NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY -

ATOMS -
 It is the smallest particle of a substance which does not exists independently but it
participates in chemical reactions.
 In the middle part of the atom is a small, dense nucleus consisting mainly of
protons and neutrons. In the outer part of atom there are electrons.
PROTON -
 It is a positive electrical charged (1.6x10-19C) subatomic particle which is found in
nucleus of all atoms and it has same mass as that of a H2 atom (1.67x10-27 kg).
 It was discovered by Goldstein and Rutherford.
NEUTRON -
 It is a subatomic particle with no electric charge and is found in the nucleus of
atoms. Its mass is approximately same as that of a proton.
 It was discovered by James Chadwick.
ELECTRON -
 It is a negatively charged (1.6x10-19C) subatomic particle which exists outside of
and surrounding the atomic nucleus. It has a negligible mass.
 It was discovered by J J Thomson.
 ATOMIC NUMBER - The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called its
atomic number.
 MASS NUMBER - The total of number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom is called its mass number.

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4 Fundamental Forces in Universe
1. Gravitational force :-
 Acts between two masses
 Always of attraction nature
 Least powerful
 Range maximum
2. Weak nuclear force :-
 During beta decay,
 Between neutron-proton
3. Electromagnetic force :-
 Between two charges
 Nature both attraction & repulsion.
4. Strong nuclear force :-
 Between nucleons (proton, neutron)
 Always of attraction nature
 Range minimum
 Most powerful force
 Doesn’t depend on mass or charge
 There are protons & neutrons in nucleus. Proton contains positive charge, whereas
neutron is neutral particle.
 Electromagnetic force of repulsive nature act between two protons present in
nucleus. Whereas strong nuclear force of attraction nature act between nucleons
(protons, neutrons), which is why the nucleus remains stable.
 But as the size of nucleus increases and ratio of number of neutrons & protons
changes; effectiveness of strong nuclear force decrease, which results in unstable
nucleus.
 Unstable nucleus can attain stability by two methods –
 1. Radioactivity
 2. Nuclear fission

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Radioactivity
 Those elements in which an unstable nucleus emits radiations by spontaneous
disintegration; are called Radioactive elements.
 Such radiations are called Radioactive radiations. & this property of
element/nucleus is called Radioactivity.
 Discovered by : French Scientist "Henri Becquerel“
 Unit of Radio Activity : Becquerel (1 decay/sec)
 Emitted Radio Active Radiations : Alpha α, Beta β, Gammaγ
 Radio activity measuring instrument : Geiger Muller Counter

Alpha Beta Gamma

Identity Helium Nucleus Electron / High energy

positron radiation
Charge +2 -1/+1 0

Mass 4 unit Negligible Mass less

Deviation in Towards Towards Anode Straight

Electric field cathode (-) (+)
Ionizing Maximum More than Minimum
capacity Gamma, less
than Alpha

Penetrating Minimum More than Maximum

capacity Alpha, less than
Gamma
Range Minimum More than Maximum
Alpha, less than
Gamma
Speed 107 ≈ C (speed of C = 3×108m/sec
light)

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Group Displacement Law
 When a radioactive element emits an "α Particle" then the new element formed is
displaced two positions left to the parent element in periodic table.
 If a radioactive element emits "β particle" then the new element formed is
displaced one position right to the parent element in periodic table.
 This law was given by Fajans and Soddy in 1913.

