SECTION 1. WHAT IS LECTURE?

A lecture (from the French lecture, meaning reading) is an oral presentation intended to present information or
teach people about a particular subject, for example by a university or college teacher. Lectures are used to
convey critical information, history, background, theories, and equations. A politician's speech, a minister's
sermon, or even a business person’s sales presentation may be similar in form to a lecture. Usually the lecturer
will stand at the front of the room and recite information relevant to the lecture's content.

Though lectures are much criticized as a teaching method, universities have not yet found practical alternative
teaching methods for the large majority of their courses.[1] Critics point out that lecturing is mainly a one-way
method of communication that does not involve significant audience participation but relies upon passive
learning. Therefore, lecturing is often contrasted to active learning. Lectures delivered by talented speakers can
be highly stimulating; at the very least, lectures have survived in academia as a quick, cheap, and efficient way
of introducing large numbers of students to a particular field of study.
Lectures have a significant role outside the classroom, as well. Academic and scientific awards routinely include
a lecture as part of the honor, and academic conferences often center on "keynote addresses", i.e., lectures.
The public lecture has a long history in the sciences and in social movements. Union halls, for instance,
historically have hosted numerous free and public lectures on a wide variety of matters.
Similarly, churches, community centers, libraries, museums, and other organizations have hosted lectures in
furtherance of their missions or their constituents' interests. Lectures represent a continuation of oral tradition in
contrast to textual communication in books and other media. Lectures may be considered a type of grey
literature.

HOW CAN IT BE CONNECTED TO THE ACADEMIC ISSUES AT EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS?

While studying at university, you will be exposed to a lot of information in relation to your field of
study. This information will reach you mainly through reading and listening to lectures. However, it
will not be possible for you to remember all the information that you have read or heard later when
you want to use it for different purposes, for example, to answer questions during examinations. This
means that you need to take notes when reading and listening to lectures. Thus, taking notes is an
important skill that you need to develop in order to besuccessful in your university studies. In this
unit, you will listen to a talk on how to take lecture notes and practice the skill of taking notes.
When taking notes from what you listen you should remember the following points:
 Do not try to write down everything that the lecturer says. Focus only on the mainpoints and important
details
 Do not try to take notes in complete sentences. Use words and phrases.
 As much as possible, use abbreviations (shortened forms of words) and symbolsinstead of writing
words in full.

1
 CHANGING IT TO THE FULL PARAGRAPH
Paragraph is made from a sentence of a group of sentences around one central idea (topic sentence).
Before you start writing the paragraph, plan the content of your paragraph inan outline form, write
your paragraph based on your plan, and revise and edit it before you read it to a neighbor or to the
whole class. You can also give your paragraph to a classmate who can give you feedback on the
language of your paragraph.
SECTION 2: MODALS OF ADVICE: SHOULD, OUGHT TO, HAD BETTER
These three verbs are modal verbs.

 should
 ought to
 had better

Modal verbs are helping/auxiliary verbs that express ideas like ability, advice, and obligation. Many modal
verbs have more than one meaning. They are always followed by the simple form of a verb. For example:
Amanda should go to the doctor.
This shows that we think it is a good idea for Amanda to visit the doctor
MODALS FOR ADVICE
Let's learn how to give advice!
English speakers use the modal verbs “should,” “ought to” and “had better” to express that they think
something is a good (or a bad) idea. “Should” is the most common way to give advice.
Look at these examples:
These examples have the same basic advice message, but “had better” is a bit stronger. It includes the idea
of a warning: something bad will happen if you do not follow my advice. For example:
You had better not forget to pay your tuition. If you forget, the university will kick you out
You had better do your homework. If you do not do your homework, the teacher will give you a low mark.
Note: “You had better...” can be contracted to become “You'd better....” This is correct grammar, and very
common in speaking. Some native speakers say, “You better ...,” but this is incorrect. The “had” is necessary
in good grammar.
In the above examples, you can see that the models are followed by the simple form of a verb in these patterns.
Subject + modal + basic verb + ... You should study harder.
You should to study harder. Wrong! You had better slowing down. Wrong!

