International Journal of Environmental Research

https://doi.org/10.1007/s41742-021-00356-8

RESEARCH PAPER

Evaluation of the Climate Change Impact on Urban Heat Island Based

on Land Surface Temperature and Geospatial Indicators
Bijay Halder1   · Jatisankar Bandyopadhyay1,2 · Papiya Banik3

Received: 12 January 2021 / Revised: 17 June 2021 / Accepted: 26 June 2021

© University of Tehran 2021

Abstract
Population pressure, infrastructural development, and economic growth are the reasons for increasing urbanization process
although urban expansion. Land-use change, vegetation degradation, and also climate change are the results of urban heat
island (UHI). Land surface temperature (LST) is an essential aspect of global climate change studies, calculating radiation
budgets, heat balance studies, and also estimating the climate change scenario. In this study, investigate the UHI using
thermal remote-sensing data. Satellite thermal data are used to calculate the thermal variation in Kolkata metropolitan and
surrounding area. The remote-sensing technique is used to detect land use in 2020 using supervised classification, calcula-
tion of LST, and variation of mean LST from this region. The maximum and minimum temperatures are 33 °C and 18 °C
individually. This study analyzes the LST distribution correlation with different spectral indicator. The relationship between
NDVI and SAVI results shows negative correlation ­(R2 0.20 and 0.15, respectively) because of vegetation area effect on
urban expansion. The urban heat island shows positive relation between LST and NDBI and UI because of urbanization and
industrial development. The R ­ 2 values are show 0.61 and 0.27, respectively. The relationship between MNDWI and NDBal
is showing 0.0003 and 0.04 individually. Kolkata metropolitan and surrounding urban areas are increased temperature due
to urbanization, climate change and global warming and overuse of public vehicles. The UHI was increased due to anthro-
pological activities. This study helps to identify the recent thermal variation of this area and build a proper management and
planning for sustainable urban development.

Keywords  Thermal remote sensing · Different spectral indices · Land surface temperature (LST) · Land use and Land
cover · Statistical correlation · Hot spots

Introduction enhancing factor on the equally regional and global concern

Urban areas are mostly used as concentrations of people
engaged in the non-agricultural activity, like build the urban
facility, increasing transportation system, and many other
amenities. Due to urban growth, a particular region is a
consequence of economic and social interactions affecting
this areal land use and land cover (McIntyre et al. 2000;
Neog et al. 2019). The urbanization process has become an
* Bijay Halder
halder06bijay@gmail.com
1
Department of Remote Sensing and GIS, Vidyasagar
University, Midnapore, India
2
Centre for Environmental Studies, Vidyasagar University,
Midnapore, India
3
Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, Kolkata,
India
and its implementation result has dominating in an ecosys-
tem that cannot be ignored to the people (Herold et al. 2003;
Veena et al. 2020). Urbanization process changes the natural
landscape into anthropogenic surfaces which are land covers
with buildings, roads, parking lots, and other paved surfaces
(Ishola et al. 2016). The quantity of artificial land surfaces
is the significant factors of urban environmental quality. At
the present, huge amount of land was transformed to various
lands development like commercial, industrial, transporta-
tion, and residential land. Results are also effecting in phys-
ical prospective of land surfaces, including soil moisture,
material heat capacity, conductivity, surface reflectivity, and
emissivity (Shoshany et al. 1994; Holec et al. 2020). The
most significant environmental influences are the change
of urban land surface temperature (LST) and atmospheric
temperature, which are affected urban internal microclima-
tology, surface energy change, anthropogenic heat discharge,

