compression test.

The pore pressure coefficient or parameter A is defined from A as

follows :

The A-factor or parameter is not a constant. It varies with the soil, its stress
history and the applied deviator stress.

Its value can be specified at failure or maximum deviator stress or at any other
desired stage of the test. A-factor varies also with the initial density index in the
case of sands and with over-consolidation ratio in the case of clays.
The general expression for the pore water pressure developed and changes in applied
stresses is as follows:
Uses and applications of the pore pressure parameters
Skempton’s pore pressure parameters are very useful in field
problems involving the prediction of pore pressures induced
consequent to known changes of total stress. One classic example is
the construction of an earth embankment or an earth dam over a soft
day deposit.

If the rate of construction is such that pore water pressure induced
in the foundation soil cannot get dissipated, undrained condition
prevails.

If the pore pressure developed is excessive, the shear strength of

the foundation soil which is dependent upon the effective stress
decreases, thereby endangering the stability of the foundation.
Uses and applications of the pore
pressure parameters Contd….
Prediction of the pore pressure changes with increase
in the total stresses consequent to the increase in
height of the embankment/dam may be done using the
pore pressure parameters. The stability of the structure
may thus be ensured.

The construction engineer may suggest a suitable rate

of construction in stages to that the excess pore
pressures can be kept under control to ensure stability
during and after construction.
SHEARING CHARACTERISTICS OF SANDS
The shearing strength in sand may be said to consists of two parts,
the internal frictional resistance between grains, which is a
combination of rolling and sliding friction and another part known as
‘interlocking’.

Interlocking, which means locking of one particle by the adjacent

ones, resisting movements, contributes a large portion of the
shearing strength in dense sands, while it does not occur in loose
sands.

The Mohr strength theory is not invalidated by the occurrence of

interlocking. The Mohr envelopes merely show large ordinates and
steeper slopes for dense soils than for loose ones.
SHEARING CHARACTERISTICS OF SANDS Contd..
The angle of internal friction is a measure of the resistance of
the soil to sliding along a plane. This varies with the density of
packing, characterized by density index, particle shape and
roughness and particle size distribution.

Its value increases with density index, with the angularity and
roughness of particles and also with better gradation. This is
influenced to some extent by the normal pressure on the plane
of shear and also the rate of application of shear.

The ‘angle of repose’ is the angle to the horizontal at which a

heap of dry sand, poured freely from a small height, will stand
without support. It is approximately the same as the angle of
friction in the loose state.
SHEARING CHARACTERISTICS OF SANDS Contd…

Some clean sands exhibit slight cohesion under certain

conditions of moisture content, owing to capillary tension in
the water contained in the voids.

Since this is small and may disappear with change in water

content, it should not be relied upon for shear strength.

On the other hand, even small percentages of silt and clay in
a sand give it cohesive properties which may be sufficiently
large so as to merit consideration.
Stress-strain Behaviour, Volume Change and
Pore Pressure Changes in Sands
The stress-strain
behaviour, volume
change and pore
pressure variations of
sands is dependent to a
large extent on the
initial density of packing,
as characterized by the
density index.
Critical Void Ratio
At large strains both initially
loose and initially dense
specimens attain nearly the
same void ratio, at which further
strain will not produce any
volume changes. Such a void
ratio is usually referred to as the
‘Critical Void Ratio’.

Sands with initial void ratio

greater than the critical value
will tend to decrease in volume
during shearing, while sands
with initial void ratio less than
the critical will tend to increase
in volume.
Shearing Strength of Sands

The shearing strength of cohesionless soils has been established

to depend primarily upon the angle of internal friction which
itself is dependent upon a number of factors including the
normal pressure on the failure plane.

The nature of the results of the shear tests will be influenced by

the:
 type of test—direct shear or triaxial compression,
 by the fact whether the sand is saturated or dry and
 also by the nature of stresses considered—total or effective.
 Shearing Strength of Sands Contd…
 Each direct shear test is usually conducted under a certain normal stress.
 Each stresss strain diagram therefore reflects the beahaviour of a specimen
under a particular normal stress.
 A number of specimens are tested under different normal stresses.
 It is to be noted that only the effective normal stress is capable of mobilising
shear strength..

Ultimate values of φ may range from 29 to 35° and peak values from 32 to 45° for sands.
The values of φ selected for use in practical problems should be related to soil strains expected.
If soil deformation is limited, using the peak value for φ would be justified. If the deformation
is relatively large, ultimate value of φ should be used.
Failure envelope for
moist sand indicating
apparent cohesion

Drained triaxial
compression tests on
saturated sand

Undrained triaxial compression

tests on saturated sands (total
stresses)
SHEARING CHARACTERISTICS OF COHESIVE SOILS OR CLAYS

The understanding of the fundamentals of shearing

strength is much more important in the case of cohesive
soils or clays in view of their troublesome nature with
regard to stability.

In fact, the most complex physical property of clays is

the shearing strength, as it is dependent on a multitude
of inter-related factors.

One of the most difficult tasks is to interpret results of

laboratory shearing strength tests to the shearing
strength of natural clay deposits.
Source and Nature of Shearing Strength of Clays
Cohesion
This is a characteristic of true clay. Cohesion in clays is a property
which varies considerably with consistency. It is a kind of surface
attraction among particles.