2
She ought to to drink more water. Wrong!
Remember that “ought to” is a modal verb and is followed by a simple verb. The “to” is not an infinitive “to.”
Modal + subject + basic verb + …? Should I call my parents or my friend?
WH- (information) questions can also be formed by putting the WH- question word immediately before the
modal.
For example:
What should I do about my problem?
Where should we have dinner tonight?
Why should you believe them?
When should they call their boss?
Affirmative Negative Question

A: I failed my test. Young children shouldn't I have a problem. Should I call my

B: Really? You should watch violent TV shows. parents or my friend?
study harder.

A: It's really cold outside. (“ought to” is not usually used in (“ought to” is not common in
B: You ought to wear a warm the negative form) question form)
jacket.

A: You had better slow down. You had better not forget to pay (“had better” is not usually used in
You are driving too fast! your tuition. If you do, the question form)
university will kick you out!

S M V
How models are used in a sentence.
S: Subject M: Modals V: Verb

Example, Mohammed could play the piano.

Notice.
 There is no “s” in singular.
3
  There is no “do / does” in the question
 There is no “don’t / doesn’t” in the negative
• He can ask the question. CORRECT
• He cans ask the question. NOT CORRECT
• Would you like to come with me? CORRECT
• Do you would like to come with me? NOT CORRECT
• They can’t be serious. CORRECT
• They don’t can be serious. NOT CORRECT

 Tell each other thepurpose of the sentences.

a. Try to prepare yourself in advance.
b. Sit near the front of the room.
c. You should be able to work out the important themes of the lecture.
d. You should not try to write down every word that the lecturer says.
Note that each of the sentences advises you on how best you can take lecture notes. They do this
with the use of infinitives (Try, Sit) and should (should not). Two other ways of giving advice
include the use of ought to and had better.
Example: You ought to work very hard.
You had better work very hard.
Note: Should and ought to express similar meaning. Had better is sometimes used when we want
to make the advice stronger to indicate that the advice we give is really important.
SECTION 3: READING FOR STUDY
WHAT IS A STUDY READING?
Study Reading is a course for learners of intermediate level or above who need to advance their reading skills
for study purposes encourages students to refine their reading strategies through a variety of task-based and
problem-solving activities gives direct advice on how to improve reading efficiency.
To improve your reading comprehension you should apply the following cognitive strategies of effective
readers: activating, inferring, monitoring-clarifying, questioning, searching selecting, summarizing,
and visualizing-organizing.

BASIC SKILLS OF READING

Here are six essential skills needed for reading comprehension, and tips on what can help you to
improve this skill.
 Decoding. Decoding is a vital step in the reading process. ...
 Fluency. ...
 Vocabulary. ...
 Sentence construction and cohesion. ...
4
 Reasoning and background knowledge. ...
 Working memory and attention.

Generally, reading is a fundamental aspect of academic work. It is likely to be the major way to gather
information about the discipline you are studying and it is a very valuable skill to enhance and develop
at university or college. One of the routes to develop the ability to think about and describe the world
in terms of a particular approach is through reading. Reading will provide an understanding of the
academic discipline being studied. Ultimately it will be one of the keys that unlock the door to a career
as a business manager, psychologist, engineer, chemist, teacher, and scientist and so on. As well as
guiding you through your course, it will be an invaluable learning tool in the world of employment.
Reading opens up the possibility of gaining access to and an understanding of the thinking of all the
people who have developed models and theories or written about a particular discipline.
One of the principal objectives of reading for study is to gather ideas and information and to assimilate them
into your own view of the world, and then to be able to express that view through the assessment program or in
seminars. Only by doing this you can understand a subject.

