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    Cve 517 Prof Awokola 2 With PQ

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    Ow | WATER QUALITY AND WATER QUALITY STANDARDS 6.) Water-quality standards are establishell to define what is meant by “no longer adceptable water” from the standpoint of aesthetic, health, or economies considerations. - > The values of the quality parameters that are used to assess the Suitability of a given Water|for a given application are often called criteria. Pic} duality criteria are values based on experience and scientific evidence that can be 1 Water-quality standard adopted by 5 regulatory agencies are usually based on one or more of the following; 1.| | Established or current practice = < i 2.| | Attainability (the standard must be easily attainable or reasonably attainable) + (@)Technologically ‘ . i b} Bconomically 3. |, | Educated guess, using the best information available l aa Experimentation (e.g. animal exposure) Experience based on human exposure f ja) Taking advantage of an occurring tatastrophe 5 b) Experimenting with humans directly I 6. |Mathematical model (e.g. probability, mode, Percentile, most probable number of coli : forms MPN). 1 620 DRINKING WATER STANDARDS ‘The World health Organization (WHO) 19637 has prescribed the quality expected of Polwble water (ask the student to obtain a of the i : I tandard). I | WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality Microbiological Quality ° Gj Unit Faecal coliforms Number/100mi Coliform organisms Tnorganic Constituents E . Cyanide Mei ae 01 , Flouride Mef t ys.° Lead Me/l 0.05 Mercury i 0.001 Nitrate ‘Aesthetic Quality aoe Aluminium Mg/t 02 oa Chloride Mgit 250 Copper Men® 1.0 . Hardness Még/l (as CaCo3) 500 cage Tron Mg/l 03 . Manganese «| Mefl 03 pH 65:85:56 7 Solids (total dissolved Mg/l 1000 * Taste and odour . in offéhsive to most consume ‘Turbidity NIU 4 Zine Mell. 5.0 ‘Source: WHO, 1984 34 167.2 AERATION: Aeration is a form of gas transfer and is used in variety o t operations including the following: ; | i Addition of oxygen to oxidize dissolved iron (fe) and Manganese (n) | ii, Removal of carbon dioxide : iii, Removal of hydrogen sulphide to eliminate odors and tastes, * |Aeration is accomplished either by; * exposing the water to air or e ii, by introducing air into water ‘Types of Aeration devices 1. Gravity aerators, such as water fill cascades or inclined planes. 2. Spray of fountain aerators in which the water is sprayed into the air. 8. Injected diffusers, ip which air is the foam of small bubbles is injected into the Itquid. 4. Mechanical Aerators. ‘The particular method used depends on the substance to be removed and objective to be achieved. 67.3 MIXING: chemicals used for water treatment can We fed by a solution-feed or Jdry-feed machine depending on the nature of the chemicals. s [|e be effective these chemicals must betwell dispersed throughow: the water by proper mixing, eg. by mechanical means, with rapidly rotating paddle, or at Points of High {turbulence e.g. hydraulic jump. i 6.74 FLOCCULATION: (gentle agitation): when coagulating chemicals are added to Pvater containing turbidity, flocculant’s precipitates are formed. Rapid mixing causes the ‘small floc particles to collide and form fewer, but larger particles. Because of their size and density these can be removed by gravity setiling, Flocculation can be accomplished thus: @ slowly rotating paddles (i) flow THROUGH : i Gli) over and under baffled chambers Gv) addition of a gas, usually air. . cr ‘i 6.75, SEDIMENTATION: The rate of seitling of a particle in water depends on the viscosiTy and Density of the swater, as wwell as the SIZE, SHAPE and SPECIFIC GRAVITY of the particle. Warm water is less viscouss, a particle will settle more rapidly than in cold water. Water purification by sedimentation aims to provide conditions such that the suspended material in water can settle out. if A well-designed sedimentation basin will remove 50-80 percent of the suspended solids in the water. % Depth usually 3-4.5m. ’ Shallow depth 2-6m . . With proper design, shallow basins will give good performance. For rectangular basins « width of 10mis common. Sedimentation is the removal of solid particles from a suspension through gravity a settling. Other terms used to describe this process are clarification and thickening. 5 Settling operations may be classified approximately as falling into four categories. i ‘Type I sedimentation ii, Type Il sedimentation iii, Zone sedimentation iv. Compression sedimentation ‘TYPE I Sedimentation is concemed with removal of non-flocculating discrete particles in a dilute suspension. ‘A discrete particle is one that is setling, does not alter its size, shape or weight. * In falling freely through a quiescent fluid such a particle accelerates until the frictional | resistance, or drag, of the fluid equals the driving force acting on the particle. At the ° moment of ¢quilibrium the particle begins to settle at a uniform velocity, (terminal velocity) which is of particular importance in sedimentation studies. ‘The driving force, which is the net effect of the particle weight acting downward and the \ buoyant force of the fluid aeting upward is given by: F=(y,-1¥ =(0,- eV aL fe 38 . Pa er Vj = Volume of the particle nh &y= _ spegific weights of the particles and fluid pl& p= mass density of the particles and the fluid Tie drag force acting on a particle ® a function of the fuid and viscosity, seting velocity of the particle v., and a characteristics dimension of the particle d: S(v.4,p.1) are drag force = Newton’s drag coefficient ; = Projected area of the particle in the direction of motion. . is function of Reynolds Number Re. ‘catrangement yields i HERE ERER SR GE 2G 39 age i ad?