FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH THE PREVALENCE AND CORRELATION OF

INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE AMONG WOMEN AGED 15-49 IN CENTRAL

UGANDA

1.0 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The term ‘intimate partner violence’ (IPV) describes abusive behaviors between partners in an
intimate relationship and can broadly be classified as abuse of a physical, emotional or sexual
nature. Women are much more likely to be victims of IPV than men, globally as well as in sub-
Saharan Africa (SSA) (WHO, 2018). IPV violates human rights and adversely affects economic
and social development. It impacts negatively on physical, mental, sexual and reproductive
health, and is associated with higher rates of low birth weight babies, unsupervised abortions,
depression, alcohol abuse, and HIV infection (WHO, 2018). The body of research on IPV
prevalence and its health effects is limited but has increased substantially over the past decade
through household and national health surveys, such as the Demographic and Health Surveys
(DHS) and population-based cross-sectional data (WHO, 2018).

Although the family is considered the most important social institution in African societies,
intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetuated against women is a critical social and public health
issue in many Sub-Saharan African countries (Hindin and Adair 2002; Jewkes, Levin, and Penn-
Kekana 2002; Johnson, Ollus, and Nevala 2008; Kishor and Johnson 2004; Mann and Takyi
2009; World Health Organization 2005). As documented in a recent multi-country study, 42 %
of all women in Kenya, 50 % in Zambia, 60 % in Tanzania, and 81 % in Nigeria have been
victimized by some form of IPV in their lifetime (Garcia-Moreno, Jansen, Ellsberg, Heise, and
Watts 2006; Mann and Takyi 2009). Furthermore, one study estimated that the prevalence of
lifetime IPV against women was 54 % in Uganda (Moraes, C. L., & Reichencheim, M. E.
(2002). Although Uganda has made a number of significant social and public health gains in
recent decades, violence against women remains an acute social problem (WHO, 2018)..

In light of the documented prevalence of IPV, the 2006 Uganda Demographic and Health Survey
identified correlates of three major forms of IPV (physical, emotional, and sexual) against
married women in Uganda. This study attempts to make several key contributions to cross-
cultural studies on IPV. First, systematic research on IPV in Sub-Saharan African countries is
rare. A careful review of refereed publications in academic journals resulted in a handful of
studies, several of which examined the relationship between domestic violence and children or
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The present study consequently fills a significant void in
current research on IPV in Sub-Saharan Africa. Second, with few exceptions such as Yount’s
work conducted in Egypt (Yount 2005), much of the previous research on IPV in Africa has been
descriptive and, thus, a theoretical. To overcome this research limitation, the present study is
informed and guided by several important resource-based theories and gender theories. Third,
given the fact that existing theories have been developed primarily in the West, this study tests
the generalizability of these theories in a non-Western, Sub-Saharan African context. Finally, a
systematic examination of the determinants of IPV in Uganda can inform the development of
effective intervention programs and government policies for women. Such efforts could assist
Ugandans in achieving their goals in socioeconomic development, gender equality, and women’s
empowerment (WHO, 2018).

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

In Uganda, 22% of women experienced some forms of sexual violence (UDHS, 2016) and this
shows that women are highly marginalized in the country.

Violence against women is a manifestation of the historically unequal power relations between
men and women, fundamentally related to gender-based inequalities, which both lead to and
result from violence against women, in a vicious cycle (Jennifer et al., 2011). Sexual and
Gender-Based Violence (SGBV) was identified by the 1995 Beijing Declaration and Platform for
Action and several international conventions as an obstacle to the achievement of the objectives
of equality, development and peace. Sexual gender-based violence and exploitation is a crime
(Goma Declaration, 2008). It represents a serious threat to national and regional peace and
security, and increases the propagation of HIV/AIDS. Thus, the State has a duty to protect its
citizens from all forms of human rights violations, including SGBV, since its cost on the
economic and sustainable development of a country is very high. Sixty-eight (68) percent of
ever-married Ugandan women aged 15-49 years have experienced some form of violence
inflicted by their spouse or intimate partner (UBOS, 2007). A study by the Uganda Law Reform
Commission (2006) revealed that 66% of both men and women respondents had experienced
domestic violence (CEDOVIP, 2007). The Uganda Police Annual Crime and Traffic/Road
Safety Report (2013) indicate that sex-related crimes, in particular defilement, are not decreasing
with 9,589 cases compared to 8,076 cases in 2012. Domestic violence also increased by 18.4%
from 2,793 cases reported in 2012 to 3,426 cases reported in 2013

To ensure the protection of women and girls from sexual gender-based violence, particularly
rape and many other forms of sexual abuse, the Uganda Government has developed favorable
policies, laws and has ratified different international treaties and instruments to address this. One
key instrument Uganda signed is the Goma Declaration which consequently recognizes that the
struggle to end SGBV entails a combined effort of men, women, boys and girls, and all state
institutions and thus calls upon different parties, including governments, international agencies
and Civil Society Organization, to jointly work together to eradicate all forms of gender-based
violence. Furthermore, the Uganda Police Force established a Gender Desk in 1986, which
became the Child and Family Protection Unit (CFPU) in 1989 (CEDOVIP, 2007).