During your time at university or college you will need to approach your reading very intelligently
and diligently by putting considerable effort into it.
As a student it is important to recognize that reading may be the most demanding work you do at
university or college and that a huge volume of reading will be required to pass a course. Almost
certainly reading strategies need to be developed in order to get through the amount of reading to be
done. For some people it may be a matter of changing perceptions about reading. For example, on
entering a library some students will think ‗Oh no, look at all these books to read! While others will
think Oh wow, look at all these books to read – where shall I start? Let me get going! ‘.
 PURPOSES FOR READING
A student will read for many different reasons, and it is important to remember that the way reading
is approached should change depending on the purpose. Glancing through a newspaperto pick out
the main news items is quicker than and different from reading for study, and both involve a variety
of skills. A newspaper often gives only a cursory coverage of a topic, ignoring the details. A
textbook may require detailed study to extract the essential knowledge it contains. When reading,
for example, it is possible to:
a) read an instruction book with the intention of immediately applying the information in
order to play a new stereo, use a cooker, repair a car;
b) read an enjoyable, exciting novel for escapism, as quickly as possible, with no need to
worry about remembering any of the story afterwards;
c) skim through the pages of a magazine for the latest developments; or
d) Scan the pages of a newspaper to absorb the main headlines that day, disregarding the
advertisements altogether.
SECTION 4: GRAMMAR FOCUS: PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
5
  I have lost my keys. I can‘t open the door.
(Finished action that has an influence on the present)
 Classes have already started. (action that is going on)
 Ujulu has cooked dinner. (action that stopped recently)
 I have never been to Moyale. (action that has taken place once, never or several times
before the moment of speaking.

The present perfect tense action can be understood more easily in contrast with an actionexpressed
in the simple past. Look at the following examples of the use of the two tenses:
 A: I have read this novel before.
B: Have you? When did you read it?
A: About two years ago.
 A: They have constructed a new road in this area.
B: When did they finish the construction?
A: Last year.
SECTION 5: GRAMMAR FOCUS: CONDITIONALS
TYPE 'ZERO'
In these sentences, the time is now or always

 The situation is real and possible.

 Statements about the real world, and often refer to general truths, such as scientific facts.
 A: If + S + V1 (s/es), S + V1 (s/es)
 If you heat ice, it melts. (or): Ice melts, if you heat it.
 B: If + S + V1 (s/es), please V1 Don’t V1 If you don’t mind, (please) lend me some dollars! (or): (Please)
lend me some dollars if you don’t mind!
TYPE 1 = FUTURE CONDITIONAL/LIKELY IN FUTURE TIME
 To show a probability in the future time.
 (perhaps/maybe) If + S + V1 (s/es), S + will + V1 (shall, may, can)
 If I have enough time this afternoon, I will help you. (or): I will help you if I have enough time this
afternoon.

TYPE 2 = PRESENT CONDITIONAL. Contrary to the fact (PRESENT)

 The time is now or any time.
 The use of the past tense after 'if' indicates unreality. If + S + V2 , S + would + V1 (should, might,
could)

6
  If I won the lottery, I would be happy. Fact/Truth: I don’t win the lottery so that/therefore I am not
happy.
 I would be happy if I won the lottery. Fact/ Truth : I am not happy since/because I won the lottery.
(contrary)
 NOTE: If she were slim, I would like her more.
TYPE 3: PAST CONDITIONAL contrary to the fact (PAST)

The time is past,
The situation is contrary to reality.
If + S + had + V3, S + would + have + V3 (could, should, might)
If I had gone by car, I would have arrived dry.

Fact/Truth: I didn’t go by car so that/therefore I didn’t arrive dry.

I would have arrived dry if I had gone by car. Fact/Truth : I didn’t arrive dry since/because I didn’t
go by car
SECTION 6: METHODS OF GUESSING WORDS MEANING
Guessing from context is one of the most effective strategies for tackling difficult or unfamiliar words in the
reading foreign language. In order to guess effectively it is better to use clues to the meaning g of difficult words
.There are various types of clues. Some of these are:

1. One type of clue to look for in the context is the use of synonym, words of roughly the same meaning,
synonyms or partial synonyms are often separated by commas, or words that indicate that the word is
synonyms. Example, or, and ……the writer uses such kinds of words for different purpose within the given
context. For example, he /she think that the first word that he/she uses in the text is not clear for readers to
convey the intended meaning in that context. Moreover, he /she may use to show emphasis.

