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(2uantuinCoinputer

Akio HOSOYA i
Department of Physics
[[bkyo Institute
of [02chnology
Oh-Okayama, Meguro-ku,[Ibkyo 152
Japan

Abstract
In I will give an introd.uctory
this talk overview of the recent devel-
opment of quantum computation which includesthe factoring and the
fault-tolerant
eTror correctin.

1Introduction
Around ten years ago Deutsch[1] and other people[2] proposed a new concept of
computation based on the fundamentalprinciples of quantuin mechanics, Since
then and in these two years in particularthere have been a rapid progress in
the study of quantum computer both in algorithms and experiments, I will give
a briefreview on what the quantum computation isand what have been done
recently

2What isquantumcomputer?
Befbre goingintothe description
of quantum computer, we have to understand
how the ordinary computer I call classical computer
,which works in principle,
IE-mail address: ahosoya@phys,titech.ac,jp

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Any classical computers can be reduced to a conceptual Turing machine,

w}tich consists of a Iengtl}
t,apeof and aseini-infiTiite processor,On the tape,
a string of O'sand 1'sare written in, The head of the processor can read and
rewrite the O's and 1'sand go back and forthaccording to a program, We
call a particularconfiguration of the tape as a"state". So computation is a
prograimned transitionfrom a particularstate other state,[3] Iforexample, if
you want to do a multiplication by two, you can simply put a single O at the
very end of the number you want to multiply expressed in the binomialsystem,
Quantumcomputer allows a superposition of states IO> and
11> as a state,

This is physicallyrealizable in principlein a spin 112 particlesystem with a

magnetic moment forexample by denotingthe spin up(down) state as the state

iO> (ll >).Applying a magnetic field an

with angle e to the quantization axis,z-
axis, we can obtain a superposed state cose12IO > +sinO1211 >,In generalthe
coeMcients can be complex numbers. This two dimensionalcomplex Hilbert
space iscalled "
qubit" .
In practice we need many qubits in the tensor product form and can re-
alize by many particle system, As I said beforethe computation means the
programmed transitionof states, This tiTnethe transitionhas to be done by
unitary transformations because of one of the fundamental principles of quan-
tum mechanics, As computation prQceedsthe state undergoes the successive

unitary transformation in a superposed form, We may consider the transition

of the superposed state as a parallelcomputation, This is the heart of quantum
computation and the reason why quantum computer can beat classical computer

in some case which I shall explain later,

How can we get computational results? By rneasurement, of course. In
quantum mechanics, measurement is a non-unitary process,Suppose we mea-
sure the "z-component"
of a spin fbr a superposed state alO> +Pll >. The
Copenhagendoctrinetellsus that we would get either the state IO
> with the
probability ia12 or the state 11 > with the probability lbl2.
Hence quantum computer tellsus the answer to the prob}em only proba-
bilistically,
If the probabilityissuMcient}y high we can repeat process of the
measurement and check the result by classical computer to finally
get the right
answer,

3 Quantum logicgates
In order Lo hnpleniei}tthe unitary trans[brmation in quantuin computation we

need an analog of logicgates,which we call quantum logicgates,The unitary

traiisfoTmationis a reversible transformation of states so that we cannot use
the standard AND,OR and EXOR gatesin the classical comput･er architecture.
Deutsch and other people proved that 1-qubit gatefor unitary transfbrmation
aBd the se-called (2-qubit) centrolled-NOT gate are sufficient to do an arbit-rary
unitary transfbrmation foran arbitrary number of qubits.The quantum Turing

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machine isuniversal![1]
iti(luat",mT} coit)ptitatior) isloc;Ll,
lt)a sense,t,]te unitary t,r;u)stbrtnat,ion i.e.
step by step, This isa good news forpeoplewho want to make an actual device
for quantum computer, because gates which involvemore than 3 qubits are
almost impossibleto make, though even 2-qubitgate isnon-trivial to construct,
The controlled-NOT gate consists of the control bitand the target bit,Its
functionis that ifthe input state of the control gate is10> the target state
dees not change while ifitisIl>, the target state flipsitsstate from iO>(Il >)
to l!>(10 >)(Fig,1),
N-qubit unitary transformation can be reduced to a combination 2-qubit
'
unitary transformations.[4] An
2-qubit unitary
arbitrary transformation can be
made by using 1-qubittransformationsforeach transformation and controlled-U
gates, The controlled-U gateissuch a gate that ifthe inputstate of the control
gate 10>is the target state does not change while ifitis >, the target state ll
undergoes the unitary transformation U from >(11 >) to UIO >(UP >), The IO
controlled-U gate can be constructed by a combination of the two controlled-
NOT gates and the three 1-qubit unitary transformations A,B and C which
satisfy the algebras; ABC = 1 and A.XBXC = U with X beinga Paulimatrix
x =