13
Vol.:(0123456789)

building energy consumption, atmospheric pollution, and
human thermal comfort (Voogt and Oke 2003; Lu and
Weng 2006; Sarrat et al. 2006). The increasing tempera-
ture can affect the human life and environment in multiple
ways. Increased energy consumption, elevated emissions of
air pollutions and greenhouse gases, compromised human
health, and impaired water quality are the result for urban
expansion (https://​www.​epa.​gov/​heati​slands/​heat-​island-​
impac​ts). Urban heat island (UHI) is a metropolitan area
that is warmer than the rural area. UHI is created during
unexpected urban construction, industrialization, and veg-
etation degradation (Veettil and Grondona 2018). Fossil fuel
is another reason for increasing urban heat island.
Land surface temperature is the crust temperature of the
earth surface occurrences. It is reflected in how much hot
of the earth surface and also it depended to the different
categories of LULC categories (Kayet et al. 2016). Many
scientists and researchers are worried about the global LST
change and its impact on environmental issues. Rural–Urban
surface temperature variation at a large-scale study has been
comprehensively documented since the 1970s (Chandler
1976; Oke 1982; Quattrochi and Pelletier 1991). Kolkata,
Howrah, North 24 Parganas and South 24 Parganas are
one of the parts of West Bengal; there are combinations
of urban and rural part. Basically, southern part is dense
forest, and the west and north-western parts are located in
urban area. Mostly in this area have agricultural land. Due to
rapid urbanization process and increasing construction area,
vegetation areas are affected and cause climate change and
growing global greenhouse gases. Nowadays, it becomes a
serious environmental issue. In Rajarhat-Newtown, Barasat,
Madhyamgram and Dum Dum area are a peripheral part
of Kolkata and it increases their urbanization process rap-
idly. Due to the urbanizing process on this area facing huge
amount of vegetation damage that affecting this areal evapo-
transpiration. For those types of environmental cases, this
area faces huge climate change on past decades.
Land surface temperature is advanced method retrieval
from the Landsat series of the thermal band using water
vapor and air temperature (Cristobal et al. 2009; Yao et al.
2019). Land surface temperature is an important factor of
climate change variable to an indicator of the heat energy
balance at the surface (Mundia and James 2014). The LST
and vegetation have been collective in a scatter plot to get
Temperature-Vegetation space which reveals the chronologi-
cal trajectory of pixels ranging from low-temperature high-
vegetation conditions of urbanization methods (Amiri et al
2009; Weng et al. 2004). Using satellite remote-sensing and
ground meteorological data, Kato and Yamaguchi (2005)
have developed a new method to isolate the anthopogenically
settled heat and natural heat radiation from the sensible heat
flux, based on their heat balance model. The use of multi-
temporal and multi-spatial satellite data together establish
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International Journal of Environmental Research
of changes in the temperature-vegetation index (TVX) for
urban land-use and land-cover monitoring and analysis of
urban–rural surface temperature conditions (Zemba 2010).
LST is influenced shortwave surface reflectivity and it is an
important factor of surface component (Ishola et al. 2016).
Highest albedo and impervious surface indicate the highest
mean temperature (Ibrahim et al. 2012).
Satellite remote sensing is an essential part for monitor-
ing, detection; quantification and mapping land-use and
land-cover patterns and their changes, because satellite
covers large spatial coverage, repetitive data acquisition,
the digital format available for computer processing, and
proper geo-referencing application (Jennings 2000; Kerr and
Ostrovsky 2003; Rogan et al. 2006; Pellikka et al. 2009;
Loveland and Dwyer 2012). Surface urban heat island (UHI)
includes an assessment of areal land surface temperature is
not the direct capacity of surface radiation, upwelling ther-
mal radiance, and surface emissivity using thermal remote-
sensing techniques (Voogt and Oke 2003). The spatial model
of urban green area sand impermeable surfaces has been
deliberated using certain landscape metrics similar to patch
density, edge density, landscape shape index (Zhou et al.
2011), and the relationship between the landscape metrics
and local statistics (Zheng et al. 2014). Satellite does not
measure temperature. They measure radiances in various
wavelength bands, which is mathematically calculated the
inferences of temperature.
Urban heat island is the main focus area for sustaina-
ble urban development. Due to the overwhelming popula-
tion, urban areas are increased day by day. Technology can
change the world their innovation through but simultane-
ously climate has been affected in some recent era. Nor-
malized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Soil Adjusted
Vegetation Index (SAVI), Modified Normalized Difference
Water Index (MNDWI), Normalized Difference Built-up
Index (NDBI), Urban Index (UI), and Normalized Differ-
ence Bareness Index (NDBal) were used to detect the co-
relationship with land surface temperature (LST), because
those spectral indicators are used in the various study and
estimated the results. The vegetation indicators denoted that
the correlation was negative due to lack to vegetation degra-
dation and the built-up indicators have been increased due
to urbanization, industrialization, and population pressure.
In this study, we identify the current LST and LULC pattern
in Kolkata and the surrounding urban area. Categorize the
relationship between LST and different spectral indicator to
study the urban heat island (UHI) and its effect on the dif-
ferent spectral indicator. Detect the Hot spots area from the
overall study area. Climate change is hammering the natural
environment and increasing the health-related problem and
variation of temperature and many more.
The aim of this study is to find out the climate change is
how much affected Kolkata and the surrounding area using
International Journal of Environmental Research
geospatial techniques. To identifying the urban heat island
(UHI) land surface temperature and different spectral indica-
tor derived from satellite image are used. Also calculated the
hot spot area over the study region is to identify the highly
temperate area over Kolkata and the surrounding area. The
research results can be useful for proper urban planning and
management over the study region and also focus on the
climate change affected temperature and human health.
Study Area
Kolkata is the capital of West Bengal. Total 1851 k­ m2 area
has been covered by this state along with three major admin-
istrative municipal corporations. Asia’s one of the largest
urban town has been included 38 municipalities, 77 non-
municipal urban towns, 16 suburban areas, and 445 rural
areas. Kolkata is the coastal urban town and this urban area
is situated about 145 km away from the Bay of Bengal. In
this study, Kolkata and surrounding urban, suburban, and
­ m2. Average mean sea level
rural area is situated into 4436 K
(MSL) is 1.5–11 m and the annual average temperature is
26.5 ̊C. Annual rainfall about 1600 mm and the maximum
Fig. 1  Location map of the study area
rainfall occur in the monsoon month of August. As per 2011
Indian census, Kolkata is the seventh most populated city in
India and 4.50 lakh populations with 0.84% of growth rate.
Around 96,868 hector urban areas have been expended and
regularly increased the urban area towards the rural area
(http://​www.​atlas​ofurb​anexp​ansion.​org/​cities/​view/​Kolka​
ta). Kolkata and surrounding areas have situated in lower
Ganga delta and Hooghly River is the main river flowing
north to south (Fig. 1). The area is shared international bor-
der with Bangladesh. One major airport (Netaji Subhash
Chandra Bose International Airport), and two major railway
junction (Howrah and Sealdah) and highways are connected
to other parts of India. The Syama Prasad Mookerjee Poet
Trust (Kolkata Port) is only riverine and oldest operating
port in India.
In some decades, population pressure, Environmental
change, and Urbanization process can hammer this mostly
ecological area of India. Frequently, the area is facing veg-
etation degradation, and sometimes, it is converted into
Agricultural land or the built-up area. Kolkata, Howrah, and
North and South 24 Parganas area is included in this study
because of overwhelming population pressure can change
13

