I.

Cell Division
Mitosis
● Type of cell division that occurs only in somatic cells (any of a living organism
other than the reproductive cells).
● Nuclear division; the process by which the nucleus divides to produce two nuclei
(Karyokinesis)
● Result in two daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and the
parent cell from which they came.
● How you repair damage after an injury, how you replace the cells that you lose
everyday from a single-celled zygote into an adult.
● Mitotic cell division accounts for the growth and development of plants,
mushrooms, and other multicellular eukaryotes and for asexual reproduction in
protists and many other eukaryotes.
● It is also called equational division since the number of chromosomes in the
parent and progeny cells is the same.
Homologous Chromosomes
● Body cells are diploid; which means their nuclei contain pairs of chromosomes -
two of each type are called homologous chromosomes.
● In diploid cells, the nuclei have two sets of chromosomes; one chromosome of a
pair was inherited from your father while the other one being from your mother.
● A haploid cell only has one copy of the chromosome or one set of chromosomes.
● All somatic cells are diploid while the reproductive cells (eggs and sperm) are
haploid.
Life cycle - is the generation-to-generation sequence of the stages in the reproductive
history of an organism.
● Somatic cells are diploid (2n) and have both genes from both parents.
❖ Diploid zygote (2n = 46)
● Gametes are haploid (n) and have half the genes as somatic cells.
❖ Haploid gametes (n = 23)
 ● Number of chromosomes = number of active centrosomes (constricted region of
a chromosome that separates it into a short arm (p) and a long arm (q)).
● Number of DNA molecules = number of chromatids (once they are separated
during anaphase, each will be called chromosome).
● The amount of DNA molecules increases only when DNA replicates (S-phase).
● The amount of DNA molecules decreases only when the cell divides.
Mitosis - the process by which a cell replicates its chromosomes and then segregates
them, producing two identical nuclei in preparation for cell division.
● Early Prophase - chromosomes condense and become visible. Spindle forms as
centrosomes move to opposite poles.
● Prometaphase - nuclear envelope breaks up spindle fibers to kinetochores on the
chromosomes..
● Metaphase - chromosomes are lined up along the equator of the cell.
● Anaphase - centromeres split as sister chromatids separate and move to
opposite parts of the cell.
● Telophase - nuclear envelope and nucleus form at each pole. Chromosomes
decompose. Spindles disappear..
● Cytokinesis - division of the cytoplasm into two cells.

