Photogrammetry- science of making measurements
from aerial photographs. Measurements of horizontal
distances and elevation are the backbone of this
science.
- Resulting in qualitative measurements from
aerial photographs.
Planimetric maps/orthophoto maps- showing the
horizontal locations of both natural and cultural
features.
Topographic maps- showing spot elevations and
contour lines.
Mosaics- involves assembly of vertical air photos to
produce photographic map
-considered an aspect of photogrammetry as
certain scientific adjustment are sometimes required.
2 types of camera systems
1. Single camera with large camera- uses a fixed
focal length large-format negative, usually 9 in.
(230mm) by 9 in. (230 mm)
-used strictly for aerial photography and
is equipped with a highly corrected lens and
vacuum pressure against the film to minimize
distortion.
-required to obtain aerial photographs
for photogrammetric purposes due to the
stringent accuracy requirements.
2. Smaller photographic format- common 35 mm
used for ground photographs.
- Don’t have high-quality lens that is required
to meet the normal measurement
accuracies for the production of standard
maps using photogrammetry.
- Very useful and inexpensive for updating
land-use changes and for the acquisition of
special types of photography to enhance
particular terrain aspects, such as
vegetative health an algae blooms on lakes.
Lens- actually composed of several elements involving
different types of glass with different optical
characteristics.
- Requirements of high resolution and
minimal distortion of image created on the
film by the passage of the light rays through
the lens.
Drive Mechanism- housed in the camera body.
- Motor-driven, time between exposures to
achieve the required overlap is set based o
the photographic scale and the ground
speed of the aircraft.
Film- Advanced from the feed spool to the take-up
spool and automatic intervals.
Focal plane- equipped with a vacuum device to hold the
film flat at the instant of exposure.
Camera- has 4 fiducial marks built in so that each
exposure can be properly oriented to the camera
calibration.
-record the frame number, time of exposure
and height of the aircraft on each exposure to achieve
sharp focusing.
Low air pressures outside the aircraft tend to pull the
film away from the focal plane toward the lens,
resulting in incorrect focusing.
Camera mount- permits flexible movement of the
camera for leveling purposes.
Viewfinder- mounted vertically to show the are being
photographed at any time.
2 points
1. Front Nodal Point(NF)- refracted by the lens so
that they emerge from the rear nodal point.
2. Rear Nodal Point(NR)- parallel with their
original direction.
Focal length (f)- distance between the rear nodal point
and the focal plane along the optical axis.
-accurately determined through calibration for
each camera. 6 in. (152 mm)
Filter- used in front of the lens to absorb some of the
blue light, thus reducing the haze on the actual
photograph.
-yellow, orange/ red- used depending on
atmospheric conditions and the flying height of the
aircraft above mean ground level.
Shutter- capable of speeds ranging from 1/50-1/2000s.
Range- commonly between 1/100 and 1/1000s.
Image motion- fast shutter speed minimizes blurring of
the photograph which is caused by the ground speed of
the aircraft.
Single Camera system- acquire either vertical/oblique
aerial photographs.
-used for purposes of recording land-use
changes and taking photographs suitable for illustrating
a particular terrain or cultural situation in an
engineering/surveying report.
Intervalometer- operated by a central control
mechanism, usually installed inside the aircraft.
Mean Datum elevation- average ground elevation.
Determined by examining the most accurate available
contour maps of the area and selecting the apparent
average elevation.
Fiducial Marks- placed precisely on the camera back
plate so that they reproduce in exactly the same
position on each air photo negative.
Mobilization- cost having the aircraft and personnel
available.
Block- an area over which it has been decided to
acquire air photo coverage. Outlined on the most
accurate available topographic map.
Sidelap- ensures that no gaps of unphotographed
ground exist , but it is also necessary to extend control
between flight lines for photogrammetric methods.
Stereoscopic viewing is defined as observing an object
in three dimensions.
Divergence is necessary if each eye is to focus on the
images of the same point on two adjacent photographs,
as the air photos have to be separated by between 2 in.
(5 cm) and 3 in. (7.5 cm).
A mirror stereoscope is often used for office work, as
the internal mirror system allows the adjacent air
photos to be placed a greater dis tance apart. The
distance between the lenses. known as the
interpupillary range, is adjustable from 2.2 in. (55 mm)
to 3.0 in. (75 mm).
Parallax is the displacement along the flight line of the
same point on adjacent aerial photographs.
dh=dp H /dp + b
where dh =difference in elevation
dp =difference in parallax
b= photopoints)
principal base (distance between the two adjacent
To compile accurate maps, the photograph images are
produced on glass-based or plastic-based emulsions
known as diapositives, or transparencies, which
provide dimensional stability, thus minimizing shrinkage
and expansion due to temperature and humidity
changes.
All plotting instruments have the following features:
1. Projection system.
2. Viewing system.
3. Measuring system.
4. Plotting system.
The floating mark is placed on top of the ground, and
the tracing table is moved along the contour line by
The advantages of photogrammetric mapping over
rotating the X and Y control knobs shown in the
traditional ground methods are discussed next.
operator's hands.This section is divided into four parts:
(1) relative and absolute orientation, (2) analytical ADVANTAGES
stereoplotter, (3) stereoplotting using photo prints, and
(4) digital mapping. 1. Cost savings.