the urbanization process. The urban area has expended
towards Rajpur-Sonarpur municipality, Howrah, Rajarhat,
Maheshtala-Thakurpukur area, Pujali, Barrackpur, Barasat,
and many other areas. Transportation accessibility, technol-
ogy can change the daily life of this area, but climate has
been affected due to urbanization. Urban growth influences
the urban heal island (UHI) development of an area. LST
and many others spectral indicator are used to identify the
recent temperature variant and relation with the urbaniza-
tion process.
Materials and methods
Data sources
The satellite image is collected from the USGS earth
explorer website (https://​earth​explo​rer.​usgs.​gov/). 18th
December 2020 Landsat 8 OLI data are used to identify the
urban heat island study. Path 138 and row 044 are used and
land cloud cover is 0.14. ArcGIS, ERDAS IMAGINE soft-
ware are used for pre-processing, classification, and the map
layout. First, the image is pre-processes and enhanced, and
then classified with the help of ERDAS IMAGINE. Pixel
wise different types of area are identifying and then calculat-
ing the resulted image (Fig. 2). 46 location have been chosen
for delineation the urban heat island because of the field
survey and those location data and plotting area analyzing
for result and discussion section.
Image processing
The image pre-processing counting with geometric, atmos-
pheric, and topographic corrections were conceded out the
Geographical Information System (GIS) indicates spatial
and temporal comparability of satellite datasets. Before
starting the image classification of satellite data, there was
an essential part of pre-processing. It had been a procedure
to more accurately detect the biophysical phenomena on the
bottom and therefore the actual data (Coppin et al. 2004).
Data were pre-processed in ERDAS Imagine for Layer
Stacking, Geo-Referencing, Masking, and Sub-setting using
Area of Interest (AOI). The main objective of satellite image
classification was that the per-pixel overlaying in different
year LULC change detection to calculate the actual thematic
observations (Boakye et al. 2008).
Image classification
Satellite image classification was established by acquiring
different types of the spectral signature of Landsat Image.
After acquiring the imageries, band color composite selec-
tion was the most essential part for different land classes. It
can easily detect the different land observation. Near infrared
color composite NIR (Band 4), SWIR (Band 5), and Red
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International Journal of Environmental Research
(Band 3) were applied for different types of vegetation iden-
tification. Other color composites like Short wave infrared
(7) Near-Infrared (4), and Red (2) band combination are very
sensitive in moisture content identification, which was build-
up area and bare soil (https://​www.​usgs.​gov/​faqs/). Each
spectral signature was created using polygon in respective
satellite images. A satisfactory signature is the one ensuring
that there is ‘minimal confusion’ among the Land use and
Land Cover to be mapped.
In the supervised classification, maximum-likelihood
method is used. A maximum-likelihood classification
method is a useful method for classification in remote
sensing. It is a pixel-based classification of corresponding
classes. The likelihood Lk is defined as the posterior prob-
ability of a pixel belonging to class k.
∑
Lk = P (k∕X) = P (k) ∗ P(X∕k) ∕ P (i) ∗ P(X∕i), (1)
where P (k) is prior probability to observe X from class k,
or probability density function.
Usually, P (k) is assumed to be equal to each other and
ƩP (i)*P(x/i) is also common to all classes. Therefore, Lk
depends on P(X/k) or the probability density function (http://​
sar.​kangw​on.​ac.​kr/​etc).
After the visual interpretation and field survey, the satel-
lite images were classified into five classes. Because of the
major five land classes were identified during field survey.
Post Classification
The post-classification step is used to improve classifica-
tion accuracy (Cheruto et al. 2016). Using different types
of satellite data, medium-spatial resolution of Landsat data
mixed pixels are a common problem (Lu and Weng 2005),
mainly the urban areas are heterogeneous mixtures includ-
ing residential area, roads, railway, soil, trees, water, and
grassland (Jensen et al. 2007). Visual interpretation is an
important part of LULC change analysis. After image clas-
sification, the geographical area for each land-use/land-cover
classes was calculated for change in land-use type within 2
different years. Also, the total percentages were calculated
in ERDAS IMAGINE 14.
Accuracy Assessment
Remote-sensing software is used for the accuracy assess-
ment. Accuracy assessment is a technique, which represents
the correspondence between the aspect of earth surface and
results of the classification. It is very important to detect the
perfect accuracy by the proper classification of different year
satellite imageries to analyze the land-use changes (Owojori
and Xie 2005). Accuracy assessment is an essential part of
any kind of satellite data classification. This method is used
International Journal of Environmental Research
Fig. 2  Detail methodology of this study
to compares with the accurate or ground truth data and the
classified one. The ground truth data were collected by field
or survey. The accuracy was calculated by a classified map
using random point from the ground truth data. Non-para-
metric Kappa test is also used for classification accuracy.
Kappa Statistic
Kappa coefficient is not only a diagonal element but the ele-
ments in the confusion matrix (Rosenfield and Fitzpatrick-Lins
1986). The kappa values are a matric that can compare with
observed accuracy and expected accuracy or random change
(Table 2). This value is not only the calculating factor of a sin-
gle classifier but also the evaluate classifiers. The kappa does
not take in the degree of disagreement between observers and
all disagreement which is treated equally as total disagreement
(Cohen 1968). The kappa statistic is calculated by Eq. 2
(Observed accuracy − Chance accuracy)
K= (2)
(1 − Chance accuracy)
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 International Journal of Environmental Research