(9 6)
constructed in a
, otherusefu} gates,e g
similar way, which we use
the controlled-controlled-NoT
later,
can be

4 Experiments
Very recent,]y NBS people succeeded i" 1)ui[ding a cotit,rolled-NOT gate by using
the laser-cooled ion traps[5][6], The deviceisthat a single Be+ ion trapped in
a electromagnetic fieldhas two vibrational energy levelsand also two hyperfine
levelsdepend whether the spin of electron isparallel or anti-parallel to the spin
of Be+, We can control the energy levels by irradiating the ion by lasers. There
the vibrational levelsare used as a control bit while the hyerfinelevelsas a
target bit,Letthe fburstates be IO> IO>, 10> ll >, Il > 10>, il > ll >, where
the first factorin the tensor product corresponds to the vibrational control bit,
while the second to the hyperfine target bit,
The ideaisthe following,Suppose the state isinitially in the state 11> IO>
or ll > 11 >. By irradiating the beam with the frequencycorrespondjng to the
vibrational energy difference with an appropriate time duration,we can make a
transitionto a superposed state

ll>IO> -ll>(iO>+ll>)!th

(i)(2)
ll> ll> -
11> (-10
> +ll >)1fi

Our system has another auxiiiary >, By state

la another laserbeam with
an appropriate frequencyand the time duration,we can make a reund trip

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transitionfrom the [1> 11> stateto itself via the auxiliary state > with la a

net eflect being a minus as a phase cha]ge,This givesthe second transition

ll>(IO>+Il>)1th -Il>(IO>-ll>)IVEi (3)

Il>(-IO>+11>)1fi -11>(-iO>-11>)1th, (4)
And then repeat the firstprocess, TQ summarize, we have got a transitionfrom
to finalstates as
the initial

ll>IO> --ll>11> (5)

11>11> --ll>IO>, (6)
We can immediatelyrecognize that the target bit(thesecond factor)flips!
On the the hand forthe initial state IO> IO> or IO> 11> the phase change
does not occur, becausethe frequeneyof the second laserbeam does not match
to make the transitionto the auxiliary state la>. IIenceby the third process
back to the original states. Namely, we obtain
the states are just

10>10> -10>IO> (7)

IO>ll> -IO>ll>, (8)
Obviouslythe target bit does not flipthis time, Combining all cases together
we have got a control}ed-NeT gate.The experimentalists achieved 90% success

rate,

5 Shor's algorithm for factoring

In 1994 Peter Shor[7]showed an explicit algorithm on a quantum computer
which can factora largenumber in polynomial time.The factoringis a noto
riously diffcultproblem in the classical computation, because it consumes a

Iargeamount of time-steps. This computational complexity isexploited in the

public-key cryptosystem,
Let us begin with a number theoret,ic preliminaries,We are giver)
a number

Ai to be fLactored, which isnot a prime power. Choose a number lessthan N

and also coprime to N, We are going to solv'e an equation

atr=1 modN (9)

for r on a quantum computer, Suppose we have a solution r which iseven, If
not try another x until we get an even r, The chance is roughly fifty-fifty.
The
equation (9)means
(x'12+1)(x"!2-1)=integer N × (le)
This clearly shows that
eithei
(xr12
+ 1) or (x'/2
- 1) contains a common factor
to N, Precisely, either gcd(x'/2 + 1,N) - or gcd(xr12 1,N) is a factorof

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IV,The Euclidalgorithm givesthe greatestcommbn divisorwSthout dolngany

fact,oring
in polynomial t,imein c]assica] comptita(,ion,
Now turn to the problem to find r which satisfies the equation (9)on a
quantum eomputer. First generate a double Fburierexpansion