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Beta decay and it’s type
 Beta decay is a spontaneous decay process in which atomic number of nucleus is
changed by one but the mass number remains same.
There are mainly two mode of beta decay .
 1. Electron emission/ beta minus decay:- In electron emission the mass number of
the daughter nucleus is same as that of parent nucleus but it’s atomic number is
increase by one this is because in this emission due to internal instability of nucleus
a neutron inside it is transformed into protein and process results in the emission
of an electron together with a particles antinutrino which takes away part of
energy release in the process.
 The general equation showing electron emission can be written as

 2. Positron emission/ beta plus decay:- In Positron emission the mass number of
the daughter nucleus is same as that of parent nucleus but it’s atomic number is
decrease by one this is because in this emission due to internal instability of
nucleus a proton inside it is transformed into neutron and process results in the

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 emission of positron together with a particles nutrino which takes away part of
energy release in the process.
 The general equation showing positron emission can be written as :-

Isotopes
 Isotopes are two or more types of atoms that have the same atomic number and
that differ in mass number.
 Isotopes have same number of protons in their nuclei but different number of
neutrons in their nuclei.
Radio isotopes (radionuclide)
 An unstable form of a chemical element that releases radiation (alpha, beta,
gamma) as it breaks down and becomes more stable.
 Radioisotopes may occur in nature or be made in laboratory
Applications of radio isotopes / Radioactivity
 1. Food & Agriculture
 2. Industry
 3. Health & Medical
 4. Water resources
 5. Science & Research
Food and Agriculture
 In developing HYV which has high productivity, disease and weather resistance.
 BARC developed HYV of groundnut: TG-37A, TPG-41
 BARC has developed "Trombay Sesbania Rostrata" named manure, which has
higher nitrogen fixation capacity.

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  By using Radio isotopes in Radio Tracer Technique; level, movement & impact of
nutrients in plants can be studied.
 Insect Control- By using ionizing radiations in Sterilize Insect Technique, population
of insects is controlled.
 Preservation of food & agriculture products - By gentle expose to gamma
radiations microbes can be destroyed.
 BARC has established such facility in Nasik named "KRUSK"
Industry
 To measure the thickness or density of metal and plastic sheets.
 In generating LASER ( CO2 LASER) - For cutting steel sheets.
 Gamma Scanner is used for testing of industrial equipment.
 To measure the effectiveness of motor oil (on piston and cylinder walls) in
automobile engineering.
 To detect leakage in oil and gas pipelines.
 To stimulate cross linking of polymers.
Health & medical
 Radio immuno assay & Radio immuno metric assay are used to determine level of
Hormones & enzymes in human body.
 Sero diagnosis kit (Radio Isotope based) is used to diagnose T.B.
 Sodium 24 :- Testing of blood circulation
 Phosphors 32 :- Detecting cancer/ tumors.
 cobalt 60 :- Cancer treatment
 Iodine 125 :- Brachy Therapy
 Iodine 131 :- Testing of thyroid gland
 Radio Therapy :- Cancer Treatment
 Strontium 90- Radioactive tracer in medical studies (for eye and skin cancer)
 Mercury 209 for brain cancer
 Cesium 137 (Radiation therapy) for skin, breast and prostate cancer.
 Holmium 161 for Arthritis diagnosis.

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  Iron 59 to study anemia.
In field of Water Resources
 To identify the source of ground water
 To explore the route of ancient rivers – Saraswati
 In desalination and purification of water - Ex. Satlana (Jodhpur), kalpakkam
Science and Research
 To detect the source of Geo thermal energy
 Radio isotopes based Tracer Technique is used to study water and air pollution.
Carbon dating: -
 The method to determine the age of any plant or animal fossil on the basis of the
amount of carbon 14 , the radioactive isotope of carbon is called carbon dating.
 Willard libby discovered the carbon dating method based on carbon 14 in 1949, for
which he received the Nobel prize in 1960.
 The half life of carbon 14 is 5730 years.
 The oldest dates that can be reliably measured by this process date to
approximately 50000 years ago.
 Accelerator mass spectrometry is used for counting of carbon 14 atoms.
Nuclear reaction
 Nuclear reaction is a process in which the nucleus of an atom is changed by being
split apart or by merging with the nucleus of another atom.
 It is of two types :-
 1. Nuclear Fission
 2. Nuclear fusion
Nuclear Fission
 Nuclear Fission is such nuclear reaction in which a large/heavy nucleus breaks into
small nuclei & large amount of energy is released.
 Generally in this process heavy nucleus is bombarded with appropriate particle.