where K means Kappa value, and according to Alt- Conversion of kelvin to Celsius (Avdan et al. 2016; Roy
man (1991), Kappa value is most important for accuracy et al. 2014; Yu et al. 2014) is estimated by Eq. 8
assessment.
BT
LST = { ,
(8)
[ ]
Land Surface Temperate Calculation 1 + 𝜆BT
𝜌
In(LSE)

The LST is calculating by this established formula. Sup- where

ported Cao et al. (2008), to estimated brightness temper- λ = the wavelength of emitted radiance.
ature, a two-stop process is followed from Landsat OLI
image. Band 10 is used to calculate the LST of this area. Different Spectral Indices’ Calculation
The equation is that.
Conversion of the digital number (DN) to spectral radi- Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
ance (L) (Rasul et al.2015; Scarano et al. 2015) is calculated
by Eq. 3 Vegetation is one of the essential parts of the land cover of
(
Lmax − Lmin
) the earth. A healthy vegetation area always helps to reduce
L= × B and + Lmin, (3) soil erosion, flood problem. It also helps to balance in car-
DN max
bon dioxide and oxygen cycle and the weather change also
where effected by the vegetation. In India, 33% of vegetation area is
L= Atmospheric spectral radiance (SR) in watts/ very essential for a healthy life. From the Normalized Differ-
­(m2*srad* μm), ence Vegetation Index (NDVI), we can identify or measure
Lmax = Maximum spectral radiance (SR) of the DN value the vegetation quality or quantity of any area. In the map of
BandLmin= Minimum spectral radiance (SR) of Band vegetation quality (NDVI), we identify the degradation or
DNmax = Q cal max – Q cal min = maximum and minimum increase of vegetation in southern parts of North 24 Parga-
difference of sensor calibration. nas district. The NDVI is a multi-spectral remote-sensing
Using the thermal constants given in the metadata file, data technique to identifying the vegetation area, land-cover
the TIRS band data have converted from SR to BT once the classification, water bodies’ identification, open area, and
DN value is converted to SR (Gutman et al 2013) (Eq. 4) many types of forest area. The mathematical calculation of
K2 the NDVI is define the value -1.0 to + 1.0. Water bodies are
BT = ) − 273.15 detected in NDVI values is that the negative values (Eq. 9)
(4)
(
K1
Ln L𝜆
+1
(NIR − R)
NDVI = . (9)
where (NIR + R)
K2 and K ­ 1 represent the band-specific thermal conversion
Here, NIR refers the Near Infrared and R refers Red Band
constants,
in the satellite imagery. For the vegetation damaged area
BT = Brightness temperature in Celsius.
calculation, use Landsat OLI. In remote sensing, the change
Calculation of NDVI (Roy et al. 2014) (Eq. 5)
detection technique is the most powerful technique to iden-
(NIR − R) tify the aerial changes in vegetation-covered area and vegeta-
NDVI = , (5) tion to the non-vegetation area or non-vegetation to vegeta-
(NIR + R)
tion area.
where the range between: − 1 < NDVI <  + 1.
Proportion of vegetation is calculated by minimum and
maximum NDVI value (Yu et al. 2014). Equation (6) Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI).

Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI) is the modified Nor-

)2
NDVI − NDVImin
(
Pv = (6)
NDVImax − NDVI min malized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) for the influ-
ence of soil brightness in the location where the vegetation
Land surface emissivity (LSE) is calculated based on P
­v
covers is low (Congalton 1991). SAVI is calculated as a ratio
value. It used the NDVI Thresholds Method—NDVITHM
between Red and Near-Infrared values with the soil bright-
by applying Eq.  5 (Avdan et  al. 2016; Roy et  al. 2014)
ness improvement factor (L) defined as 0.5 to accommodate
(Eq. 7)
maximum land-cover types of an area (https://​www.​usgs.​gov/​
LSE = 0.004 × Pv + 0.986. (7) core-​scien​ce-​syste​ms/​nli/​lands​at/​lands​at-​soil-​adjus​ted-​veget​
ation-​index). SAVI Index is particularly problematic when
evaluations are existence made across different soil types that