(n)
.ll,li.,exp[2gTZac]lc)Ia)

in a polynomial time, where g = 2" is chosen between 2N2 and 4N2 from
a technicalreason, An example of quantum circuit for the Ifourier transfor-
mation is shown in Fig,2,which exploits the binomialexpansions of integers
a =
Z)i ai2' ,c =
£ i cj･2j and tljefactthat we can pick up the phase exp[2f'!i 2i+s']
ifand only ifai =g = 1, This dou blerestriction isexpressed as a controlled-
controlled-NOT gate which controls the i-thand j-thqubits in the circuit.The
circuit clearly shows how the quantum computation is fast,[[bdo 22" term
calculations we only need n2 gatesby using the quantum parallelism.
Then we do the exponentiation la) lxamod N)[8] again in･apolynomial
-

time to obtain

mod N) (i2)
.lll,li.,exp[2qTZac]lc)lxa

Finallywe measure lc> and lx"mod N), The probabilityto get c and xk is

il.llil-
i i )ir

i..o..
t:, modN
exp[2gM ae] i2 f(g-
==

o
exp[2iz brc] i2 o3)

Here we have used the factthat under the condition x' 1 mod N x" = =

xk mod N implies a = br +k,

The probabilityhas a sharp peak only ifrc isan integermultiple of g. This
means that the smallest periodobtained by the measurements of clq is11r. It
ispossibleto show that we will get the smallest one with a high probabi}ity by
using number theoretic arguments which I skip here, IIencewe can obtain a
solution of xr =1 mod N on a quantum computer in a polynomial time,
The factoring problem beloRgsto the so-called NP problem in the complexity
class of computation but itisnot known whether oT not itbelongsto the NP-
comp]ete problem, an example of which is-the well-known traveling salesman
problem.

6 Fault-toleranterror correction codes

We have to keep the quantum coherence t/hroughout the computatioll prcF
cess.Therefore one of the mest serious obstacles in the actual construction of

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quantum computer would be the decoherence effect, Vk)ry recently Shor and
niany people have,investigated possibleerror correct,ion inechanisni which cor-
rects the error at the software levelin a fault-tolerant way[9], I am going to
sketch theirideaof quantum error correction.
The basic ideaisanalogous to the classical error correcting codes. Firstin-
troduce a redundant bits,For example, inorder to send a 1-qubitinformation
we prepare5-qubits. Assuming that error can occur only in 1-qubitthe circuit
can detectwhich bit and what kind of error has occurred during the compu-
tation, Explicitly,
the single qubit base encoded in the 5 qubit states isgiven
as

Ico> =
looooo
>
+111000 > +101100 > +100110 > +IOOOII > +IIOOOI >
-110100 > -101010 > -100101 > -llOOIO > -101001 >
-lllllO > -iOllll > -IIOIII > IllOll > -illlOl >
'lcl>
=Pllll> (14)
+IOOIII > +IIOOII > +111001 > +IlllOO > +IOIIIO >
-101011 > -llOIOI > -111010 > -IOIIOI > -110110 >
-looeol > -lloooo > -lolooo > -looloo > -looolo > ,

The possible 1-qubit error be expressed can

as one of the Paulimatrlces
Xo , XiX2 , X3 X4(bit error),Yb
, , Yi , Y) , IYkIYZ(bit and phase error), ,

Zo,Zi,Z2,Zb,Z4(phase error).Let it be e, Namely, {elco >,eici >} is an

errored qubit, The error operator e can 1)eidentified by lookingat the eigen-
values of a set of checking operators Mo, Mi M2, M3,which are composed , from
the X's,Y'sand Z's,The eigenvalues are either +1 or -1 so that there are 24
disthict possibi]ities, which serve to identify the error e or no error at al]. In
the case of no error in particu}ar ,the "correct states" >,lci >} satisfy {lco
Mt [c>= Ic>,i= O,1,2,3,
We can construct a quantum circuit which can successively measure the
eigenvalue of the M's and thus identifye, The results are
checking operator
transmitted via controlled-NOT gatesto activate the same e in an a ppropnate
qubit, which corrects the error in a fault-tolerant
way,In Fig,4the R operation
is the 1-qubit 90 degreerotation which transform the eigenstates of Z to those
ofX at that qubit.