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Fissionable material
 Those materials in which fission reaction is possible.
 These are of two types –
 1. Fissile material
 2. Fertile material
 Fissile material:- Those material in which fission reaction starts easily.
 Slow neutrons are used for such materials.
 Example : Uranium 233, Uranium 235, Plutonium 239, Plutonium 241
Fertile material:-
 Those materials in which fission reaction doesn’t start easily But if fast neutrons
are used then these can be converted into fissile material.
 Example : Uranium 238, Plutonium 240, Thorium 232
Chain reaction:-
 When a fissile material is bombarded with neutrons then its nucleus becomes
unstable and breaks into two small nuclei.
 At the end of reaction free neutrons are available which again start the reaction &
a chain reaction is started & large amount of heat is released
Chain reaction is of two type :- 1. Uncontrolled 2. Controlled
 Uncontrolled chain reaction :- When number of free neutrons are not controlled.
 This is used in atomic bomb.
 Controlled chain reaction :- When number of free neutrons are controlled.
 This is used for electricity production.
 Controlled chain reaction is of three types :-

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  1. Supercritical : average free neutrons are more than 1
 2. Critical : average free neutrons available is 1
 3. Subcritical : average neutrons available less than 1
Nuclear fusion
 Nuclear fusion is such a nuclear reaction in which small nuclei combine to form a
large nucleus & large amount of energy is released.
 This reaction takes place at very high temperature (106 °C)
 Nuclear fusion is source of energy for all stars.
 It has not been possible to control this reaction so far.
 It is used in hydrogen bomb

Nuclear Fission :-
 1. Occurs in large nucleus of heavy elements
 2. Large nucleus breaks into two small nuclei.
 3. It can occur at room temperature
 4. It can be controlled
 5. Example – Atomic bomb, Nuclear reactor
Nuclear Fusion :-
 1. Occurs with light element’s nuclei.
 2. Two light/small nuclei combine to form a large nucleus
 3. Occurs at very high temperature
 4. It can’t be controlled
 5. Example – Hydrogen bomb, star

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Nuclear Reactor
 A plant where nuclear reaction is carried out in controlled manner to fulfill various
purposes, is called Nuclear reactor.
 Reactor has following parts:-
 Reactor core :- It is the most important part of nuclear reactor, where nuclear
fission reaction takes place.
 Fuel, moderator, controlling rods are implanted in it.
 Fuel :-Generally Uranium is used in fuel rods.
 It is of two types – 1. Natural uranium 2. Enriched uranium
 Natural uranium :- It contains uranium-235 0.7% & uranium-238 99.3% Thus it is
less effective.

 Enriched uranium :- The process of increasing proportion of Uranium-235 in

natural Uranium is called uranium enrichment & the uranium obtained after
enrichment is called enriched uranium.
 It is of three types :-
 1. Slightly Enriched Uranium
 2. Low Enriched Uranium
 3. Highly Enriched Uranium

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Proportion of Uranium-235 and Use
1. Slightly enriched uranium 0.7% - 3% Use- medical field
2. Low enriched uranium 3% - 20% Use- energy production
3. Highly enriched uranium >20% Use- atom bomb

Controlling Rods :- These are used to carry out the chain reaction at controlled rate.
These rods control the reaction by absorbing free neutrons.
Material used as Controlling rods : Cadmium(Cd), Boron (B), Indium (In)
Moderator :- It is used to slow down the fast neutrons (1 mcv).
It reduces their speed by elastic collision.
Material used as moderator : water (H2O), Heavy water (D2O), Graphite (C).
Coolant :- It is used to absorb and transport the heat released in fission reaction.
Material used as coolant: H2O, D2O, CO2, Helium (He), Liq Sodium.
Heat Exchange Chamber: - Heat is transferred from primary loop to secondary
loop through heat exchange chamber.
In secondary loop normal water is used as heat carrier which is converted into
steam by absorbing heat.
This steam rotates turbine and electricity is generated.
Types of Nuclear Reactor
Types of reactors on the basis of Utility
 1. Research reactors
 2. Civilian Reactor :- (Electricity, Radioisotopes and Radioactive radiations)
 3. Military Reactor :- Atomic bomb, Nuclear reactor based submarine/ warship
Research reactors
Under BARC
 1. Apsara (1956, UK)
 2. Cyrus (Canada)
 3. Zarleena