Example 1, Almaze is underprivileged, deprived and neglected of her right by her husband. Here in the
sentence above underprivileged and deprived are separated by comma and the word deprived is connected to
neglect by ‘and’ to mean the same thing.
Example 2, The main purpose or the function of this chemical is to get rid of armful microorganisms.

2. Antonyms as clues: these are words that are roughly opposite in meaning. For example tall and short. The
writer use this kinds of words in a sentence, paragraph or in an essay for the same purpose as in synonyms.

Example, I don’t know both the exit and the entry of this building. Here the word ‘exit’ is the opposite
of ‘entry’. Therefore, someone who do not know the meaning of ‘exit’ can easily guess from ‘entry’

3. Word part( component) as clue.This is the kind of word which is made from one meaningful morpheme
and/or word

Example , the chair manof this kebel is warmly welcomed by all the villagers. Here chair man and
welcome are made from two different words but to stand for one thing. Therefore, when dissected and
further sorted out in their meaningful components or morphemes it seems chair + man(leading person),
well + come(warm greeting) and their meaning is easily guessed from individual word.

7
4. Collocation as clue: the word collocation means to work ( to go together) with in the particular context. That
is to mean the meaning of the single word varies because of the word it goes with. Therefore, the meaning
of the ultimate ( original) word is influenced by the other words it goes with.
Example ,weget water from the river.(fetch)
I get letter from my sister. (receive)
It gets darker and darker. (become) Here the meaning of ‘get’ is dramatically changed because
of water, letter and darker.
5. Definition as clue. This means that there is the possibility to define , explain and illustrate words and
expressions in some conversation(communication) for some special purpose.
Example ,a bicycle is a bipedal locomotive device.
6. Wider context as clue. This deal with all the entire text... During this time the words whose meaning the
reader can understand should always greater in number when compared to the rest of words with those
meaning he /she is not familiar For example , if the text is made from 150 words the reader is not required
to understand all the words used in the text it is enough if the reader knows majority of them.
Example, Ayele is a hard working student. He wake up early in the morning and prepare himself for
school after he has made his bed room. It is himself who prepares his own food. He cooks his meal
usually after he gets back from school. Furthermore, he is a top ranking student. He spend most of the
night working on his courses. In the day hours he visits different libraries in the city and browse the
internet. He is indeed a diligent boy.
NB. Here we can easily find the meaning of diligent from wider context which mean almost the same
with hardworking ,clever, talent ……
7. Topic relationship as clue. This is simply mean that relation the new word within the text to the topic of the
passage For example, if the topic is all about the spread of HIV/AIDS, willingly all the words which may be
used under this topic would say something about the subject matter but nothing else. Thus, the words are
interrelated.
SECTION 7: THE PRESENT SIMPLE, PAST SIMPLE, PRESENT PERFECT AND PAST PERFECT
IN CONTRAST
1. Match each type of tense in A to its use in B and compare your answers with your neighbor‘s.
Each tense has more than one use.
A B
1. Present simple a. expresses an experience that happened at some time in one‘s
life
2. Past simple b. makes clear that one action in the past happened before
another action in the past
3. Present perfect c. expresses an action that happens again and again
4. Past perfect d. expresses a finished action in the past
e. expresses an action that began in the past and still continues
f. expresses a fact that is true for a long time
8
 g. expresses a past action that has a present result
h. expresses a past situation or habit
i. expresses a fact that is always true

SECTION 8: PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

Paragraph is made from a sentence or a group of sentences around one central idea.

 Topic sentence: is the central idea in a paragraph which is usually located at the top of the paragraph in a
simple writing system.

Example: library is the best place for studying

 Developing sentences: sentences which are used to expand the idea of the topic sentence in specific sentences

There are a number of reference books in the library.

 Concluding sentence: is a sentence used to finish the idea of the topic sentence.