Since is little is known about prevalence and correlation of intimate partner violence, the study
aims at establishing the factors associated with this topic under the study.

1.3 Main Objective of the study

To establish the factors associated with the prevalence and correlation of intimate partner
violence among women in Central Uganda

1.3.1 Specific objectives of the study

To identify the relationship between education level and Intimidate Partner Violence

To identify the relationship between marital status and Intimate Partner Violence

To identify the relationship between residence and Intimate Partner Violence

To identify the relationship between decision making and Intimate Partner Violence

To identify the relationship between occupation and Intimate Partner Violence

1.4 Hypothesis of the study

Ho. Educated women are less likely to experience intimate partner violence compared to their
counter parts that are not educated

Hi. Women are living in Rural areas are less likely to experience intimate partner violence
compared to those who are living urban areas.

1.5 Significance of the study

This research study will help the policy makers and stake holders in the process of enacting laws
which can help to curb down intimate partner violence against women in Uganda.

The study will also help in the clear explanation of the social and economic impact of the high
cases of intimate partner violence on women empowerment in Uganda

1.6 Conceptual framework

Independent variables individual characteristics

 Marriage/Union Patterns
 Education level
 Contraception
 Marital status
 Occupation
 Residence
 Decision making

Outcome

Intimate partner violence

Yes

No

According to the conceptual framework, educated women are less likely to experience intimate
partner violence compared to those who are less educated or with no education, Women are
married are more likely to experience intimate partner violence compared to the singles, divorced
and widowed.

Women who make their own decisions are less likely intimate partner violence compared to
women who are decided by their husbands.

Women who have jobs are less likely to experience intimate partner violence compared to those
without jobs.

1.7 Scope of the study

This study will be conducted among the Women aged 15-49 years in Uganda. The study will
base on the data set from the Uganda Demographic Health Survey (UDHS) of 2016. The scope
of the study will address issues involved with factors associated with intimate partner violence
against women in Uganda. The study will be limited to the women aged 15-49 years. The study
also provides an exploratory finding in the Ugandan context and presents opportunities for
further research.
 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The previous chapter presents Background of the topic of study, the General objective and
specific objectives, hypothesis, significance of study and problem statement but however, this
chapter explores the literature review. In the literature review, we analyze extensively the
different works already done by different authors but related to the topic under study. The
literature review helps to discover the independent variables which affect the topic under
research study.

In line with the objectives of the study presented in chapter one, this chapter presents literature
analysis of all variables that are included in the study and give a clear view of the factors
associated with intimate partner violence globally and at a country level.

2.2 Education and Intimate partner violence

According to a WHO publication on educational levels, one of the risk factors for female
victimization most consistently identified in studies is low female education (2010). Conversely,
a literature review undertaken (Capaldi et al. 2012), which investigated intimate partner violence
practiced and suffered by men and women in high-income countries, indicated that education, in
general, has some association with the phenomenon. However, this often disappears when
controlling for other proximal factors, such as the level of conflict in the relationship. Thus,
based on the studies analyzed, they concluded that among the indicators of socioeconomic status,
unemployment and low income seem to be more robust predictors than education

Regarding the association between education and violence, Jewkes (2002) cautioned that it
appears to be complex. Although a higher educational level may represent the acquisition of
social skills and resources to deal with situations of violence, giving women protection, on the
other hand it may also involve them in situations of greater risk for their victimization. This
would come from access and adherence to more liberal ideas that would possibly challenge
traditional gender roles in which men’s dominance over women is observed, especially in
societies in which such roles undergo transformations. In the same way as economic disparity
over the partner, educational disparity could also pose a risk for greater victimization (WHO,
2010).

The status of women in Uganda reflects the broader structural inequalities in the country.
Educational attainment of Ugandan women is significantly lower than that of men. For example,
approximately 20 % of women have no formal education compared to only five percent of men
(Uganda Bureau of Statistics and Macro International Inc 2007). Furthermore, despite the
implementation of a universal primary education policy, the gender gap between girls and boys
who complete primary education is still significant (42 compared to 55 %, respectively) (Uganda
Bureau of Statistics and Macro International Inc 2007)

2.3 Residence and intimate partner violence

Residence is grouped into rural and urban areas according to various studied conducted globally.

Results show that majority of African population live in remote rural areas, further away from
available resources and influence of the rule of law prohibiting gender-based violence, which
make enforcement of strict laws against violence very limited. Also, inflexible norms that
condone violence in families change at a slower rate in rural areas compared to urban areas this
result in rural women being more prone to IPV compared to their urban counterparts (Lamoglia
& Minayo, 2009; Thompson & Kingree, 2006).