* ad” 6 4 . # | Making this substitutions and setting y = pg and y, = p,g we obsain » Hale Pa when Reynolds number is less than 1, substitution of 24/Re for Co ‘DP transforms this equation to the form —_y, (é eae) which is known as Stoke’s |» Tye Taw, . : i 68.0 FILTRATION: a Filtration is the purification process whereby water to be treated is passed through”a porous medium. y i During this passage, water quality improves by: @ Removal of suspended and dissolved solids contents Gi) Removal of floating and colloidal matter Gi) Reduction of bacteria and other pathogenic micro-ofganisras. Gv) Changes in its chemical constituents. Filtration as a water treatment process is the initiation of a naturally occurring phenomenon which is concentrated by man locally as well as time wise. 1, Raw water : 2, Filter media (Le. sand or gravel) 4. Filter. 6.8.1 MECHANISMS OF FILTRATION: iS The overall removal of impurities which is associated with process of filtration is mostly brought about by the following combination of phenomena: @ — Mechanical straining 40 Sedimentation Adsorption | Gil) Chemical ectivities Gv) Biological activities. }.1.1 Mechanical Straining: is is the process involving the removal of particles of suspended matter that are too .¢ 10 pass through the interstices. It takes place at the top surface of the filter bed and is kenerally independent on the Siltration rate. ing filtering (or filter rust) mechanical straining becomes more effective due to fs reduce pore size until clogging hinders any filtration, 1.1.1 Sedimentation: | ‘Fob process removes particulate suspended matter of finer sizes than the pore openings ly precipitation upon the surface of the sand grains. 6(8|1.2 Adsorption : % ‘IIh} forces of adsorption exert their influence over extremely short distances only. ‘ Hutification by adsorption is only possible after another mechanism has brought the purities to be removed in the immediate vicinity of the filter grains surface. e.g. inp} Ae inertia, diffusion, hydrodynamic forces and turbulence. Electrostatic attraction ang] Van der waals forces are important agents of adsorption. .3 Chentical activities: is the process by which dissolved impurities are either broken down into simpler, e$s harmful substances or converted into insoluble compounds which can be removed by(cither of the previous three processes thereafter. (v) Biological Activities on process also break down organic matter to such innocent compounds as water, CO, NOs, POs which are discharged With the filterate. a 6.9.0. v TYPES: Slow Sand Filter (SSF) Rapid Sand Filter (RSF) 3. Gravity filtration z 4. Pressure Filtration _ 6.10 Comparison of SSF Vs RSF: No. [Parameter - SSF RSF. 2 | 1. [Filter loading or| 0.10.4 Gw/h) 3-15 Gala) filtration rate eg 2. | Detention time, Td __| Several hours A few minutes 3._| Filter depth, L 0.6—1.5m 0.5 -2.0m 4, _| Filter dronh, 3-12 months 1=3 days 3. | Major filtration | All five mechanisms ‘Adsorption, 4 mechanisms z sedimentation and chemical actions. 6 Method of cleaning | Skimming off 2 Sem of | Backwashing filter bed sand (water/air) in reverse |" 4 direction to normal | L = y | flow. | 7. | Bquipment and | Few simple Man and’ accessories sophisticated 8 [Land requirements | Large: Small (20% of SSF) 9. | Construction costs") High Low (excluding land acquisition) & 10. | Operational costs | Very low Very high’ II. | Level of sophistication |Low feasible for | Very hth — requires construction aad | importation of many e operation by locally | equipment and use of trained manpower “high skills in operation. 12, | Purpose Sole tweatment _ or final | Sole treatment, pre or | [i filtration step _* final filtration step. _| PARAMETERS USED IN treatment plant facilites; is DETENTION TIME. Which isthe ‘mean time of expose of liquid to the phenomenon or forces responsible for treatment: analysis and design of. water (and wastewattr) AlowrateQ MEE Surfecesreat )xdepth(d) . ‘flowrate(Q) : Aajother commonly used parameter is the surface loadi { +1 Detention time=—Volume_ i : flowrate(Q) ‘ Surfade I = orate) iunfade loading rate maaeaee a) Both meters are commonly used in designing of physical operations and most of te chef at Processes used for the treatment of water, UNIT PROCESS: * ~ [fPasolation The most commonly used in #0 - Dikinfection ) treatment ‘ipitation ) ++ Ibxl—Exchange ) Used where local conditions require them, . ~ Adborption ., 6.1111} Coagulation: 5 Coagulation process is the’ process in which chemicals like Fe and Al salts are ‘© water in order to transform the impurities (colloids, suspended matter, hospi and heavy metals) after reaction with the hydolyzingsalts ine large flocs * Which can be removed efficiently by sedimentation/filtration, © The most common coagulant is alum. (Ax) (804) 18H:0) which reacts With the ALKALINITY in Water, to form an aluminum hydroxide floc, according to the following equation: Ala$O4)s. 18H20 +3 aHCO3):> 3 CaSou + 2AI (OH); + 6Co2 +1810 ~Alunkaum +Céleium Calcium + Alminum + 02+ 10 : ‘Sulfate: Carbonate Sulfate hydroxide. B AU the water does not contain the required alkalinity, it may be necessary lime (CaO) or soda ask (NazCOs) in addition to alum to get proper flocculation ~ The usual dosage of alum is 10 40mg/l.+ 8 ~ The amount of auxiliary chemical used depends on the character of the water ~ Ferrous sulfate (FeSo4) and ferric chloride are also used as coagulant, ~ The required amount of chemical is found through trial - JAR TEST. GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR CONDUCTING A JAR TEST WILL ni OUTLINED: : |. Fillsix 1 or2 liter beakers vth'a measured amount ofthe water to be treated, j Add coagulant and or other chemicals to each sample, i 2 3. Flash-mix the samples by agitating at maximum speed (100rpm) for 1 minute. 