7 Summary
Quantumcomputer parallelcomputatioll
can do
by unitarily transforming a
a
superposed state, The
transformation islocally
unitary implemented by combi-
nation of 1-qubitand 2-qubit togicgates. The computational result can be ob-
tained probabilistically
by measurements. In some cases likefactoring quantum
compllter can do itsjobvery fast,(See
a recent review by Ekert and Jozsa[10],

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Some experimental investigations haVebeen initiated but to actually con-

struct the niachine there remain serious dificulties
to overcome includingthe de-
coherence. The recent developmentofthe fault-tolerant error cerrection method
isone step forwardto the realization of quantum computation,

My personalimpressienisthat we still do not fullyunderstand the power of

quantum computation, We need to solve moTe problernson a quantum computer
which has been known to be diMculton an Qrdinary computer. We alse have to
think alternative experimantal options forquanturnlogicgatein thisvery early
stage of novel technology,

References
[1]
D,Deutsch, Proc.Roy.Soc.London Ser.A 40096(1985),

[2]
R.P,Fbynman, Fbund.Phys. 16 507(1986),

[3]
R.P, Feynman, Feynman Lectures Computation A.J.G.Heyand R.W.
on ed,

Allen, Addison-Wesley (1996).

[4]
A,Barenco,C,H,Bennett, R,Cleve, D.P,,DiVincenzo, N,Margolus,P,Shor,
T, Sleator,J, Smolin,andH, WeinfurterPhys.Rev.A 52 3457 (1995),

[5]
J.I,Cirac P. Zoller Phys.Rev.Letters74 4091(1995) ,
and

[6]C,Monroe, D,M,Meekhof, B.E.King, W.E.Itano, and D,I. Wineland,

Phys.Rev.Letters 75 4717 (1995),
[7]
P.W,Shor,in Proceedingof the 35th AnriuatSymposiuin on Foundationof
ComputerScience,
IEEE ComputerSociety
Press,Los Alamits,CA,
pp.116-
123(1994),

[8]
V. Vedral,A, Barenco A, Ekert Phys.Rev.A 54139(1996),
,and

[9]
D.P, DiVincenzo P.W. Shor Phys.Rev.Lett 773260(1996).
and

[10]
A, Ekertamd R. JozsaRev. Mod. Phys. 68 733(1996).

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　　　　　　　　　　　 1996年 度九 州地 区地 域 研 究 会
「
： 量 子 重 力 と量 子 宇 宙 論 」 一 D97 一

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　10
＞　 　 　 　 　 　 　 ll＞
・。T −・…
　 　 許 厂
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　（input）　　　　　　　（output ）

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　 control 　
bi
controlled
NOT −gate
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　target 　bit
it　　　　　　　　
X　　　　　　　　　　（output ＞

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　冂＞ 　 　 　 　 　 ll＞
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　 K〕
＞　 　　 　 　 IO＞

　 function　of
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　 　　　　　　　 l（》 　　　 　　　口〉

i・ p ・t＞ 。 ・tp・ t ）
（
　
　　　　
　　　　
　　　　
　　　
　　　　
（i叩 t） 　 、 （。 ・ tp ・ t ） 　 （ 　

　
　　　Fig．1　　　　　　CONTROLLED − NOT 　GATE
　

　 I　　
　　　　　　　　　　　 （
｝＞ 　　　　　　　　　　　 UlO＞
−
　
　　U −gate 　 −

　　　　controlled −U 　　
gate
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　u

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　ABC ＝1 AXBXC ，
呂 U
　A 　 X 　 B 　 X 　
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　’ C
　2　qubit　 unitary 　trasformation
　can be done by
　 　 　

Fig．22 −
qubit　unitary 　transformation

一
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IO>+Il>
10>+11>
10>+11>

os 42484816

IO>+Il>
IO>+l1>10>+ll>

Fig.3 DoubleFouriertransformation

N
slllttl
identify1-qubit error
correcUonl
v
o
1234

lo>

-------;8

M3
'

----- l:"

-M4 '-'"--ZL

Mo
:,,.-,-
O
--]-

Ml
/t

observation of M's

Fig.4A circuit forfault-tolerant

error cQrtiection

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