According to Oliveira et al. (2009), a representative sample of men and women in the city of São
Paulo found that 25.5% of the women had to seek medical help because of fights with the
partner, with only 3.8% of the male victims presenting this need. The methodological differences
between the studies should be mentioned here, as well as what the literature on gender
differences says about the evaluation, disclosure and impact of violence behaviors between
partners (Lamoglia & Minayo, 2009; Thompson & Kingree, 2006).

Garcia-Moreno et al. (2006) obtained a prevalence of sexual violence against partners in the
previous year of 2.8% in an urban region and 5.6% in a rural region
Regarding physical violence, the most evident form of violent behavior, the percentage of this
type of recent conduct practiced against women by their partners in this study was 10.81%,
emphasizing that it represents two urban populations with different income profiles. Another
study carried out in two distinct locations of Brazil (a city representative of a large urban center,
and another region composed of rural towns in the northeast) obtained data convergent with that
of the present investigation (8.3% in the urban area and 12.9% in the rural area( D’Oliveira et al.,
2009; Garcia-Moreno et al., 2006).

2.4 Occupation and intimate partner violence

The ability to adequately provide for family members and their needs elevates the status of male
breadwinners, giving them a powerful position within the household domain (Bamiwuye &
Odimegwu, 2014). Men feel either emasculated or vulnerable when they are threatened by
limited finances, which make them feel that there are limits to the power they can wield over
women and other family members (Bamiwuye & Odimegwu, 2014). In cases where female
intimate partners have limited access to finances or the opportunity to make economic decisions
in an intimate relationship, incidents of IPV are more likely to be perpetrated by men who
perceive themselves as the head of a household based on social constructions of men as
providers for their family members (Ngabaza et al., 2013). In cases of teenage pregnancies,
women who depend on their partners for financial support face a higher risk of IPV compared to
women who have spending power in an intimate relationship (Chege, 2005; Bhana & Pillay,
2018). A South African study by Bhana (2013) revealed that 20 not all victims of IPV where
economic abuse was perpetrated saw themselves as being violated, which demonstrates how
economic abuse is normalized as acceptable in certain societies.

According to this theory, IPV against women is more likely to occur in households where
husbands have lower socioeconomic status than their better-off counterparts (Goode 1971). Due
to the lack of socioeconomic resources, men will use force or violence against women to
preserve their dominance in the relationship, project their masculine authority in the household,
or exert control over women (Goode 1971).

2.5 Marital status and intimate partner violence

According to the 2006 Demographic and Health Survey, 28 % of married women were in
polygamous relationships. Polygamy, though legal in Uganda, is highly correlated with violence
against women (Shore 2010). In terms of the existence of legislation that punishes acts of
violence against women (0 to 1), Uganda scored .75, indicating that there are a limited number of
laws that address the incidence of IPV in the country (World Economic Forum 2010).

Furthermore, Ugandan women who tolerate spousal abuse will be at greater risk of experiencing
all forms of IPV (H4). Finally, Ugandan women whose husbands display more control issues
will be at greater risk of experiencing all forms of IPV.

When women have limited resources, they often depend on their male partners for economic
support. Therefore, their ability to leave an abusive relationship is diminished even as the
likelihood to endure IPV increases (Jewkes et al. 2002; Yount 2005; Yount and Carrera 2006).
On the other hand, if women possess more resources than their male partners, the risk of
experiencing IPV will increase because their partners may employ violence to affirm their
gender identities and roles (Xu et al. 2011).

With respect to physical violence, about 47 % of married women reported having suffered some
type of physical violence in their lifetime. The incidence of lifetime emotional violence is
comparable to that of physical violence, with approximately 46 % of married women reporting
experiencing emotional abuse from an intimate partner. Lastly, about 29 % of women reported
that they have suffered some form of sexual violence by an intimate partner in their lifetime.
Taken together, 65 % of the respondents reported experiencing at least one type of these three
forms of IPV (WHO, 2018) & Moore, T. M., Stuart, G. L., Meehan, J. C., Rhatigan, D. L., Hellmuth, J.
C., & Keen, S. M. (2008).

2.6 Decision making and intimate partner violence

Studies show that men’s display of controlling behavior is systematically associated with higher
rates of violence against women across different societies (Kishor and Johnson 2004). In
addition, decision-making power monopolized by men has been found to be associated with
increased violence against women (Xu 1997). In households where men are in charge of the
decision-making process, women are at greater risk of experiencing violence, whereas egalitarian
decision-making has been found to be associated with lower rates of violence against women
(Hindin and Adair 2002; Kishor and Johnson 2004; Xu 1997; Xu et al. 2011).

Given the various gender perspectives, it is hypothesized that Ugandan women who possess
egalitarian decisionmaking power will be at lower risk of experiencing IPV, whereas women
with more decision-making power will be at greater risk compared to women who have no
control over the decision-making process in the household . Furthermore, Ugandan women who
tolerate spousal abuse will be at greater risk of experiencing all forms of IPV. Finally, Ugandan
women whose husbands display more control issues will be at greater risk of experiencing all
form of IPV (WHO, 2016).
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