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International Journal of Environmental Research

may reflect various amounts of light in the red and near-infra-
red wavelengths (i.e., soils with different brightness values)
NIR − RED
SAVI = × (1 + L), (10)
(NIR + RED + L)
where.
NIR = The reflectance value of the near-infrared band,
Red = The reflectance value of the Red band,
L = Soil brightness correction factor.
Modified Normalized Difference Water Index
(MNDWI)
The dynamic thresholds are directly affected the overall
accuracy of surface water area extraction. MNDWI was a
formula proposed by Xu (2006) used to identify the water
area. The formula is that (Eq. 11)
(Green − SWIR1)
MNDWI = . (11)
(Green + SWIR1)
The proposed water extraction technique applied Modi-
fied Normalized Difference Water Index (MNDWI) method
is combination with the adaptive dynamic threshold. The
MNDWI was calculated using the satellite image and the
separated water bodies area from background using segmen-
tation technique and select the proper samples.
Normalized Difference Built‑Up Index (NDBI)
NDBI is calculated for the urban area identification where
bareness index, it is establish by exploring the bands with
short-wave-infrared and thermal infrared bands (Eq. 14)
(SWIR1 − TIRS1)
NDBal = . (14)
(SWIR1 + TIRS1)
Hot Spot Calculation
Getis–Ord Gi* statistics inspect the areas where there is a
statistically significant spatial clumping of higher magni-
tudes of a variable, independent of the number of obser-
vations (Getis and Ord 2010). The Getis–Ord Gi* statistic
displays that the z-scores (standard deviations) and p values
(statistical probabilities) that indicate if the attribute results
are statistically clustered, and the larger z-scores and lower
p values indicate a spatial clustering of high occurrences
of hotspots or a high probability of flooding in the given
period (Hassan et al. 2020). The surface temperatures which
can distinguish the heat irregularities are lower than the hot
spot area. The hot spot area is calculated for identifying the
highly temperature area. A spatial unit with the low z-score
value and high p value indicate that the spatial clustering
of a lower occurrence of hotspots or a low probability of
low LST area. A z-score near zero indicates no apparent
spatial clumping for the geographical unit being studied.
The z-score for every region i is computed as (Eq. 15–17)
∑n −
Wij (d)xj − Wi∗ x
G∗i (d) =
j=1
Wi∗ (n−Wi∗ ) 1 (15)
S[ ]2
n−1

Landsat 8 shortwave infrared (SWIR) is characteristically ∑n

higher reflectance compared to the near-infrared region. This xj
X̄ =
j=1
(16)
index (Eq. 12) is used for built-up area and land-use plan- n
ning (Lu and Weng 2006)
�∑
n
(SWIR − NIR) n
x2
NDBI = . (12) S=
j=1 j
− X̄ ,
� � (17)
(SWIR + NIR)
n
NDBI is define the value between -1.0 and + 1.0. Built- where G∗i is the resulted G statistics (z-scores and p values)
up area is detected in NDBI values which are the positive for the pixel of I, xj is represented the LST value for the pixel
values. j, wi and j are represented the spatial weighted between pixel
Urban Index (UI). I and the adjacent−pixel j, n is represented the total num-
Urban Index (UI) is calculating using short-wave-infrared ber of pixels, and X and S are signified the mean value and
and near-infrared band (Zhang et al. 2013). The formula is variance. The urban area is showed a statistically significant
used (Eq. 13) (p < 0.05) as a spatial clustering. This area is indicated the
(SWIR2 − NIR) hot spot area or higher risk area on study area.
UI = . (13)
(SWIR2 + NIR)

Normalized Difference Bareness Index (NDBal)
The barren land solidity is represented by NDBal
(Gašparović et al. 2019). Which is the normalized difference
Results and Discussion
After the pre-processing and subsetting Region of Interest
(ROI), satellite image was processed for the derivation of
LST and different spectral indication. The satellite image

13
 International Journal of Environmental Research

was classified and validated using accuracy assessment and
kappa coefficient. Land Surface Temperature (LST) and
different spectral indicator have been estimated using noti-
fied formula and inspection of the results or changes in this
region.
Land‑Use and Land‑Cover Classification
In this current study, five types of feature were acknowl-
edged for land-use and land-cover map. The LULC clas-
sification has accomplished using supervised classification
technique. The features are Water bodies (6.516%), Set-
tlement (36.27%), Agricultural land (12.13%), Vegetation
(41.159%), and Open Space (3.924%). The rapid urbani-
zation, population pressure, and infrastructural develop-
ment have been affected by this area and increased LST.
Residential area is frequently affected by land use and land
cover. In this study due to population pressure, build-up area
was capturing the mostly area, which was open space, some
vegetation cover area, and agricultural land (Fig. 3) The
economic stability in Rural–Urban fringe or rural area is
mostly dependent in their Agricultural productivity. Peoples
are habited to change their productivity including agricul-
tural area and other thinks in technology. However, in this
area, they were lost their land property. Because in urban
region, it is better sustainable rather than rural region. The
LULC map class is estimated using pixel-based classifica-
tion. Remote-sensing software is used for this classification.
Maximum area covered by vegetation but the central part of
this study area are covered by settlement. The overall accu-
racy and kappa coefficient of this classification were 93.48%
and 0.913, respectively (Table 1).
Arial Distribution of LST
The land surface temperature map is showing the recent
temperature of the study area. The central part of this area
is showing the high temperature due to overwhelming set-
tlement and urban expansion. Some of the high-temperature
zones are also seen in the Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose
International Airport area, Dhulagari (Industrial area, How-
rah), Maheshtala, and northern parts of this study area. Due
to anthropogenic activities and land scarcity, this area faces
a huge amount of temperature variation (Fig. 4). Pollution,
infrastructural development has directly affected the climate
change and resulted in land surface temperature and much
other environmental condition. The geographical distribu-
tion of land surface temperature is showing the LST map.
The highest temperature and lowest temperatures are 33° C
and 18° C, respectively. The mean temperature is showing
25.50 ̊ C. Urbanization, population pressure, and climate
change directly affect the LST. The self-heating area like
Dhulagari, most of Kolkata, and industrial area has mostly
affected by huge temperature in this study area.
Different Spectral Indices
The remote-sensing technique is used to identify the differ-
ent spectral indicator. Landsat 8 bands are used to calculate
the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Soil
Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI), Modified Normalized
Difference Water Index (MNDWI), Normalized Difference
Built-up Index (NDBI), Urban Index (UI), and Normalized
Difference Bareness Index (NDBal). The North-West part of
Table 2  Scale of kappa coefficient
Sl No Value of K Strength of agreement
1  < 0.20 Poor
2 0.21–0.40 Fair
3 0.41–0.60 Moderate
4 0.61–0.80 Good
5 0.81–1.00 Very good