4. Flocculate the. samples at a stirring rate of 20 — 70 rpm to 10 ~30 minutes. Record the time’of floc appearance for each beaker. : 5. Stop the agitation and record the nature of the floc, charity of supernatant and settling characteristics of the floc, i 6.12.0 DISINFECTION: DEFINITION Disinfection refers to the process of killing or inactivation of pathogenic organisins aL opposed to STERILIZATION which means killing all living erganisms or destruction of all living things in the mediunf sterilized. 16.13.0 PURPOSES OF DISINFECTION : s } ~ To kill pathogens in the water ~ Germicidal ~To prevent any recontamination of the distribution system-RESIDUAL. 44 6.14.0 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF A GOOD DISINFECTANT Gi) Gi (i wy (il 6.1 6.1} [5.0 5a. (k§ Pee ee ee eee EE HE Must destroy the kinds and numbers of pathogens that may be introduced i: municipal water or waste water and do so within a practicable period of time, en expected range in water temperature ie S Must not be toxic to man and his domestic animals not unpalatable ‘Must not be costly ' . Safe and easy to store, transport, handle and apply Their strength or concentration in the treated water must be easily, quickly and preferably automatically determinable ‘Must maintain residual effects which would serve as an indication of no pollution conditions some time later. : METHODS OF DISINFECTION PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL Physical Methods: Heat treatment, Boiling water, probably safest but most expensive method. Applicable for house-holds but not for centralized domestic water supply.» ULV. Radiations or (Disinfection by light) — suitable for application to relatively small amounts of rather pure water. : - Disadvantages: ~ Absorption capacity of water is limited (.c. fit for this or shallow layers only) = Influence of other substances which can absorb ULV. rays like organic matter and suspended: solids if water is not pure. ~Does not have long lasting effect. Radiations: ~ Radiation elements are not desirable in drinking water supply systems. 6.15.2. Chemical Methods " - Used of halogens: chlsrine and iodine have been used extensively ant \ can also be used. . - Strong oxidizing agents like Kiino4, HaO2 Z (Hydrogen Peroxide) - Ozone, becoming very popular in Europe. * p 6.16.3: Disinfection by Chlorinatio1 The use of chlorine for disinfection or water is most common. Chlor safe in concentrations used for killing pathogens (up to 50mg/1 can be ing: safely). It does not Kitt ENTAMOEBA HISTOLYTICAL, and its effects ox viruses (especially infections hepatitis) are not known completely. It is believes ‘that all viruses are'destroyed in the presence of free residual chlorine. Chlorine has been used as: i : 1. Free chlorine. (gas) eb 2. Hypochlorites (Na or ca) 3. Chorine dioxide (Sodiumchorite). a 6.16.4 Reactions of Choroine in Water a ‘Two reactions take place when chlorine is added to water. They are hydrolysis and ionization, The Hydrolysis Reaction. Ch+ HO HOC] +L" + HY Cl=Chlorine gas HOCL=Hypochlorous acid (weak acid) = The ionization reaction is HOCL € OCL“+ HY OCL* Hypochlorite ion i 3, ‘Taken together, the concentration of the hypochlorous acid and the hypeholorite ion are defined as the free available chlorine. Fs ' i 1 | i i i 46 i Chios ne in the form of HYPOCHLOROUS ACID is from 40 — 80 Sime mane Seat $ | thhn the HYPOCHORITE ION, disinfection with chlorine is most effvetive at sci pe _ velues. Phetdrs affecting the efficiency of chlorination in water are: aye | pH : Temperature Reducing agents in HyO < Amonia Chiorines dose Time of contact ‘Type of concentration of rpiero organisms. ~ ¢alfium Hypochlorite establishes the same ionization equilibrium in water. Ca (OfL > Ca++ 20CL~ and H’ +OCL’ <> HOCL ionization HOCL Ht + OCL’ : io e .ost important reaction of hypochlorous acid with ammonia. Chlorine reacts with = Boo | nia in water to form chlorarines. HOCL + NH > HO NH)CL (Monochoramina) : HOCL +NHCL > #20 + NHCI2 Dichloramine) | HocL+ NHCL > H20 + NCL. (Trichloramine) i (Nitrogen — Trichloride) | the chloramings formed depend: upon pH of the water = samount of ammonia available - and temperature In the pH range 4.5 8.5 mono an¢ dichloramine are formied. : - At pH 5 almost all NHOC1 - At pH 10 almost all, CCL” Graph HOCL, OCL and pH (Check the text for the Graph of the relationship between HOCL, OCL’ an 1. EREE Available Reskiual Chlorine is that residual chlorine existing in wate hypochlorous acid or hypochlorite ion. s 2. COMBINE Available residual chlorine is thet residual gxisting in chemic combination with ammonia (chloramines) or organic nitrogen compounds : 3. Chorine demand is the difference between the amount added to a water and th quantity of free and combined available chlorine remaining at the end of specified contact period. 6.16.5 Breakpoint Reaction Reaction of Chlorine in Water : id Check text for details and the graph : As chlorine is added, readily oxidizable substances, such as Fe", M,"", HoS an organic matter, react with the chlorine and reduce most of it to the chioride ios @oint A). a 2 After meeting this immediate demand, the chlorine continpes to react with ammonia to form chloramines between points A and B. 3. Between point B and breakpoint some chloramines will be converted to nitrogen “trichloride, the ramining chloramine will be oxidized to nitrous oxide (Hs0) and nitrogen (N2) and the chlorine will be reduced to the chloride ion. +4. With continued addition of chlorine most of the chloramines will be oxidized at the breakpoint i Eee 2 2 cl 6. Al rel iy 8 = Continued addition of chlorine past the breakpoint will result in a dimen Proportional increase in the free available chlorine (ureacted hypochlorit), Hct is now available for disinfection (free available Cl:) because there are no mo 2) because there are no more Cl cohsuming elements. 