Meiosis - a type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that reduces the
number of chromosomes in gametes. Activates the genetic information for the
development of sex cells and maintains the constant number of chromosomes by
halving the same.
● Early prophase I - the chromatids begin to condense following interphase.
● MId-prophase I - synapsis aligns homologs, and chromosomes condense further.
● Late prophase I/Prometaphase - the chromosomes continue to cool and shorten.
The chiasmata reflect crossing over, the exchange of genetic material between
nonsister chromatids in a homologous pair, and the nuclear envelope starts to
break down.
● Metaphase I - the homologous pairs line up on the equational (metaphase) plate.
● Anaphase I - the homologous chromosomes (each with two chromatids) move to
two opposite poles of the coil.
● Telophase I - the chromosomes gather into nuclei, and the original cell divides.
● Prophase II - the chromosomes condense again following a brief interphase
(interkinesis) in which the cell does not replicate.
● Metaphase II - the centromeres of the paired chromatids line up across the
equatorial plates of each cell.
● Anaphase II - the chromosomes finally separate, chromosomes of their own right
and are pulled to opposite poles. Because of crossing over an independent
assortment, each new cell will have a different genetic makeup.
● Telophase II - the chromosome gathers into nuclei and the two cells divide.
● Products - each of the four cells has a nucleus with a haploid number of
chromosomes.
II. Cell Membrane and Transport Mechanisms
● Selective permeability - ability of a cell to discriminate its chemical exchanges
with its environment is fundamental to life.
● Most abundant lipids in which most membranes are phospholipids, which are
organic molecules that resemble triglycerides.
● Ability of phospholipids to form membranes is inherent in their molecular
structure.
❖ Amphipathic molecules are both a hydrophilic region and a
hydrophobic region.
❖ The hydrophilic part is attracted to water, the other end which consists of
two fatty acid tails is hydrophobic.
● In water, these molecules spontaneously arrange themselves into a phospholipid
bilayer; a double layer of phospholipids.
Membrane proteins
● Amphipathic
● Fluid mosaic model, the membrane is a mosaic of protein molecules bobbing in
a fluid bilayer of phospholipids.
● Proteins are not randomly distributed in the membrane, however, groups of
proteins are often associated in long-lasting, specialized patches, where they
carry out common functions.
● The lipids themselves appear to form defined regions as well.
● Types of membrane proteins
❖ Integral proteins and peripheral proteins.
❖ Integral proteins penetrate the hydrophobic of the lipid bilayer. The
majority are transmembrane proteins, which span the membrane; other
integral proteins extend only partway into the hydrophobic interior.
❖ Peripheral proteins are not embedded in the lipid bilayer, often exposed
parts of integral proteins.
❖ Recognition proteins
❖ Adhesion proteins enable cells to stick to one another.
 ❖ Receptor proteins bind molecules outside the cell and trigger an internal
response, a process called signal transduction.
● Functions of membrane proteins
A. Transport - a protein that spans the membrane may provide a hydrophilic
channel across the membrane that is selective for a particular solute.
B. Enzymatic activity - a protein built into the membrane may be an enzyme
with its active site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution. In some
cases, several enzymes in a membrane are organized as a team that
carries our sequential steps of a metabolic pathway.
C. Signal transduction - a membrane protein (receptor) may have a binding
site with a specific shape that fits the shape of a chemical messenger,
such as a hormone. The external messenger (signaling molecule) may
cause the protein to change shape, allowing it to relay the message to the
inside of a cell by binding to a cytoplasmic protein.
D. Cell - cell recognition - some glycoproteins serve as identification tags
that are specifically recognized by membrane protein of other cells.
E. Intercellular joining - membrane proteins of adjacent cells may hook
together in various kinds of junctions such as gap junctions or tight
junctions.
F. Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM) -
microfilaments or other elements of the cytoskeleton may be
noncovalently bound to membrane proteins, a function that helps maintain
cell shape and stabilizes the location of certain membrane proteins.
Cell Membrane Fluidity
● Temperature will affect how the phospholipids move and how close together
they are found.
● Cholesterol acts to stabilize the cell membrane and increase its melting point at
high temperatures while inserting into phospholipids to prevent them from
interfering with each other to avoid aggregation at low temperatures.
 ● Fatty acids are what make up the phospholipid tails. Saturated fatty acids are
chains of carbon atoms that have only single bonds between them which results
in the chains being straight and easy to pack tightly.
Concentration gradient
● The solute is more concentrated in one region than in a neighboring region.
● If a substance moves from an area where it is more concentrated to an area
where it is less concentrated, it is said to be “moving down” or “following” its
concentration gradient.
Passive Transport versus Active Transport

● In passive transport, a substance moves from high concentration to low

concentration, no energy input required.
❖ Simple diffusion (movement of 𝑂2 through the membrane).