Adhesion
Whereas cohesion is the mutual attraction of two different parts
of a clay mass to each other, clay often also exhibits the property
of ‘adhesion’, which is a propensity to adhere to other materials
at a common surface. This has no relation to normal pressure.
This is of particular interest in relation to the supporting capacity
of friction piling in clays and to the lateral pressures on retaining
walls.
Source and Nature of Shearing Strength of Clays
Contd..
Viscous friction
Solid friction effects are of relatively minor importance and the
effects of viscous friction are quite pronounced. The laws of
viscous friction are, in general, opposite to those of solid friction.

The well-established fact that the strength of saturated clays varies

with consistency also is in accord with the concept that strength is
due to viscous rather than solid friction.

Tensile strength
In varying degrees and for different periods of time, many clays are
capable of developing a certain amount of tensile strength. This
may affect the magnitude of normal stresses on failure planes.
Strength Envelops for Unconsolidated Undrained Tests

Unconsolidated
undrained tests in direct
shear on saturated clays

Unconsolidated
undrained tests in
triaxial compression
on saturated clays
 Variation of shearing strength with consistency of
saturated clays

It is common
knowledge that the
shear strength of
clay varies widely
with its consistency,
the shear strength
being negligible
when the water
content is at liquid
limit.
 Consolidated Undrained Tests (CU Tests)
Consolidated undrained tests
in direct shear on remoulded,
saturated, and normally
consolidated clay (consolidated
and sheared under normal
pressures σ1, σ2, and σ3).

Consolidated undrained
tests in triaxial compression
on remoulded, saturated,
and normally consolidated
clay (consolidated under
different cell pressures and
sheared undrained under
the same cell pressures).
Consolidated Drained Tests (CD Tests)
The specimen is first consolidated under a certain cell pressure
and is then sheared sufficiently slowly so that no pore pressures
are allowed to develop at any stage. The effective stresses will be
the same as the total stresses.

Drained tests in triaxial compression on a remoulded saturated

clay sheared under cell pressure equal to the consolidation
pressure.
Strength Envelopes in CU Test
Strength Envelops for
Normally Consolidated Clay
or Loose Sands in terms of
Effective and Total Stresses

Strength
Envelop for
Over
Consolidate
d Clay in
Total
Stresses
Strength Envelope for Saturated Clay in UU Test

In UU test, the failure envelop cannot be drawn in terms of effective

stresses. In all the tests conducted at different confining pressures,
the effective stress remains the same.

This is due to the fact that an increase in confining pressure results in

an equal increase in pore water pressure for a saturated soil under
undrained conditions. The deviator stress at failure is the same for all
the specimens tested in UU conditions.
Strength Envelope for Partially
Saturated Clay in UU Test
Strength Envelopes for Different Types of Tests
Coducted on Clay Soils
Stress Strain and Pore Water Pressure of NC and OC Clays in
CD Test
Stress Strain and Pore Water Pressure of NC and OC Clays
in CU Test
Effect of rate and nature of shear strain
 Clays are often sensitive to the rate and manner of shearing.
Usually standard rates of shearing are adopted for proper
comparison.

 A strain of about 0.10 to 0.15 cm/min., is considered standard in

strain-controlled direct shear. However, it is not common that
strain is controlled in nature or in construction operations.

 It is observed that shear strength increases somewhat with

increased rates of strain. If the loading is not at a uniform rate but
is effected in increments, much greater shearing resistance is
developed; however, the failure in such a case is observed to
occur rather suddenly.

 The increase in shear strength could be as much as 25% with

increase in rate of strain from a very slow rate; this increase
would be as high as 100% or more if the loading is by increments.
Sensitivity of Clays
If the strength of an undisturbed sample of clay is measured and its strength is
again measured after remoulding at the same water content to the same dry
density, a reduction in strength is often observed. This is an important
phenomenon which is quantitatively characterised by ‘Sensitivity’, St, defined
as follows:
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Example 8.8: The stresses acting on the plane of maximum shearing stress through a given
point in sand are as follows: total normal stress = 250 kN/m2; pore-water pressure = 88.5
kN/m2; shearing stress = 85 kN/m2. Failure is occurring in the region surrounding the point.
Determine the major and minor principal effective stresses, the normal effective stress and
the shearing stress on the plane of failure and the friction angle of the sand.
Example 8.11: In a triaxial shear test conducted on a soil sample having a cohesion of 12
kN/m2 and angle of shearing resistance of 36°, the cell pressure was 200 kN/m2.
Determine the value of the deviator stress at failure.
Example 8.13: A simple of dry sand is subjected to a triaxial test. The angle of internal
friction is 37 degrees. If the minor principal stress is 200 kN/m2, at what value of major
principal stress will the soil fail?
Example 8.14: In a drained triaxial compression test, a saturated specimen of
cohesionless sand fails under a deviator stress of 535 kN/m2 when the cell pressure is
150 kN/m2. Find the effective angle of shearing resistance of sand and the approximate
inclination of the failure plane to the horizontal. Graphical method is allowed.
Example 8.15: The shearing resistance of a soil is determined by the equation s = c′ + σ′ tan
φ′. Two drained triaxial tests are performed on the material. In the first test the all-round
pressure is 200 kN/m2 and failure occurs at an added axial stress of 600 kN/m2. In the
second test all-round pressure is 350 kN/m2 and failure occurs at an added axial stress of
1050 kN/m2. What values of c′ and φ′ correspond to these results?
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