Table 1  Error matrix of the Landsat 8 (OLI) image in 2020

Class name Ground truth/reference Row total Commission error User accuracy
Water body Built-up Area Vegetation Agricultural land Open space

Water body 257 0 14 8 0 279 7.89% 92.11%

Built-up area 0 435 0 12 5 452 3.76% 96.24%
Vegetation 0 0 238 7 3 248 4.03% 95.97%
Agricultural land 0 0 9 134 2 145 7.59% 92.41%
Open space 0 14 5 0 68 87 21.84% 78.16%
Column total 257 449 266 161 78 1211
Omission error 0.00% 3.12% 10.53% 16.77% 12.82%
Produce accuracy 100.00% 96.88% 89.47% 83.23% 87.18%
Overall accuracy 93.48%
Kappa coefficient 0.913

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International Journal of Environmental Research
this study area is covered by a huge agricultural land. Some
parts of north side, central, and south are covering built-
up land. NDBI, UI, and NDBal (Fig. 5d–f) map showing
those area high values. SAVI and NDVI (Fig. 5a, b) result
presented the vegetation-covered area on those maps. Some
of the area covered by scatters vegetation and the vegeta-
tion indicator showing the high values and other areas like
built-up area and water body area demonstrated the low val-
ues. MNDWI map (Fig. 5c) presented the water area on this
study. The south-east parts of this study area are covered
wetland and huge aquaculture area and others sides values
are low on the MNDWI map. Those maps are the good per-
formance to show the correlation between LST and different
spectral indicator on this area in recent time to identify the
urban heat island (UHI) study.
Relationship of LST and Different Spectral Indicators
The relationship between land surface temperature and
land-use/land-cover map is showing the vegetation-covered
area which is low-temperature area others than built-up and
agricultural land. The different land-use/land-cover class
varies different thermal variation. The low value of LST is
showing on water bodies’ area, but the highest land surface
temperature is presented in the built-up area and increased
this area rapidly due to urbanization, industrialization, and
population pressure. Urban heat island (UHI) is showing
many areas like a central part of this study, Dhulagari, Salt
Lake, Kolkata Port, Maheshtala, Thakurpukur, Behala, Bar-
rakpur, Dum Dum, Rajarhat, Rajpur-Sonarpur, Barasat, and
Newtown. Due to more anthropogenic activities, this area
has to face a huge temperature variation and causes urban
heat island.
The impact of vegetation-covered area is understood the
high-temperature values observed over the agricultural land
and vegetated area. To estimate the relationship between
LST and different spectral indicator derived from satellite
image are calculating in ArcGIS software and each point
data have been collected. The result of relationship is cal-
culated in MS Excel-scatter plot using different point data.
This study is observed that the land surface temperature has
shown a substantial improved all over the urban area and
industrial area. The relationship between LST and vegetation
indicator (NDVI and SAVI) and NDBal shows the negation
correlation. The different built-up indices (NDBI, UI) show
the positive correlation with a land surface temperature in
this area. Forty-six (pixel-by-pixel) sample side randomly
used to identify the correlation coefficients between LST
and different spectral indicator (Table 3). The poor cor-
relation is shown in MNDWI (­ R2 = 0.0003), and the good
negative correlations are showing in NDVI (­ R2 = 0.20) and
SAVI ­(R2 = 0.15). That spectral indicator (NDBI and UI)
shows that land surface temperature depends on built-up
land and other industrial work. Urbanization is increased
LST values and decreased the vegetation indicator values
of an area. To investigate the correlation between LST and
NDBI and UI collected 46-pixel values showing the posi-
tive correlation. The correlation coefficient value is showing
NDBI ­(R2 = 0.61), UI ­(R2 = 0.27), and NDBal (­ R2 = 0.04).
This study has resulted that the land surface temperature is
increased where an urban area is situated and others area
is showing low temperature (Fig. 7). The relationship of
land surface temperature and different spectral indicators
shows the variation of urban heat island and indicated that
the climate change has been hammering the local condition,
environmental degradation, and methodological condition
over the study area. The land surface temperature has been
increased gradually due to anthropogenic activities, global
warming, and urbanization process. The built-up index like,
NDBL, and UI were shown high positive correlation with
LST and the NDVI and SAVI were shown high negative cor-
relation with LST because of urban heat were increased due
to anthropogenic activities and vegetation or urban green
spaces were decreased. Need proper planning and manage-
ment for this situation; otherwise, the UHIs are increased,
and gradually, the vegetation area has been decreased. The
problems arrived from this situation are health-related prob-
lem, oxygen deficiency, climate change, global warming,
and methodological condition change.
Analysis of Hot Spot Area
The hot spot is determined by the high z-score and small
p value; correspondingly, small p value and low negative
z-score are defined by cold spot. In the Hot Spot map, three
divisions are converted to high-to-low hot and cold spot
area. More urbanized area, the industrial area is facing a
huge amount of temperature. The high hot spot areas are
located into Dhulagari industrial area, some parts of How-
rah municipality, Central parts of Kolkata, Dum Dum area,
Airport area, Behala-Maheshtala. The total high hot spot
(p < 0.01) area is located on this study around 248.265 ­Km2
(Fig. 6). The Urban heat island study, LST, and the different
spectral indicator are more useful. NDVI, NDBI, SAVI, and
others indicator have used to identify the recent condition
in this area. Land surface temperature estimation is used to
identify the temperature variation and future temperature
prediction in this study area. It can help to categorize the
urban planning for sustainable development.
Limitation and Recommendation
The limitations also have to study the UHI on this area
because of satellite capture the image from space which
creates a different from atmospheric UHI and surface UHI,
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 International Journal of Environmental Research