16.6 Control of Taste and Odor ration, “adsorption, and oxidation are among the methods that have been used for the moval of taste and odors, Breakpoint chlorination and treatment with activated carbon are common control ‘techniques for. surface-water supplies, nl Aeration is applied most frequently in ground water processing. Preventative measures such as selection of a source with the best water quality, should be given primary consideratign. Regulatory controls should be used to reduce contaminants from waste discharges that enter surface and underground waters. . Algal blooms may be suppressed in reservoirs by regular application of copper sulfate. . i WATER TREATMENT PLANT DESIGN type of-water treatment required depends on the Physical f Chemical and : Biological characteristics of the water. : River Water: . Due to relatively high turbidity, cheraftal coagulation and filtration is required. Due to contamination, disinfection is essential, Water from deep wells: . Free from pathogen bacteria, purification may not be necessary. 49 1. aR ee Pee ‘Most well waters are hard, softening and removal of iron and manganes: mas | desirable. Generaily well waters are quite clear there is no need for tush removal. If there is ay poss'bility of pollution, chlorination is advisable TYPICAL STEPS INVOLVED IN TREATMENT PLANT DESIGN Bench tests and pilot plant studies Synthesis of alterhative flow sheets Selection of design criteria Layout of the physical facilities f . Preparation of hydiaulic pro:iles - ; Preparation of solids balances i Preparation of construction drawings, specifications and cost estimates. Bench test and pilot plant studies: Purpose: . @ To establish the suitability of alternative unit operations processes for treating a given water. ' Gi) To obtain the data and information necessary to design il, selected operations and processes Coagulation — Jar Tests. — The information from the test will be useful in: sizing chemical storage and feed equipment together with oth: e operations and processes in the treatment scheme. . Synthesis of Treatment Processés: Flow Sheets: = - A flow sheet can be defined as- the grouping together of theenecessar unit operations and processes to acltieve a specified treatment objective Altemative flSw sheets will be developed on the basis of — tly characteristics of the water to be treated. . 50 = For example if a 2-hr getention rime and 3m water depth were seleced Ey sedimentation tank, the required surface area for a flow of 3790m/day(0.04380e5 ‘would be equal to 105m? 2 Ve reant " DE = Dastnetcrina = Toe, Ste fecedremdepes ee) Flowrate i “ . Ph. ie Surica trea ads = oo Oe rt SB i 3m : As= surface area=DTxQ = 105m? i: i depth, : : Ifa rectangular’ basin length - to — width ratio of 3:1 or 41 is to be used: : convenient set of dimensions would be (5.5 x 19)m. IV. « Plant Lay Out1 Using, the information: - onthe basis of faci 2s determined. - onthe basis of selected criteria. e Plant layouts are developed within the available land and also on speci! conditions existing at site. ° ‘ V. Hydraulic Profiles: computed for average and peak flow rates. ‘ Reasons: 2 . @® tw ensure that the hycraulie gradient is-adequate for flow through 1 treatment facilities. e - Gi) to establish the head for pumps where required . (i) to ensure that plant facilities will not be flooded br backed-up durit periods of peak flow. 7.0 WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ” Water distribution systems are designed to adequately satisfy: (@ The water requirements for a combination of domestic, commerci industrial and fire-fighting purposes. ARATE oct meno The treatment objectives If available the results of bench and pilot sedle tests. ‘The best alternative flow sheet will be selected after they have been evaluated in = terms of their physical implementation and cost. ‘TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF FLOW SHEETS Sclection of design criteria and sizing the treatment units Design criteria are selected on the basis of: @ theory ; (i) the results of bench tests and pilot scale studies (ii) past experience of the designer sl (i) the system should be capable of meeting the demands placed on ifat all times and at satisfactory pressures: Main elements of the system: | @ Pipe systems Gi). Pumping stations (ii) Storage facilities (iv) Fire Hydrants (¥) House service connections (vi) Meters and other appurtenances. ‘Types of water distribution systems: @ Grid systems Gi) Branching systems | Z is Gi) Combination of () and (ii) t Criteria for selection é @ street patterns G) topography 5 (iii) degree and type of development of the area. (iv), Location of treatment and storage works. Grid systems are preferied to a branching system since it can furnish a supply to any point from at least wo directions. The branching system does not permit this ‘or dead ends. type of circulation since it has numerous ten @ Branching system (b) Grid system (© Combination system |, DISTRIBUTION RESERVOIRS : Purpose: — to provide storage to meet fluctuations in use = to provide storage for fire fighting use =, to stabilize pressures in the distribution system. 