UNIT 3

Basic Electronics
Basic electronics comprises of “electronics components” that make up a part of
everyday electronics equipment. These electronic components include resistors, transistors,
capacitors, diodes, inductors and transformers. Powered by a battery, they are designed to work
under certain physics laws and principles.

Electricity: Electricity is defined as the rate of flow of charges in a conductor.

Electrical quantities- Voltage, current and resistance:

Voltage (also known as electric potential difference electric pressure) is defined as the electric
potential difference per unit charge between two points in an electric field. Voltage is expressed
using the symbol “V” or “E”.

Current:
The continuous flow of electrons in a conductor, in a particular direction is called Electric
current. It is represented by I and is expressed in Ampere(amp).

Resistance:
Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit. Resistance is
measured in ohms and its unit symbol is represented by the Greek letter(Ω).

Active components: Diode and Transistor

Diode: Diode is an electrical component that allows the flow of current in only one direction.

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PN junction diodes:

The PN junction diode is the basic semiconductor diode format. The PN junction has the very
useful property that electrons are only able to flow in one direction. As current consists of a flow
of electrons, this means that current is allowed to flow only in one direction across the structure,
but it is stopped from flowing in the other direction across the junction.

PN junction diodes can be obtained in a number of semiconductor materials - the earliest diodes
tended to be made from germanium, but most of them today are silicon diodes.

The diode is simple in its basic concept, being formed from the junction of N-type and P-type
materials

Biasing conditions forward bias and reverse bias:

P-N Junction Diode Under Forward Bias

When we apply the external voltage across the semiconductor diode in such a way that the p-side
is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the n-side is connected to the negative
terminal, then the semiconductor diode is said to be forward-biased. In this case, the built-in
potential of the diode and thus the width of the depletion region decreases, and the height of the
barrier gets reduced. The overall barrier voltage, in this case, comes out to be V 0-V, which is the
difference between the built-in potential and the applied potential. As we supply a small amount
of voltage, the reduction in the barrier voltage from the above-given formula is very less and thus
only a small number of current carriers cross the junction in this case. Whereas, if the potential is
increased by a significant value, the reduction in the barrier height will be more, thus allowing the
passage of more number of carriers.

P-N Junction Diode Under Reverse Bias:

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When we apply the external voltage across the semiconductor diode in such a way that the positive
terminal of the battery is connected to its n-side and the negative terminal of the battery is
connected to the p-side of the diode, then it is said to be in the condition of reverse bias. When an
external voltage is applied across the diode, as the direction of the external voltage is the same as
that of the barrier potential, the total voltage barrier sums up to be (V0+V). Also, the width of the
depletion region increases. As a result of this, the motion of carriers from one side of the junction
to another decreases significantly.

Transistors:

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical signals and power.
The transistor is one of the basic building blocks of modern electronics.[1] It is composed
of semiconductor material, usually with at least three terminals for connection to an electronic
circuit.

BJT: (Bipolar Junction Transistor):

A bipolar junction transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device that consists of two p-n
junctions which are able to amplify or magnify a signal. It is a current controlled device. The three
terminals of the BJT are the base, the collector, and the emitter. A signal of a small amplitude
applied to the base is available in the amplified form at the collector of the transistor. This is the
amplification provided by the BJT. Note that it does require an external source of DC power
supply to carry out the amplification process.

MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor):

The MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) transistor is a semiconductor
device that is widely used for switching purposes and for the amplification of electronic signals
in electronic devices. A MOSFET is either a core or integrated circuit where it is designed and
fabricated in a single chip because the device is available in very small sizes. The introduction of
the MOSFET device has brought a change in the domain of switching in electronics.

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Passive components- Resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers, sensors and
transducers;

Resistors (R): A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements

electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce
current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages.

Capacitors (C): A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in an electric field.

Inductors (L): It stores energy in the form of magnetic energy when electricity is applied to it. It
is also called a choke, reactor or coil.
Whenever the current across the inductor changes it either acquire charge or loses charge in order
to equalize the current passing through it.
In SMPS, inductors are used to store energy and transfer the energy to an output load or capacitor.
(dc-dc or ac-dc).

Transformer:
It is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through the
process of electromagnetic induction.
A transformer that increases voltage between the primary to secondary windings is defined as a
step-up transformer. Conversely, a transformer that decreases voltage between the primary to
secondary windings is defined as a step-down transformer.
The working principle of a transformer is very simple. Mutual induction between two or more
windings (also known as coils) allows for electrical energy to be transferred between circuits.

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Sensors:
A sensor is basically a device which detects change in physical parameters and converts it into a
signal which can be recorded or measured. For example, Thermistor which senses the change in
temperature and converts it into resistance change.
Transducer:
A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. Usually a transducer converts
a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another. The forms of energy include mechanical,
electromagnetic, thermal, chemical, optical and more. As shown in the figure, transducer
composed of a sensor and an actuator. As depicted microphone is the sensor which converts
acoustic signal into electrical form which is being amplified and fed to the loudspeaker which
converts electrical signal back to acoustic waves. Here loudspeaker is a actuator which generates
signal. Sensor basically detects or measures a signal.

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Integrated Circuits Digital Electronics:
1. Pulse Width Modulation:
Pulse-width modulation (PWM) is a modulation process or technique used in most communication systems
for encoding the amplitude of a signal right into a pulse width or duration of another signal, usually a carrier
signal, for transmission. Although PWM is also used in communications, its main purpose is actually to
control the power that is supplied to various types of electrical devices, most especially to inertial loads
such as AC/DC motors.

2. Optocoupler:
An optocoupler is a semiconductor device that allows an electrical signal to be transmitted
between two isolated circuits. Two parts are used in an optocoupler: an LED that emits infrared
light and a photosensitive device that detects light from the LED. Both parts are contained within
a black box with pins for connectivity. The input circuit takes the incoming
signal, whether the signal is AC or DC, and uses the signal to turn on the LED.

The photosensor is the output circuit that detects the light and depending on the type of output
circuit, the output will be AC or DC. Current is first applied to the optocoupler, making the LED
emit an infrared light proportional to the current going through the device. When the light hits the
photosensor a current is conducted, and it is switched on. When the current flowing through the
LED is interrupted, the IR beam is cut-off, causing the photosensor to stop conducting.

3. Checking AC to DC Converter:

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC),
which flows in only one direction. Diodes are used in half- and full-wave circuits. In a
full-wave circuit, two diodes are used, one for each for half of the cycle. A half-wave circuit uses
only one diode.

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