➢ A substance moves down its concentration gradient without the use

of a transport protein.
 ➢ Substances may enter or leave cells by simple diffusion only if they
can pass freely through the membrane.
➢ Involves lipids, nonpolar molecules, oxygen gas, and carbon
dioxide.
❖ Facilitated diffusion (movement of glucose into cells).
➢ Ions and polar molecules cannot freely cross the hydrophobic layer
of the membrane; instead, transport proteins form channels that
help these solutes cross.
➢ Facilitated diffusion is a form of passive transport in which a
membrane protein assists the movement of a polar solute down its
concentration gradient.
➢ Facilitated diffusion releases energy because the solute moves
from where it is concentrated to where it is less concentrated.
❖ Osmosis (movement of water in and out of the cells).
➢ Two solutions of different concentrations may be separated by a
selectively permeable membrane through which water, but not
solutes, can pass.
➢ Water will diffuse down its own gradient toward the side of high
solute concentration.
➢ Osmosis is this simple diffusion of water across a selectively
permeable membrane. Osmosis is based on the environment, for
example in red blood cells.
1. A human red blood cell is isotonic to the surrounding fluid.
Water enters and leaves the cell at the same rate, and the
cell maintains its shape.
2. When the salt concentration of the surrounding fluid
decreases, water flows into the cell faster than it leaves. The
cell swells and may even burst.
3. In salty surroundings, the cell loses water and shrinks.
 Diffusion

Osmosis
❖ Filtration (formation of kidney filtrate)
Factors affecting the rate of diffusion
❖ Mass of the molecule diffusing
➢ Heavier molecules move more slowly; therefore, they diffuse more
slowly. The reverse is true for lighter molecules.
❖ Temperature
➢ Higher temperature increases the energy and therefore the
movement of molecules, increasing the rate of diffusion.
 ➢ Lower temperatures decrease the energy of the molecules, thus
decreasing the rate of diffusion.
❖ Solvent Density
➢ As the density of a solvent increases, the rate of diffusion
decreases.
➢ The molecules slow down because they have a more difficult time
getting through the denser medium.
➢ If the medium is less dense, diffusion increases.
❖ Solubility
➢ Nonpolar or lipid-soluble materials pass through plasma
membranes more easily than polar materials, allowing a faster rate
of diffusion.
❖ Surface area and thickness of plasma membrane
➢ Increased surface area increases the rate of diffusion, whereas a
thicker membrane reduces it.
❖ Distance travelled
➢ The greater the distance that a substance must travel, the slower
the rate of diffusion.
● In active transport, a cell uses a transport protein to move a substance against
its concentration gradient - from where it is less concentrated to where it is more
concentrated. Requires the cell to expend its energy reserves in the form of atp.
❖ Antiport Pumps (Sodium-Potassium Pump)
➢ One of the most significant active transport proteins in mammals.
➢ Nervous systems in mammals depend on the presence of an ion
gradient between the inside and exterior of nerve cells.
➢ The sodium-potassium pump is a protein embedded in the cell
membrane. It is used energy released in the ATP hydrolysis to
+ +
move sodium ions (𝑁𝑎 ) out of the cell and potassium ions (𝐾 )
into the cell. The process costs energy because both types of ions
are moving from where they are less concentrated to where they
are more concentrated.
❖ Symport Pumps (Sodium-Glucose Transport Protein)
➢ Well-known example of a symport pump.
➢ Protein binds to sodium ions, which “want” to move into the cell,
and one glucose molecule, which “wants” to stay outside of the cell.
➢ It represents an important method of sugar transport in the body,
required to provide energy for cellular transportation.
❖ Endocytosis
➢ A process in which a cell internalizes non-particulate materials such
as proteins by engulfing them in an energy-dependent manner.
Includes:
Pinocytosis - refers to the uptake of extracellular fluids and
dissolved solutes, such as fat droplets, vitamins, and
antigens. The term is derived from the Greek word “pino,”
meaning “to drink,” and “cyto,” meaning “cell.” Therefore, the
process of pinocytosis can be thought of as cellular drinking.
Phagocytosis - an important process of nutrition in unicellular
organisms, while in multicellular organisms it is found in
specialized cells called phagocytes. Consists in recognition
and ingestion of particles larger than 0.5 µ𝑚 into a plasma
membrane derived vesicle, known as phagosome.
Receptor-Mediated endocytosis - a form of endocytosis in
which receptor proteins on the cell surface are used to
capture a specific target molecule. The receptors, which are
transmembrane proteins, cluster in regions of the plasma
membrane known as coated pits.
❖ Exocytosis
➢ Opposite of endocytosis-exocytosis: which uses vesicles to
transport fluids and large particles out of cells.
➢ Process by which cells move materials from within the cell into the
extracellular fluid.
➢ Exocytosis occurs when a vesicle fuses with the plasma
membrane, allowing its contents to be realized outside the cell.
Example: Sacred protein - enzymes, peptide, hormones, and
antibodies.