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 4. Purnima 1,2,3
 5. Dhruv
 6. Visakhapatnam.
Under IGCAR
 1. Fast breeder test reactor (Discontinued)
 2. Kamini (thorium based) Kalpakkam

Civilian Reactor
Operational –
 1. Tarapur, Maharashtra (1969, with the help of USA)
 2. Rawatbhata Rajasthan (1972, Canada)
 3. Narora, U.P.
 4. Kakrapar, Gujarat
 5. Kaiga, Karnataka
 6. Kalpakkam, TamilNadu
 7. Kudankulam, TamilNadu (with the help of Russia)

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 Proposed –
 Gorakhpur, Haryana : Under construction
 Meethiwardi, Gujarat : Westinghouse
 Kowada, Andhra Pradesh : General Electric, Hitachi
 Jaitpur, Maharashtra : with the help of France
 Bhimpur , MP
 Chukta , MP
 Mahi , Banswara.

Boiling water reactor

 Fuel : low enriched uranium
 Moderator : water
 Coolant : water
 Properties : simple design, low cost, less secure
 Use : electricity generation
 Example : two units of Tarapur plant

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Pressurized light water reactor
 Fuel : Low enriched uranium
 Moderator : water
 Coolant : pressurized water
 Properties : simple design, low cost
 Use : electricity generation, in submarines
 Example : Kudankulam VVER-PWR, INS Arihant
Pressurized heavy water reactor
 Fuel : natural uranium
 Moderator : heavy water
 Coolant : pressurized heavy water
 Properties : Initially this technology was borrowed from Canada (CANDU- Canadian
deuterium Uranium), later on borrowed from Russia.
 In India most of the reactors are PHWR
 Use : electricity generation, plutonium production
 Example : 18 out of 22 nuclear reactor units
Gas cooled graphite-based reactor
 Fuel : slightly enriched uranium
 Moderator : graphite
 Coolant : carbon dioxide / helium gas Properties : mainly used in UK & France
 Use : electricity generation, plutonium production
 Example : no such reactor in India
Water cooled graphite-based reactor
 Fuel : slightly enriched uranium
 Moderator : Graphite
 Coolant : water
 Properties : mainly used in Russia, Chernobyl disaster

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  Use : Electricity generation, plutonium production
 Example : no such reactor in India
Fast breeder reactor
 Fuel : Natural Uranium, Plutonium
 Moderator : no moderator is used
 Coolant : Liquid Sodium
 Properties : No moderator is used because fast neutrons are required for Nuclear
Fission in this reactor. The fuel used is obtained at the end, therefore it is called
breeder reactor (by artificial radioactive decay of Uranium-238).
 Use : Electricity generation, plutonium 239 production
 Example : fast breeder test reactor, Kalpakkam

Organisational structure
Institutional structure of Nuclear Research in India
 In 1948 atomic energy commission was constituted under chairmanship of Dr Homi
Jehangir Bhabha; which is mainly responsible for formulating policies in field of
nuclear energy.
 To implement these policies Department of Atomic Energy was constituted in
1954.
 This department comes under Prime Minister’s office and Atomic energy
commission is its governing body.
 Secretary of Department of Atomic Energy is also ex officio chairperson of atomic
energy commission.