53 - Gi) stand'pipes Requirements: a “The reservoir should be located as close to the centre of use as possible. ‘The water level in the reservoir must be high enough to permit gravity satisfactory pressures to the system it serves. Main cttegories of storage reservoir are: (@) surface reservoirs Gil) elevated tanks. Standpipes or elevated tanks are normally employed where the construction of reservoir would not provide sufficient head. 7.2.0 DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTIS Requirements: . @ Detailed map of the city on which the contours and lo: fuuure streets, and lots are identified. (i) Location of disiribution rescrvoirs (ii) Division of the city inty districts, (zones) (iv) Estimation of probable maximum use (allowing: growth). Reservoirs: whatever the size of a reservoir or the function of a reservoir is to STABILIZE the flow of supply in a natural stream or by satisfying a v Physical Characteristics of Reservoirs Since the primary function of reservoirs is characteristics is STORAGE CARACITY. 73.0 DETERMINATION OF ‘The amount of storage that must be provided is a function the inflow to the impoundment. 34 athematical stated as follows: | . AS=1-0. 2 AS = change in storage volume during a specified time interval = total inflow volume during this time © =total outflow volume during this time. : alizing that the natural inflow to any impoundment area is oftea highly variable. ‘on year to year, season 10 season even day to day, it is obvious that the reservoir ition must be that of redistribution this inflow with respect to time so that the irojcted demands are satisfied. \4) DETERMINATION OF DISTRIBUTION-RESERVOIR Capacity for a Given Vield 1. The required yield is based on an estimate of the MAXIMUM daily . demand by the consumers. 2. The inflow rate is fixed — (by a decision to pump at'a uniform rate). 3. The reservoir capacity must be sufficient to supply the damnd at times when the demand exceed the pumping rate. 75.) DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ‘The| design of a water distribution system requires the following: (@) | A detailed map of the city on which the contours and locations of present and future streets‘and lots are identified. Location of distribution reservoirs must be selected Di The probable maximum use (allowing for fire-fighting and Future growth) for each subarea of the city must be estimated. =f Supply mains must be selected and be large enough to deliver the expected Tequirements with adequate pressure. . (Determination of the discharge and head loss in each pipe of the network using jon of the city into districts computer programs or Hardy gross method. 55 ES | “ a a a vl a rT vs mi Bl a es (vii) The hydraulic computations can ONLY be approximate because alt affecting the low capot possibly be accounted for 7.6.0 TYPES OF MAINS Minor distribution mains that serve fire hydrants should be at least 150mm in for residential areas 200 or 250mm in diameter is high-value district Street mains serving only domestic need are normally 50 or 100mm diameter pipes. 7.10 VALVE PLACEMENT: .(@— Airselief valves should be provided at summits (ii) Drain —valves should be provided ot Jow points (iy Gate valves should be provided at not more than 400 meter apart. A close spacing is preferable to minimize the area cut off from water during repairs. (iv) Pressure-regulating valées may be used to divide the distribution system into various pressure zones. (w) Altitude valves to prevent the over flow of elevated tanks arg usually designed to operate automatically. » Valves can "se inoperable because of corrosion or sediment accumulation and should be inspected at least once a carnal 78.0 HYDRANT REQUIREMENTS: “Being a factor inthe level of fire protection'to be provided; Fire hydrants should not be more than 180mm apatt to avoid excessiv= hnead loss in small diaineter fire hose. Gi They are usually met. closer in high-value districts = Gi) Hydrants gre preferably placed at intersections so that they vsn be Uses in all disections from thé comer. Be (iv) Hydrants are provided with one oF more 60mm hose outlets and a 10) sam pumper connectior if fie-department pumpers are 19 be usgd. 56 = £QER Ges ee SSE Ee. @ w Gi) @) @ wi) (vii) TYPES OF HYDRANTS: @ . FLUSH HYDRANTS aredocated in pits below the ground surface. @ WALL HYDRANTS project from the wall of a building and are esd extensively in commercial districts. POST HYDRANTS which extend edout Im above the ground near the curb line are mést easily located. The hydrant is usually placed on a concrete block to eliminate settling and braced to resis: the lateral forces of the flowing water. (1.0 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF PIPES : For water distribution systems basie requirements in selecting a pipe material are: @ Adequate strength “| Gi) Maximum corrosion resistance Gii) Costs (capital, operating, maintenance) (uv) | Trench foundation conditions () Location (vi) Available labour skills. {11.0 PIPE MATERIALS: Ductile-Iron (cement-lined) pipe Asbestos cement Rainforced concrete Polyethylene Polyvinyl chloride Fiber glass rainforced plastic. Cast ixon pipe 37 7.12.0 PIPE BEDDING AND BACKFILLING: + iz The bedding and backfilling requirements for water mains vary greatl} depending type and class of water main material used. The trench bottom should be properly prepared to accept the water main, It must be ‘adequately graded so that th pipe may be evenly supported along kits length. Special care should be taken at the joints to ensure that the weight of the pipe is not beiny supported by the joints alone. : 7.13.0 WATER SERVICES: : Water services must belat leas: 20mm inside diameter. ~ Acceptable materials are: Brass, copper . Cast Iron, Ductile Iron Polyethlene Polyvinyl chloride Asbestos cement. 7.14.0 THRUST BLOCKS . Adequate restraint must be provided in water distribution systems to prevent pipe movement and subsequent joint failure. : 7.15.0 THRUST BLOCKING . ‘Water under pressure in a pipe will not only exert a force against the sides of the pipe, but along its length as well. 5 é For this reasons joints must resist the force of being pulled apart. Thrust blocks are needed for all pipe material and joints, particularly when a stop coupfing and gasket is used. Trust blocks should be used at filling ends to prevent pipe movement due to water pressure. 