Sodium - Potassium pump

Sodium - Glucose pump

 Receptor-Mediated endocytosis
Cell Membrane and its Major Components
● Glycoprotein - molecules that comprise protein and carbohydrate chains that are
involved in many physiological functions including immunity. Many viruses have
glycoproteins that help them enter bodily cells. They enable cells to recognize
another cell as familiar or foreign, which is called cell-cell recognition. They also
help cells attach to and bind to other cells, which is called cell adhesion.
● Glycolipid - a type of complex lipids comprising carbohydrates, fatty acids,
sphingolipids, or a glycerol group.Glycolipids are glycoconjugates of lipids that
are generally found on the extracellular face of eukaryotic cellular membranes.
Their function is to maintain stability of the membrane and to facilitate cell-cell
interactions.
● Peripheral membrane protein - highly unique amphipathic proteins that interact
with the membrane indirectly, using electrostatic or hydrophobic interactions, or
directly, using hydrophobic tails or GPI-anchors. The peripheral membrane
proteins function in support, communication, enzymes, and molecule transfer in
the cell.
● Integral membrane proteins - the peripheral membrane proteins function in
support, communication, enzymes, and molecule transfer in the cell. They are
the entry and exit routes for many ions, nutrients, waste products, hormones,
drugs and large molecules such as proteins and DNA. They are also responsible
for much of the communication between cells and their environment.
● Cytoskeletal filaments - is made up of microtubules, actin filaments, and
intermediate filaments. These structures give the cell its shape and help organize
the cell's parts. In addition, they provide a basis for movement and cell division.
● Cholesterol - modulates the bilayer structure of biological membranes in multiple
ways. It changes the fluidity, thickness, compressibility, water penetration and
intrinsic curvature of lipid bilayers.
● Protein channel - type of transport protein, acts like a pore in the membrane that
lets water molecules or small ions through quickly. Water channel proteins
(aquaporins) allow water to diffuse across the membrane at a very fast rate.
● Phospholipid bilayer - The lipid bilayer (or phospholipid bilayer) is a thin polar
membrane made of two layers of lipid molecules. These membranes are flat
sheets that form a continuous barrier around all cells. The lipid bilayer acts as a
barrier to the passage of molecules and ions into and out of the cell. However, an
important function of the cell membrane is to allow selective passage of certain
substances into and out of cells.
III. Photosynthesis
● Provides not only food for the plant but also the energy, raw materials, and 𝑂2

that support most heterotrophs.

● Uptakes 𝐶𝑂2 , a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere alleviating global warming.

● Light energy converts Carbon dioxide and water (the reactants) into glucose and
oxygen (the products).
● Written as: 6 𝐶𝑂2 + 6𝐻2𝑂 → 𝐶6𝐻12𝑂6 + 6 𝑂2