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Research institutions
 1. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai:-
 Established in 1954.
 India’s prominent research institution in field of atomic science and research.
 It develops various technologies related to atomic energy programme; applications
of atomic energy & radioisotopes.
 2. Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam :-
 Establlished in 1971.
 Research Centre dedicated in field of fast reactor Science & Technology.
 3. Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology, Indore :-
 R&D centre in field of LASER & particle accelerators related Technologies.
 4. Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre, Kolkata
 5. Indian Neutrino Observatory, Theni, TamilNadu
 6. Atomic mineral directorate, Hyderabad

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Public Sector Undertakings
 1. Indian rare Earth’s limited (IREL), Mumbai :-
 Exploration of rare metals and minerals.
 2. Uranium Corporation of India Limited (UCIL), Singhbhum Jharkhand :-
 Excavation of Uranium.
 Jadugonda mine comes under it.
 3. Electronics Corporation of India Limited (ECIL), Hyderabad :-
 Manufactures electronic equipment of nuclear reactor, EVM
 4. Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL), Mumbai :-
 Operator of pressurized heavy water reactor.
 5. Bhartiya nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Limited (BhaViNi), Chennai: -
 Operator of fast breeder reactor
Industrial Institutions
1. Nuclear fuel Complex, Hyderabad: - Supplies fuel rods.
2. Heavy water board, Mumbai :- Following heavy water plants working under it-
1. Nangal Punjab, 2. Baroda Gujrat, 3. Tuticorin TN
4. Talcher OR, 5. Kota RJ, 6. Thal MH
7. Hazira GJ, 8. Manuguru AP
3. Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology (BRIT), Mumbai: - Development &
production of radioactive elements, isotopes & their applications

Nuclear program of India

 India's nuclear program was formulated by Dr Homi Jehangir Bhabha therefore he
is known as father of Indian nuclear programme.
Objectives
 1. Use of nuclear technology for peaceful purposes.
 2. To make India self dependent in field of nuclear energy.
 3. Development of radioactive elements & their applications.

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  India's nuclear program is of three stages
 1 ST Stage
 2 nd Stage
 3 rd Stage
First stage
 In this stage PHWR will be installed.
 In which Natural uranium will be used as fuel.
 Plutonium-239 will be produced as a by-product in it.
 Responsibility of this stage is given to NPCIL.
 This stage has been achieved.
2nd Stage
 In this is stage fast breeder reactors will be installed.
 In which Plutonium-239 produced from 1st stage & natural uranium will be used as
fuel.
 Main objective of this stage is to produce large amount of plutonium-239.
 Responsibility of this stage is given to BhaViNi.
 This stage is in initial phase.
 A 40 MW fast breeder test reactor was installed in Kalpakkam Tamil Nadu, & a 500
MW prototype fast breeder reactor is under construction.
3rd stage
 In this stage Advanced Heavy Water Reactors will be installed.
 In which plutonium-239 & thorium-232 will be used as fuel. (In presence of
Plutonium-239, Thorium-232 converts into Uranium-233, which is a fissile
material).
 Main objective of this stage is to use Thorium reserves available in India. World's
1/4 th thorium reserves are found in India.
 This stage is in test/research phase.
 IGCAR has installed a 30 KW test reactor named "KaMini" (Kalpakkam Mini
reactor).

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Other important facts
Dhruv reactor :-
 In India Plutonium production & Uranium enrichment is done using Dhruv reactor.
 It has two centres BARC Mumbai & Mysore.
Smiling Buddha :-
 India's 1st nuclear experiment was conducted on 18th may 1974 in Pokaran
Rajasthan.
 It was done under the leadership of Dr Raja Ramanna therefore he is known as
father of atomic bomb in India.
Operation Shakti: -
 India's 2nd Nuclear experiment was conducted on 11th & 13th May 1998 in
Pokhran Rajasthan.
 In this Hydrogen bomb was also tested under leadership of Dr Anil Kakodar;
therefore, he is known as father of hydrogen bomb in India.
Nuclear Command Authority: -
 In India decisions related to storage & use of atomic/nuclear weapons are taken by
"Nuclear Command Authority" under presiding of Prime Minister.

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