58 |s6ip PRESSURE TESTING Anet a pipeline has been installed, but before completing of backtillins, t= pipe show le tested for leaks. This can be done by filling the section to be tested with water unden -esdure and after several hours looking for a drop in pressure and gr leaks. 3 “When filing the lines with water, valves atthe far ends should be opered to allow air to caje and then cloge when water begins o flow. | IL isldesirable to raise the pressure in the pipe to 50 pereent above the normal working ibvel, but not above the rated strength of the pipe, by use of an auxiliary pump. This will chow) leaks that may occur at a later date"where there are pressure surges in the line. The we should be partially backfilled leaving the joirits exposed. This will prevent the . ine from moving under the pressure from the watér. aro DISINFECTING THE SYSTEM Iida installation has been completed, the entire system should be flushed with clean latdr to remove dirt and sediment and then disinfected. This can be done by filling the s}stlmn with water containing at least SOmgilitre of chlorine and leaving it in the main fore ak Hours. During the 24 hour period of time, valves and hydrangs should be opened to alsilre the chlorine solution reaches all surfaces. The main should then te flushed and the boferiological quality of the water checked at several points in the system. .) DEVELOPMENT OF WELLS The] most common source of water forefurms and rural homes is wells of one type or aholher. A water well may be defined as a hole or shaft sunk into the earth’s crust to a abpth below the fiee-water level or into deep water;bearing strata for the purpose of obtaining ground water. important considerations in'the development of a well for a water system. (Is there an existing well which can be made to serve? (di) anew well must be developed: where should it be located? What type of well should be constructed? What diameter of well should be constructed? 59 Gii) What measures must be taked to protect a well. old or new. and pollution? . (iv) What pumping equipment, pawer facilities will be needed? . 9.1 TYPES OF WELL CONSTRUCTION , 7 ‘There are five common types of well construction: : 1. Dug wells : * a 2. Driven wells 3. | Jetted wells 4. Bored wells 5. Drilled wells 1, Dug Wells: The oldest type of well constructior. is the dug well. A hole (0:9! 3.05m) in diameter is dug inte the earth, usually by hand, until a flow of waigr obtained. Nearly all wells of pioneer days were of this type, dug wells are abe 15m deep or more. as 2. Driven wells: in regions where there is water in porous strata at shaltow depti the driven well is common. A specially designed well point is driven into U ground of the end of a pipe. Jotted wells: where soil conditions are favourable. Jetted wells can‘be construc'. very economically e.g, sandy soils, A high velocity stream of tvater pumped dow the drill pipe dislodges the sand and soil and flushes them to the surface A casing and or screen can be driven down the hole following the jetting head. 9.2 DRILLING TECHNIQUES Cable-tool (percussion) and Rotary drilling are the two most common method fi, drilling vertical wells. 9.2.1 Cable-tool Technique = : A vertical hole is drilled by Teptatedly dropping a heavy, chiesel type drill bit on the"hole bottom. This loosens fine granular materials and breaks up gravel, boufders and consolidated rock. Drilling is periodically interrupted to remove the cuttings with a * BAILER. The bailer consists of a section of. Pipe with a valve at the bottom. The valve which me be of the flat type or the ball — and — tongue ipe (Dart-valve) is open when the baler is Towered into the hole and closed when the bailer is pulled up. Practical for use in remote areas. Fuel and water requirements are low The initial cost of the equipment is much less than for rotary rigs: but this economic advantage may be offset by slowér drilling rates, - ISADVANTAGES: f ‘The depth imitation (usually about 600m) Dificulty of pulling casing from desp holes * | the bore hole that are maintained higher than those in the formation prevent the hole well | from caving in. ‘The drilling fluid plays a critical role in rotary drilling. . ~ Cooling and lubricating the bit ~ Itremoves drill cutting a = ~ Forms a skin to prevent the hole from eaving in ‘ | - Creates higher-pressure heads in the hole than in the formation to prevent breaking of the mud lining and entry of formation water into the hole ~ Seals the wall to keep drilling fluid inside the hole. 9.3 WELL CASING . . a ‘Well casing is not necessary in consolidated materials, except near the surface to prevent seepage of surface water or shallow ground water into the hole, - casing must be installed in unconsolidated materials to prevent the hole trom caving in - when drilling in clay ahead of the hole bottom for about 0.2 to Im. - in sands and gravels the hole is drilled ahead of the casing. 94 SCREENS ‘The main function of the screen or perforations is to let water through without unduc head loss and risk of encrustation, while keeping sand and other formation material out. Casings and screens normally arg not necessary for wells in consolidated material where water enters the well through natural pores, cracks, fissures, in tke formation. Two types of techniques are available for placing well screens or perforated casings in the bore hole. 1. Pullback and = 2. Bail down methods 9.5 ” GRAVEL ENVELOPES OR GRAVEL PACKS - Should be used in relatively fine texture aquifers i e i ee se Be radius of the well. — Weisbach Equation by | =f LD, 2g dimensionless friction factor is the pipe diameter is the length of pipe t D L Vy = _ isthe average velocity of flow 5 = _ istic acceleration of gravity Laminar flow when Reynolds number Rs isless than 2100 f= ARe 8.1 FRICTION FACTORS FOR TURBULENT FLOW Reynolds numbers between 3,000 and 100,00 the friction: factor for a piipe may be expressed approximately as = 0316/0.25 | Turbulent sttooth Re 4000 uf = 2hogw (Re 08 £ ‘Transition between Hydraulically smooth and wholly Rough. Re 4000 : Hydraulically Rough or Turbulent Rough Re 4000 ve fl 114-2 togio (B/D) . 