2. Reduction in field work required.

Relative orientation refers to the coincidence of points 3. Speed of compilation.

in a stereoscopic model, thus involving the complete
matching of all ground points with each other in
adjacent air photos.
Absolute orientation refers to matching of the
stereoscopic model through relative orientation to the
terrain surface by means of ground control points.
This equipment is capable of bridging or aero-
triangulation, a process that reduces the number of
ground control points required.
4. Freedom from adverse weather conditions and
inaccessible terrain conditions.
5. Provision of a constant record.
6. Flexibility.
7. New Technology
DISADVANTAGES
1. Viewing terrain through dense vegetation cover.

Plotters are available that use photographic prints 2. Contour line locations in flat terrain.
rather than stable-base diapositives as the basis for
3. Going to the site.
photogrammetric measurements.
Air photo interpretation of physical terrain
Analog stereoplotters-were optical-mechanical
characteristics is used for a wide variety of projects.
devices with which a highly skilled operator was able to
trace ("floating mark") X and Y locations of ground The main advantages of this technique are as follows:
features using hand-controlled wheels or levers and
1. The identification of land forms and consequently site
elevation values (contours) using foot-controlled pedals.
conditions, such as soil type, soil depth, average
The traditional map conveys a pictorial representation topographic slopes, and soil and site drainage
of the terrain and portrays terrain details with high characteristics, is made before going to the field to carry
geometric accuracy so that measurements taken from out either engineering or surveying field work.
the map are accu rate within the limitations imposed by
2. The surveyor can examine the topographic slopes,
the map scale.
areas of wet or unstable ground, and the density and
In digital mapping, the stereo aerial photographs are type of vegetation cover.
viewed on high-precision tele vision circuitry. Each
3. Air photos provide an excellent overview of the site
photograph is scanned by an electric mechanical
and the surrounding area, which cannot be achieved
scanner. The over lapping area of the two photographs
through ground work alone.
is divided into the same square segments, known as
patches. 4. As soil test holes should always be used to verify the
results of the air photo inter pretation, these can be
A matrix of heights is computed for each patch. A grid of
carefully preselected on the air photo prior to doing the
about 1 million elevation points per stereomodel is
field work.
produced and registered on magnetic tape. This digital
terrain model in a grid pattern of 0.18-mm intervals at
the photo scale. If the I gives elevations a photo scale is
1:55,000, this represents a grid pattern at 10-m
intervals on the ground.

Raster-based imaging A less expensive (and less

definitive) technique in volves capturing ground data
into a data base by various scanning techniques.Sources
for raster data can be from scanned aerial photographs,
digital imagery taken with digital cameras, and even
remotely sensed data taken from the commercial
satellites.

An orthophoto combines the accuracy of scaling, such

as from a map, with the detailed photographic
representation of the mosaic. The orthophoto is
produced by manipulating the images on the
photograph using mechanical or electronic techniques
to eliminate the adverse effect on scale of tip, tilt, and
relief dis placement.