Therefore, library is the chosen place for having study with a full concentration.
SECTION 9: CONNOTATION AND DENOTATION
Connotation and Denotation are two principal methods of describing the meanings of words. Connotation refers
to the wide array of positive and negative associations that most words naturally carry with them, whereas
denotation is the precise, literal definition of a word that might be found in a dictionary
Introduce the idea of connotation, defining it as the associations that people make with a word. You can contrast
connotation with the denotative value of a word, its more literal meaning, and give an example of a word (such
as "chicken")
Thus, connotation is the emotional and imaginative association surrounding a word, but denotation is the strict
dictionary meaning of a word.
Rank the words in order from positive to negative.
Group 1: Thin, slim, lanky, skinny, gaunt, slender
Group 2: Aggressive, assertive, domineering, dynamic, pushy, forceful
Group 3: Shrewd, egghead, bright, clever, brilliant, cunning, smart, intelligent, and brainy
SECTION 10: COLLOCATION

Some words occur with other words in a predictable way. This is called collocation. Collocation is
a sequence of words or terms that co-occur (affiliated with each other) in a conventional style. In
other words, collocations are partly or fully fixed expressions that become established through
repeated context-specific use. Such terms as 'crystal clear', 'middle management', 'nuclear family', pay
attention fast food‘, make an effort and 'cosmetic surgery’, ’strong coffee’ are examples of collocated

9
pairs of words. Collocation is one of the things that you need to know about a word. Therefore, it is
important that you focus on collocation when you study vocabulary
SECTION 11: ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

Voice refers to the form of a verb that indicates when a grammatical subject performs the action or is the receiver
of the action. When a sentence is written in the active voice, the subject performs the action; in the passive voice,
the subject receives the action. In academic writing, it is generally preferred to choose an active verb and pair it
with a subject that names the person or thing doing or performing the action. Active verbs are stronger and
usually more emphatic than forms of the verb “be” or verbs in the passive voice.
Active: The award-winning chef prepares each meal with loving care.
Passive: Each meal is prepared with loving care by the award-winning chef.

In the above example of an active sentence, the simple subject is “chef” and “prepares” is the verb: the chef
prepares “each meal with loving care.” In the passive sentence, “meal” is the simple subject and “is prepared”
is the verb: each meal is prepared “by the award-winning chef.” In effect, the object of the active sentence
becomes the subject in the passive sentence. Although both sentences have the same basic components, their
structure makes them different from each other. Active sentences are about what people (or things) do, while
passive sentences are about what happens to people (or things).

.1.1. USING THE AUXILIARY VERB “BE”

The passive voice is formed by using a form of the auxiliary verb “be” (be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been)
followed by the past participle of the main verb.
Active Passive
He loves me. I am loved.
We took our children to the circus. The children were taken to the circus.
A thief stole my money. My money was stolen.

Notice how the “be” auxiliaries change the meaning of the verbs from action to condition or from “doing” to
“being.”
He remembers his grandmother. (“he” is doing an action: remembering)

His grandmother is remembered. (“she” is in a condition: being remembered) In this way, the past participle
functions very much like an adjective; it describes the subject. The woman is pretty. She
is a pretty woman
The woman is married. She is a married woman

.1.2. WHEN TO USE PASSIVE VOICE

10
Although active voice is generally preferred in academic writing, passive voice is acceptable under certain
conditions.
Use passive voice:

 to emphasize the receiver of the action instead of the doer.

Money has been stolen.
 to keep the focus on the same subject through several sentences or paragraphs

Jemal and sister grew up and went to school in Dire Dawa. They were educated according to the Ethiopian
education system. In 2008 they were given the opportunity to go to the Keniya. They decided to finish high
school before leaving their own country. They were concerned that the education in this country might not be as
good as the one they had there, and they wanted to improve their English too.

 when we do not know who performed the action:

His calculator was made in Germany.

 when we do not wish to mention the doer of the action:

Many problems have been ignored for too long.

I was given some bad advice.
Note: This use often reveals an unwillingness to take responsibility (or place it on someone else).

 when we want to sound objective or avoid using the subject “I”

Studies have shown . . .
It is well-known. .
It has been established. .