❖ Reactants, six carbon dioxide molecules and six water molecules, are
converted by light energy captured by chlorophyll (implied by the arrow)
into a sugar molecule and six oxygen molecules, the products.
Energy Transformation
● Thermodynamics is the study of energy transformations.
❖ Consists of laws that are useful to describe the energy conversions
important in living and in the nonliving world. The law of energy
conservation is the first law of thermodynamics.
❖ Describes energy as a property that cannot be created or destroyed but
can be converted to other forms. Thus, the total amount of energy in the
Universe does not change.
● The total of energy is the sum of energy’s two forms: potential and kinetic.
● Potential energy - stored energy that includes chemical energy in bonds and
concentration gradient across a membrane.
● Kinetic energy - energy of motion as observed in light, thermal energy.
Sunlight is the Source of Energy Absorbed by Chlorophyll Fuelling
Photosynthesis
● Photons are the fundamental particles of light energy from the sun which are
absorbed by chlorophyll and converted by chloroplast into glucose and
chemical energy.
● Spectrums of white light absorbed by chlorophyll and accessory pigments
are in the blue and red regions while reflecting green and yellow light making
the leaves of plants green.
 ● Photoautotrophs, chloroplasts are embedded in cells mostly found on the leaves.
● Chloroplasts - found within palisade and spongy mesophyll cells that are
specialized for photosynthetic function.
❖ Organelles are abundant with the green pigment chlorophyll.
Coupled Reaction Process

Redox Reactions and the Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

● Oxidation is the loss of electrons with loss of energy - from a molecule, an atom,
or an ion.
❖ Electrons carry energy, they can be likened to a gift.
❖ Electron donor molecule being oxidized is like a gift-giver because its
energy level is decreased by loss.
● Reduction is the gain of electrons and energy with the electron acceptor being
reduced.
Photosynthesis of the Light Reactions
● Thylakoid membranes
❖ Two kinds of photosynthesis, type I (Photosystem [PSI]) and type II
(Photosystem II [PSII], named in the order of their discovery.
● Both are protein complexes - rich in chlorophyll (dark green circles) which serve
as either harvesting (green circles in light green bean-shaped portion) or
reaction centers (blue middle portion).
The Light Reactions
Energy Coupling and ATP-ADP Cycle in the Light Reactions
● Electron Transfer Chains (ETC) can harvest the energy of electrons in a series
of redox reactions. Redox happens when components of ETC pass electrons
from one another.
● The electron is shown to move through different acceptors in decreasing energy
levels (descending in a staircase).
❖ The release of energy as electrons are allowed to move.
ATP formation in the Light Reactions: Chemiosmosis
● ATP-ADP Cycle
❖ The energy stored in ATP is released when a phosphate group is removed
from the molecule.
❖ ATP has three phosphate groups, but the bond holding the third
phosphate group is very easily broken, When the phosphate group is
removed, ATP becomes ADP - adenosine diphosphate.
The Carbon Reaction Produce Carbohydrates
● Makes use of ATP and NADH formed by the light reactions to fuel the reduction
of 𝐶𝑂2 to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) or phosphoglyceraldehyde

(PGAL).
● When 𝐶𝑂2 undergoes fixation (first step) and reduction (second step) to convert

3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA) to G3P or PGAL.

 ● Third step involves the regeneration of ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) which
reacts with 𝐶𝑂2 in the first step or fixation thus calling the entire reaction a cycle.

IV. Cellular Respiration

● Process that makes ATP.
● ATP is the form of energy cells are able to use.
● ATP is essential because it powers nearly every cellular activity that uses energy.
● Cells use ATP to:
❖ Do work, such as active transport or muscle contractions.
❖ Power chemical reactions.
Aerobic cellular respiration - a process that requires oxygen and involves a series
of chemical reactions.
● Equation: 𝐶6𝐻12𝑂6 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2𝑂 + 𝐴𝑇𝑃

● We inhale oxygen - it is required for aerobic cellular respiration to occur.

● It travels to the mitochondria inside our cells.
● We exhale carbon dioxide - it is released from our mitochondria during cellular
respiration. Our bodies have no use of it.
Reaction types in cellular respiration
● Preparatory Reactions molecules are rearranged in preparation for
dehydrogenation.

● Phosphorylation - Addition of phosphate to an organic compound

 ● Decarboxylation - removes a carboxyl group and releases carbon dioxide (𝐶𝑂2)

● Dehydrogenation - hydrogens are transferred to a coenzyme.