Table 3  Field survey point- Field survey LST (°C) NDVI SAVI MNDWI NDBI UI NDBal
based pixel values of land point
surface temperature and
different spectral indicator 1 25.0243 0.3098 0.1487 -0.5847 0.1059 0.2959 -0.4544
2 24.0224 0.3309 0.2056 -0.0183 0.1028 0.2471 -0.4765
3 26.0263 0.3084 0.1214 -0.0486 0.1185 0.2507 -0.4251
4 25.0243 0.2864 0.2027 -0.0548 0.0937 0.2121 -0.3625
5 27.0284 0.1863 0.1842 -0.0177 0.1764 0.0247 -0.2155
6 28.0248 0.1667 0.0573 -0.0512 0.2741 0.3708 -0.3876
7 27.0284 0.2297 0.1212 -0.0177 0.2377 0.3381 -0.3254
8 26.0263 0.2567 0.1902 -0.1357 0.2187 0.2385 -0.4572
9 26.0263 0.4125 0.1364 -0.0620 0.2659 0.1917 -0.4265
10 25.0243 0.2410 0.1239 -0.0448 0.2528 0.1361 -0.3254
11 24.7157 0.5565 0.5070 -0.1138 0.1280 0.3201 -0.3958
12 25.7291 0.5847 0.4246 -0.0695 0.1279 0.2366 -0.3654
13 26.0263 0.3398 0.1265 -0.0566 0.2490 0.2557 -0.3254
14 25.7816 0.5174 0.3232 0.0226 0.2356 0.4565 -0.3955
15 28.0284 0.2979 0.2218 -0.0555 0.2868 0.4668 -0.4251
16 28.1255 0.2129 0.2191 -0.4818 0.2842 0.4763 -0.4965
17 27.0284 0.2145 0.0637 -0.0215 0.2949 0.3520 -0.5715
18 26.0263 0.5463 0.1200 -0.0617 0.2485 0.3136 -0.5215
19 27.0284 0.1857 0.1413 -0.0460 0.2878 0.3423 -0.4935
20 25.7685 0.5471 0.2361 -0.0765 0.1926 0.3873 -0.4865
21 29.0327 0.2316 0.0809 -0.0142 0.3054 0.5105 -0.4633
22 25.0243 0.6693 0.2945 -0.0785 0.1753 0.0587 -0.4584
23 27.0284 0.3605 0.1706 -0.1002 0.2448 0.2336 -0.3242
24 28.0305 0.2339 0.0675 -0.0733 0.2622 0.4102 -0.4266
25 25.0243 0.3689 0.1932 -0.0097 0.1835 0.2259 -0.3958
26 25.7250 0.3012 0.1552 -0.0817 0.1631 0.1030 -0.4584
27 26.0263 0.2621 0.1105 -0.0567 0.2047 0.0778 -0.4625
28 25.0243 0.2969 0.1436 -0.0691 0.1422 0.0187 -0.3518
29 25.0243 0.2621 0.1105 -0.0567 0.1523 0.0560 -0.2187
30 26.0263 0.2876 0.1368 -0.0800 0.2158 0.1187 -0.2819
31 25.0243 0.3965 0.3191 -0.0620 0.1833 0.2426 -0.1548
32 24.0224 0.2537 0.2442 -0.1361 0.1709 0.0155 -0.3519
33 26.0263 0.2443 0.0922 -0.1430 0.1512 0.3966 -0.3942
34 30.0350 0.2281 0.1450 0.0014 0.2967 0.5289 -0.3958
35 28.0305 0.2862 0.1378 -0.0633 0.2746 0.3449 -0.4126
36 25.0243 0.2679 0.0947 -0.0487 0.1654 0.2258 -0.4216
37 24.0224 0.6962 0.3282 -0.0238 0.1600 0.3141 -0.4366
38 24.0224 0.5355 0.2650 -0.0674 0.1600 0.3124 -0.2655
39 24.6317 0.5966 0.2619 -0.0637 0.1820 0.3312 -0.3658
40 24.0224 0.2629 0.1593 0.1420 0.1156 0.2501 -0.2986
41 25.0243 0.3345 0.1241 -0.0571 0.1230 0.1860 -0.3628
42 27.0284 0.2239 0.0838 0.0127 0.2776 0.1520 -0.3257
43 25.0243 0.2693 0.1206 -0.0453 0.1959 0.0166 -0.3958
44 26.0263 0.3220 0.1926 -0.0607 0.2491 0.2335 -0.3986
45 25.0243 0.2326 0.1036 -0.0162 0.1394 0.4003 -0.2698
46 28.0305 0.3349 0.1158 0.0123 0.2593 0.2946 -0.2653