.1.3. VERB TENSES USED IN ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

The following is a summary of active and passive forms of all verb tenses. Remember that in active forms the
subject of the sentence is the person or thing that does the action. In passive constructions, the verb is performed
by someone or something other than the subject; often, the action is done to the subject by someone else.

1. Present Time
1.1. Simple Present

Use the simple present tense to make a generalization, to present a state of being, or to indicate a habitual or
repeated action.
Active Passive
base form or “-s/-es” form am/is/are + past participle
A. Professor Kebede teaches at Dire Dawa University . Iftu is taught by Professor Kebede
11
B. All humans are equal. All humans are created equal.
C. Maria eats in the cafeteria. The cafeteria is cleaned

1.2. Present Progressive

Use the present progressive to describe an ongoing activity or a temporary action.

Active Passive
am/is/are + -ing am/is/are + being + -ed/-en
A. The students are learning English. Classes are being conducted in English.
B. He is writing a letter. A letter is being written.
1.3. Present Perfect

Use the present perfect to describe an action occurring in the past but relevant to the present, or extending to the
present.
Active Passive
has/have + -ed/-en has/have + been + -ed/-en
A. Hunter has opened a language institute in Dire Dawa. The language institute has been opened.
1.4. Present Perfect Progressive

Use the present perfect progressive to describe an ongoing action beginning before now and is still relevant to
the present.
Active Passive
has/have + been + -ing has/have + been + being + -ed/-en
Hunter has been awarding BA and MA diplomas. BA and Ma has been being awarded.

Note: most of the perfect progressive form is not used in the passive voice Because of awkward construction of
the time . Instead, an adverb may be used to show continuing action:
For instance “We have been repeatedly scolded for being late.”

2. Past Time
2.1. Simple Past

Use the simple past to indicate a general or habitual action occurring in the past or at a specific time in the past.

12
Active Passive
base + -ed or irregular form was/were + -ed/-en
A. Our family bought all our clothes at Sears when I was young. The clothes were bought by my mother.
B. My uncle gave me one hundred dollars. The money was given to me to buy new clothes.

Notice: In informal conversation, speakers of English often express habitual behavior in the past using the modal
“would.” Active would + base Passive would + be + -ed/-en( communication may be formal/informal.
Example, we would usually eat burgers in the food court. Active
Most of the French fries would be eaten before we got to the table. Passive

2.2. Past Progressive

Use the past progressive to indicate an ongoing action in the past or an action continuing through a specific past
time.
Active Passive
was/ were + -ing was/were + being + -ed/-en

A. Kuma and Fatuma were playing tennis. Tennis was being played by Kuma and Fatuma.
2.3. Past Perfect

Use the past perfect to indicate an action completed prior to a particular time or before another action in the
past.
Active Passive
had + -ed/-en had + been + -ed/-en
The mother had kissed her daughter. Daughter had been kissed by her mother.

2.4. Past Perfect Progressive

Use the past perfect progressive to indicate a continuing action that began before a past action or time.
Active Passive
had + been + -ing had + been + being + -ed/-en
Mother had been cooking wet. Wet had been being cooked by mother.

3. Future Time
3.1. Simple Future

Use the future to indicate an action that is expected to take place at a future time.

13
Active
will + base
Fatuma and Jemal will marry in June.
or or am/is/are going to + base
Fatuma and Jemal are going to marry in June.
Passive
will + be + -ed/-en
They will be married in June.
am/is/are + going to be + -ed/-en
They are going to be married in June.

3.2. Future Progressive

Use the future progressive to indicate an action in future with emphasis on continuing action.
Active Passive
will + base + -ing will + be + being + -ed/en
They will be playing tennis. Tennis will be being played

3.3. Future Perfect

Use the future perfect to indicate a future action expected to be completed before another future action or time.
Active Passive
will + have + -ed/-en will + have + been + -ed/en
They will have bought a house. The house will have been bought.

3.4. Future Perfect Progressive

Use the future perfect progressive to indicate an action projected to have been going on for a while before a
time in the future.

Active Passive
will + have + been + -ing will + have + been + being + -ed/-en
They will have been playing football. Football will have been being played

14
15
16
17