Cellular Respiration Pathways

● Glycolysis - glucose is split in half, forming a pyruvate. Some of the energy is
transferred to electrons: some is used to form atp.
● Krebs Cycle - a derivation of pyruvate is oxidized; 𝐶𝑂2 is released. More energy

is transferred to the electrons.

● Electron Transport Chain (ETC) - energy from the electrons is used to form ATP.
Oxygen is the final electron acceptor.
Oxidation - reduction
● Equation: 𝐶6𝐻12𝑂6 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2𝑂 + 𝐴𝑇𝑃

● The pathways of aerobic respiration release energy by oxidizing glucose and

reducing oxygen.
● Since oxygen strongly attracts electrons, the reaction is “downhill” and releases
energy.
Location
● Glycolysis always occurs in the cytosol.
 ❖ All cells carry out glycolysis.
❖ Glycolysis requires many steps, all of which occur in the cytosol.
❖ None of these steps require 𝑂2, so cells can use glycolysis in both

oxygen-rich (aerobic) and oxygen-free (anaerobic) environments.

● In prokaryotes, the Krebs cycle takes place in the cytosol, and the ETC is found
in the cell membrane.
● Eukaryotic cells contain the mitochondria, specialized organelles where the
Krebs cycle and the Electron Transport Chain are located.
❖ Aerobic cellular respiration taps much of the potential energy stored in the
glucose.
❖ The Krebs cycle and electron transport chain, which occur inside the
mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, are the key ATP - generating processes.
Glycolysis - splits glucose.
● During glycolysis, one molecule of glucose is split into two three-carbon
molecules of pyruvate.
● These reactions convert two molecules of ADP into ATP.
● Electron carrier NAD* picks up electrons, forming two molecules of NADH.
● Produces two ATP.

Transition step - forms acetyl CoA.

● In the transition step, the two molecules of pyruvate are converted into two
molecules of acetyl CoA.
● Electron carrier NAD* picks up electrons, forming two molecules of NADH.
● This reaction releases two molecules of 𝐶𝑂2.
Krebs cycle - oxidizes acetyl CoA.
● Acetyl CoA molecules disassembled during the Krebs cycle. Their molecules are
released as two molecules of 𝐶𝑂2.

● Energy from acetyl CoA is transferred to electrons, carried by NADH and 𝐹𝐴𝐷𝐻2.

● Produces two ATP.

Electron Transport Chain (ETC) - electrons from NADH and 𝐹𝐴𝐷𝐻2 are unloaded
into the electron transport chain for a final series of redox reactions.
 +
● The potential energy from electrons is used to produce a proton (𝐻 ) gradient.
● H* ions move through the enzyme ATP synthase, releasing energy.
● ATP synthase uses the energy to generate ATP.
● As electrons are passed along the ETC, they lose their energy bit by bit. By the
end, they have almost no energy left. The final electron acceptor is 𝑂2, which

combines with H* ions to form water.

● Produces 34 ATP.

Anaerobic respiration
● Does not require oxygen to produce energy. Sometimes there is not enough
oxygen around for some organisms to respire, but they still need the energy to
survive.
● Glycolysis produces ATP without requiring oxygen.
Fermentation - allows glycolysis to produce ATP and requires pyruvate from
glycolysis.
 ● Many prokaryotes and some eukaryotic cells use fermentation.
● There is no Krebs cycle or ETC in fermentation.
● Fermentation simply allows glycolysis to continue, producing small amounts of
ATP.
● Fermentation uses pyruvate to oxidize NADH, forming NAD*.
● The pyruvate is then converted into alcohol, lactic acid, or other byproducts. No
acetyl CoA is made from pyruvate.
Alcohol fermentation - converts pyruvate to 𝐶𝑂2 and ethanol.
● Microbes such as yeast produce enzymes for alcoholic fermentation.
● In this pathway, pyruvate is converted to ethanol. This oxidizes NADH, to
regenerate NAD*.