1.1442 logio (E/D) oa ver SMOOTH : Exatnpje: + 5 (2) | A flow rate of 9.47 litre/sec of oil with 0718 N.sechm2 ancl | = 876kg/m3 occurs in a 0.1016m pipe line determine the Reynolds ‘umber and classify the flow as laminar or turbulent. . = w= vd . . = OA = 4.00947) x a (0.10167 = 1.1680 7 = Vd F ‘ 2100, Flow is laminar tis the pressure drop and head loss per 304.8m for the flow. = 64/Re for lamunar flow * © | un |al 15.25 em cast iron pipe 457.2m long is to carry a flow rate of water. is IKinematic.viscosity is 1.131 x 10%m?/sec and Q = 0.0283m°/s). Determine the . |s-iction factor (by equation and check with the Moody diagram) and the head loss this pipe. : : D=0.259/15.25 = 0.0017. An estirthate of f can be obtained from the equation for rough flow. “This valve can be interactively cortected by the equation for the transition zone. * Re : _ —- Fivstinteraction putf=0.0224 f «= = (0.0234. i = Second interaction does not change : f = 0.0234, whick can be verified to two digits on"the moody diss 82 EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS Hazan — Williams‘equation Q = 0.849CHW A R 0.635 0.5.4 - Q =. discharge m°/S Cuw =, Hazen-Williams roughness coefficient : 5° = _ istheslope of the energy line= hdl. ‘ Si al 5 R = pthehydraulic radius + = AP=Di4 forpipes 3 at se , +» Values of the Hazen-Williams Coefficient for common pipe materials Pye Caw ‘Very smotth pipe 150 ‘New cast iron or welded steel 140 . Wood, concrete : 130 Clay, New Rivetted steel 110 . Old cast iron, brick 100 ‘ a of @ | ~ Badly corroded cast iron oy steel mount of head lost due to friction depends upon several factors such as: | the length of pipe \ Pipe Gi) | the diameter of pipe (i) | the smoothness of the insitle of the pipe G}) | the number and kind of fittings, valves and faucets in the pipe line G) | the rate of flow. it i 1] | the tonger the pipe, the greater the loss of head due to fiction for any givens diameter of pipe and rate of flow. é . ‘The smaller the diameter of any given length of pipe, the greater the friction * | tosses for any given rate of flow. 3] | the smoother the inner surface of any given pipe the less the friction losses for any given rate of flow. : 4] | The fewer the fillings and valves on a pipe line, the less the ftiction losses for any given rate of flow. 5| | The higher the rate of flow through any given pipe, the greater the friction losses. sb | MINOR LOSSES ‘A member of appurtenances to pipelines such as inlets, bends, elbows, contractions, ctpalsions, valves, meters and pipe fitting commonly occur. Losses due to the local a stufpances are called minor losses. : ‘Theylmay be expressed as: : . -1 Loss of Head at Entrance =K.V?2g as an equivalent t@ a certain length of a straight pipe. He=Ke V/2g Ke = 0.5 fora square entrance Ke = 1.0if the pipe protrudes into the'reservoir Ke = 0.05 forromded entrance ote : 8.3.2 Loss of héad of discharge (Exit) - Ka = 8.3.3. Loss due to constraction . i i f Dy ae L 2 Di 00, 01 102, 03.04 05 06 07 018 09 N10 Ke 05 045 042 039 036 033 028 0.22 0.15 0.06 0.00 , Note: For a gradual contraction K, = 0.04 : A For an abrupt contraction K, = 0.5 | i 1 | : e a | i ae . sfircisEs . |(@) entity the elements that make up a water system? | () List and discuss various uses of water i | (©) Whatare the significant of the followings: | @ The average per capital consumption Gi) peak-daily consumption rates and peak hourly consumption rates. @ List 5 factors that can affect the use of water. ‘Use the following census figure to estimate the population in 1980 by using: 2. | (@ — Asithmetic : (b) Geomettic on : (©) Decreasing rate of increase i : Year + Population (thousands) i 1900 6 : 1: 1910 . 2 : ; 1920 2a : A. 1930 4 268 : 1940 307 i 1950, 371 F 1960 a9 1 1970 Bl. 400 _ am i vpbviis population forecasting 4 necessity in water supply system in design. 3] fa) List two main sources of Wat supply, and mention at Least thre= different t types of each (b) List at least 3 priorities for source selection (©) What are the advantages and disadvantages of ground water (a) What isan intake structs (©) Whatare the important requirements for siting an intake stuctse (a) Whatisa pump (6) Pump can be grouped under the following headings: @ — Roto-dynamic a (ii) Positive displacement (iii) Pneumatic dl Give at least two examples of each is (© Whatis priming | (@)— Whatare the main fimetion of a: (@ Foot valve = Gi) Check valve (@) The 3 main purposes of water treatment can be summarised as: @ — POTABILITY i Gi) PALATABILITY (i) ACCEPTABILITY Discuss and give at least 3 actions that must be performed for the three purposes. (©) What are the factors to be considered in deciding the degree ond nature of water treatment (8) List t least five physical characteristics of water (6) List at least four chemical characteristics. of water, BUT discuss the + significant of two of them. > | © What is Eschericia cole, and what do you understand by the term coliform count . @ Differentiate between: (Water quality criteria, and; (i) Water quality standards. (©) What are the principal contaminants of CONCERN in most water supplies (List at least 5). e 70 (c) Why are the following considered as common impurities in raw water: COs, HLS, CHa, Ca, Mg, Na, K, and Fe. ig 3} @ aw Gi) @) f{l oo wi (2) in details w @ Ga Gi) (iv) @ sss mechmaisms of Filtration and discuss two Gx) Distinguish between slow send filter and rapid sand filter. Compare the two wrt to Filter loading . Detention time * Filter materials Filter Depth Filter mun Method of cleaning ‘Land requirements. Define coagulation and disinfection “What are the purpose of disinfection in water (at least two). ‘What are tne general properties of a good disinfectant (at least 5). Explain the two reactions that tale place when chlorine is added to water ‘What are they called. Define (1) Free available ehforine and; (i) Combined available chlorine Mlustrate with the aid of a simple diagram/eraph chlorine-residugl curve for break point chlorination. 