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International Journal of Environmental Research
Fig. 3  Land-use and land-cover map
and also cloud cover and time (day–night, summer–mon-
soon–winter) are also important. A substantial gap still
happens between the predictable and the actual ambient
air temperatures and the cosmic noises, the large distance
between urban surface and satellite affect the performance
of these sensors (Mirzaei and Haghighat 2010). It is essen-
tial later to progress a reliable filtration and conversion
model among the radiation received by the satellite sensors
and the actual surface temperatures (Voogt and Oke 2003).
Future research is essential for Kolkata and surrounding
area like urban green space study and it is affected over the
metropolitan area, agricultural productivity, solar power
plant and change in agriculture due to climate change
and temperature variation, groundwater availability, and
13

Fig. 4  Spatial distribution of land surface temperature map
prediction of future land use/land cover to build proper
urban management and planning for sustainable develop-
ment goals. Also, the future studies are necessary for this
location, like, site selection of groundwater potential zone,
site selection for afforestation in the urban areas, and pre-
diction of LULC and LST over the study area. Machine
learning techniques also used for the prediction study,
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International Journal of Environmental Research
trends analysis of temperature variation and precipitation,
site selection of urban flood risk zone, and cyclone and
hazards risk analysis because Kolkata was under IV of the
seismic zonation map of India. Those future studies will
be helpful for better urban planning and management of
Kolkata and surrounding areas.
International Journal of Environmental Research
Fig. 5  Different spectral indicator map: (a) NDVI map; (b) SAVI map (c) MNDWI map; (d) NDBI map; (e) UI map; (f) NDBal map
Conclusion
This study is evaluating the relationship between land
surface temperature and different spectral indicator in
Kolkata metropolitan and surrounding areas. Kolkata and
the surrounding area are facing a huge amount of climate
variation in some decades. Temperature increase, water
scarcity, urbanization, and industrialization are the major
problems in this area. Population pressure is hammer-
ing the natural environment and increased the surface
temperature over this area. The Normalized Difference
Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Soil Adjusted Vegetation
Index (SAVI) are showing negative correlation with LST
and Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI) and
Urban Index (UI) showing a positive correlation. In some
recent era, Kolkata is facing a huge amount of tempera-
ture due to anthropogenic activities like urbanization,
industrialization, population pressure, and vegetation
degradation; the highest temperature is 33 °C in current
time. Groundwater recharge cannot achieve because of
constriction and the deceased of water are. Groundwa-
ter shortage is the reason for water scarcity and resulting
land deformation in some decades. Land deformation is
increasing many environmental disadvantages like flood,
soil erosion, vegetation degradation, water pollution, and
many more. This recent LST study provides basic infor-
mation on this area to investigate better environmental
sustainability. A further study is necessary for future LST
calculation, the impact of LST on climate change, and the
urbanization effect of this area. This study is also used for
future urban planning and upcoming step for sustainable
urban development. The solar power plant is necessary
for discontinuing fossil fuel and using solar energy for
transportation, electricity distribution, and basic needs.
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 International Journal of Environmental Research

Fig. 6  Hot spot location on study area

Rainwater harvesting is more important for water-saving Kolkata megacity and the surrounding area. Otherwise,
and decreased water scarcity. Improved vegetation area is the ‘City of Joy’ has been facing a huge amount of envi-
reducing the surface temperature, evaporation, C ­ O2, and ronmental degradation in future.
soil erosion. This further step is necessary for saving this

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International Journal of Environmental Research

0.8 0.6

0.7 0.5
0.6
0.4
0.5

SAVI
0.3
NDVI

0.4
0.2
0.3

0.2 0.1

0.1 0
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
LST (°C) LST (°C)
0.2 0.4
0.1 0.35
0 0.3
23 25 27 29 31
-0.1 0.25
MNDWI

-0.2 NDBI 0.2

-0.3 0.15
-0.4
0.1
-0.5
0.05
-0.6
0
-0.7 23 25 27 29 31
LST (°C) LST (°C)

0.6 0.0
20 22 24 26 28 30
0.5 -0.1

0.4 -0.2

-0.3
NDBal
UI

0.3
-0.4
0.2
-0.5
0.1
-0.6
0
23 25 27 29 31 -0.7
LST (°C) LST (°C)

Fig. 7  Correlation map between LST and different spectral indicator

Acknowledgements  We would like to thank the Vidyasagar University authors would like to thank the editor and reviewers to their valuable
to support this research. We are also thankful to the Local Government comment for improvement of this manuscript.
body for our field data collection and other necessary secondary data
collection. We also express our gratitude to the United States Geo-
logical Survey Department for providing freely satellite data. Also, the

13
 International Journal of Environmental Research

Declarations  heat discharge and natural heat radiation from sensible heat flux.
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Conflict of interest  On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author
Kayet N, Pathak K, Chakrabarty A, Sahoo S (2016) Spatial impact of
states that there is no financial or non-financial interest to disclose.
land use/land cover change on surface temperature distribution
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