9) Lists at least six typical steps involved is treatment plant des-gn. Discuss at least. What are the main purpose of a distsbution reservoirs. List the main categories of storage reservoirs “What are the requirements for design of water distribution systems ‘The water supply for a city is pumped from wells to a distribution reservoir. ‘The estimated hourly water requirements for the maximum day are indicated below. ASSIGNMENT 1: 1. A population prediction for the year 1980 is to be made for Ilero in connection with an estimate of annual water consumptian by the minicipality at that time, 3 Previous census for the city (A) Haro are supplied in the table along with similar 7 data for three older cities in the state that have roughly the sarae characteristics as = city A. i z YEAR CITY POPULATION (ih 1,000°s) | x A BS c D ail 190 62 198 BT ee i 19}0 90 36.3 32.1 315 | 1970 10.3 7 BAT a, 34.8 | 1950 147 48.6 49.4 373 | 1940 184 313 33.5 40.6 1650 29.1 53.9 558 424 ! 1960 36.6 542 521 ALT \ ‘Assuming a “saturation” population of 55,000, estimate the 1980 population for the city as follows: (i) Use the (J) Arithmetic*ii) Geometric and (ii) decreasing rate of increase methods” to supply population estimates for" 1980. () Use the graphical comparison method to supply “normalised” 1980 populations «) for cities, B. C. and D and attached a graph of the growth trends (Note take the 1960 population for city as the origin for this exercise) Plot all 1980" populations on the graph and assume tlie 1980 population for city A, to be the mean valve of these. ‘Also curve fir the logistic curve to past and extended data, Use the following census figute to estimate the 1955 and 1965 populations by assuming arithmictic, geometric and decredsing rates of increase. If the pumps are to operate at a uniform rate what distribution reservoir \ ‘capacity is required? (2) _Listat least five important requirements for design of a water distribution system. (b)* What are the importance of the following: . @ — Airrelief valves = Gi) Drain valves a rn oan (iii) Gate-valves ia (iv) Hydrants ee (wv) Altitude valves sf . (©) _ List three types of hydrants » 3 (@) List five basic requirements for pipe selection e (© __ List 5 different types of pipe materials (a) Discuss the following terms: () ¢ THRUST BLOCKING . Gi) Pressure Testing (b)+ ‘The amount of head lost due to friction depends upon several factors, List the factors and explain their relationships. : h3.| (@) List the five common types of wel construction _ | (&) Lists the two types of drilling techniques i E (©) Whatare the advantages and disadvantages of one of them ‘ : (@ — Whatis a Beiler : . "© Whatisa Drilling fluid * é 7 () Lists at least (5) critical roles played by drilling fuid : ue (@) Discuss “Well casing” as related tothe followings: : (@® Consolidated materials @* . Gi) Drilling in clay = (iv) Drilling in sands ane gravels . FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, ABEOKUTA College of Engineering Department of Civil Engineering FIRST SEMESTER TEST 2014/2015 SESSION COURSE: CVE 517: Environmental Engineering (3 Units) TIME ALLOWED: 60 MINUTES QUESTION 1 Define the followings: (a) Building Drain, (b) Building Sewer, (c) Combined Sewer, (d) Force Main, (©) intercepting Sewer, (f) Lateral Sewer, (g) Main Sewer, (h) Relief Sewer, (i) Sanitary Sewer, @j) Separate Sewer. QUESTION 2 Conception and development of typical sanitary sewer projects comprise the following phases, (i) Investigative Phase (ii) Design Phase and (ii) Construction Phase. Discuss each phases and the role of parties in each phase a COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING ‘4 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (CVE 517) CAT Question 7 @. Using a pressure filter explain the principle of backwashing in water treatment. ¢ b, Enumerate and discuss 3 disinfection options available in water treatment. c. Briefly explain how to collect composite samples. 4 a. Enumerate and discuss two physico-chemical processes at work during waters + storage that affects water quality. b. Enumerate 3 methods of ensure proper mix in a coagulant rapid mixing unit.¢ c. Enumerate five reasons why we treat wastewater. ~— : Question 3 , 2 With neat sketches describe the following lo i Trickling filter ji, ~ Activated sludge b. Write a brief note on following: i. On-site wastewater treatment ii, Central Wastewater treatment Question 4 ee ea Te a. Explain any 4 of the following wastewater characteristics Total Solids il, Suspended solids ili, Dissolved Oxygen iv. Metals v. Salts vi. Nitrogen b. Discuss any two of the following i,-Garchey system int i On-site incineration Ve LD Wi. Rneumatic refuse removal _ ie ovine if FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, ABEOKUTA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING FIRST SEMESTER EXAMINATION, 2013/2014 SESSION COURSE: ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (CVE 517) TIME ALLOWED: 3 HOURS INSTRUCTION: Attempt 5 questions in all Question 1 >

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