2.

0 Recyclable Materials

15% to 25% (by weight) and 5% to 15% (by volume) of the MSW processed is converted
into ash. Fly ash and bottom ash make up the majority of MSW combustion residues. Fly ash
refers to the fine particles extracted from flue gas and contains residues from other air
pollution control devices such as scrubbers. Typically, 10% to 20% by weight of the total ash
is composed of fly ash. The remaining MSW combustion ash is known as bottom ash (80%-
90% by weight). Silica (sand and quartz), calcium, iron oxide, and aluminium oxide are the
major chemical components of bottom ash. Typically, the moisture content of bottom ash
ranges from 22% to 62% by dry weight. The material selected for recycling in this report is
bottom ash.

2.1 Bottom Ash

Bottom ash (BA) is discharged grate ash collected in the water quenching tank. BA is merged
with grate-shifting (fine particles falling from the furnace) and heat-recovery ash during the
process (particulate matter collected from the heat-recovery system). The greatest concern
regarding MSWI is the air pollution caused by dioxin (C 4H4O2), furan (C4H4O), and heavy
metals that originate from MSW (Deng et al., 2019; Li et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2020). Seven
promising application fields for the ashes were examined: cement production, road paving,
glass and ceramics, agriculture, stabilising agents, adsorbents, and zeolite production (H. Luo
et al., 2019). After certain treatment schemes, such as ferrous and nonferrous metal recovery
and size reduction, approximately 80% of the BA produced in the Netherlands is recycled in
civil-engineering applications. Bottom ash is viewed as a special category of material for
embankment fills, road bases, and landfill disposal (Sadon et al., 2017). In Denmark, BA is
regarded as a suitable substitute for gravel as a subbase material when used with an asphalt or
concrete cover to prevent direct contact with soil and water (Sadon et al., 2017). After
screening, crushing, and recovery of ferrous metals, Denmark intended to recycle 98% of BA
into building and road construction and embankment fills. According to reports, France
recycles 79% of the BA produced in civil construction (Ghazali et al., 2019). Lastly, in
Germany, the industry involved in the treatment of bottom ash from MSWI has endeavoured
to boost the recovery rate and improve the quality of aggregate produced from BA (Holm &
Simon, 2017). Therefore, Germany recycles approximately 65% of BA and disposes of 28%
after reducing the salt content via water quenching, ferrous and nonferrous metal recovery,
and three-month ageing (Holm & Simon, 2017). Reduced leaching potential qualifies BA for
use in road construction and as a secondary building material.

2.2 Fly Ash

Fly ash (FA) is a waste byproduct of the combustion of coal in electric power plants
(Nadesan & Dinakar, 2017a; Yin et al., 2018). Fly ash is the unburned residue carried away
from the boiler's burning zone by flue gases and subsequently collected by mechanical or
electrostatic separators (Yousuf et al., 2020). As a material rich in oxides, FA can be used as
a raw material in numerous industries and construction (Nadesan & Dinakar, 2017b).
Currently, fly ash is effectively used to improve construction materials, and it is also an
excellent soil amendment for agricultural purposes. The fly ash can also be utilised in the
production of bricks, ceramics, asphalt, and concrete, among other applications. Malaysia
began the development of coal-fired electric power stations in 1987, and there are currently
six such stations in operation (Wong et al., 2017). These power plants generate approximately
6.8 million metric tonnes of fly ash (Sadon et al., 2017). According to statistics, the
production of fly ash far exceeds its consumption due to the increased amount of energy
generated by coal-fired power plants and its global availability as shown in Table 2.0.

Table 2.0: Fly ash production in different countries. (Ghazali et al., 2019)

Country Amount of Production Country Amount of

(million tons/year) Production (million
tons/year)
India 112 Malaysia 6.8
China 100 Canada 6
USA 75 France 3
Germany 40 Denmark 2
UK 15 Italy 2
Australia 10 Netherland 2

FA is composed of silica, alumina, ferric oxide, and other oxides that may render it
hazardous. These hazardous materials contribute to air, water, and soil pollution, causing
human health issues and a variety of geo-environmental issues (Nadesan & Dinakar, 2017b).
If these negative situations are not properly disposed of (Nadesan & Dinakar, 2017a), they
will disrupt the entire ecological cycle; therefore, good waste management practises are
required to maintain a healthy environment (Adegoke et al., 2017). Fly ash emissions from
coal combustion units contain elements with atomic numbers below 92 and are considered a
significant source of air pollution. The ultrafine particles of fly ash will act as cumulative
poisons if they remain in the respiratory region for extended periods of time (Yousuf et al.,
2020). Consequently, a number of physiological disorders and other health issues, such as
respiratory disorder, cancer, anaemia, hepatic disorder, gastroenteritis, and dermatitis, will
develop (Yin et al., 2018). Several studies conducted on the current site revealed that wet
disposal of this waste causes metal migration into the soil (Hemalatha & Ramaswamy, 2017).
The populations located close to the fly ash dumping site are threatened by both surface water
and groundwater contamination. However, surface water contamination is more serious than
groundwater contamination. Due to the presence of heavy metals and organic matter in the
water, surface water pollution has a negative impact on the fish population and other aquatic
organisms. The contamination of surface water also causes skin diseases, diarrhoea, and
death due to bathing and drinking in contaminated rivers (Yin et al., 2018).

2.2 Properties of Recyclable Materials

2.2.1 Bottom Ash

BA consists of grate ash and, on occasion, grate-shifting ash and is the major byproduct
residue of the MSWI process (85–95 wt pct). Bottom ash is a porous, greyish, coarse gravel
composed primarily of glasses, ceramics, minerals, ferrous and nonferrous materials, as well
as trace amounts of unburned materials and organic carbon (Torkittikul et al., 2017). Oxides,
hydroxides, and carbonates make up the majority of compounds. Numerous spectroscopic
analyses have revealed that the main compounds (>10 wt. %) of BA are SiO2, CaO, Fe2O3,
and Al2O3, whereas Na2O, K2O, MgO, and TiO2 are present in minor concentrations (0.4–5.0
wt. %); thus, oxides are predominant. SiO2 is the most abundant compound in BA,
comprising up to 49% (Gooi et al., 2020). Bottom ash is a relatively lightweight material
compared with natural sands and aggregates. Figure 2.2.1 (a) compares the particle size
distribution of BA to that of fine aggregates in concrete (BS EN 12620:2013). In accordance
with its morphological properties, municipally incinerated BA (MIBA) has been reported to
have a high water-absorption capacity ranging from 2.4% to 15%, with a mean value of 9.7%
(Lynn et al., 2017).
 Figure 2.2.1 (a): Particle size distribution of BA (Lynn et al., 2017).

Ca, Si, Fe, and Al are the most abundant elements in BA, while Zn, Cu, Pb, Cr, Ni, Cd, and
As are present in smaller quantities (Lynn et al., 2017). Due in part to the formation of
hydroxides from CaO, the pH of the BA ranges between 10.5 and 12.2. The presence of
metallic Al is one of the most significant impediments to the use of BA in Portland cement
concrete (PCC), as the reaction of metallic Al produces H 2 gas (Mathi et al., 2020). This issue
can be mitigated, however, if BA is separated from grate-shifting ash with a higher metallic-
Al content (Mathi et al., 2020). Despite the fact that BA Figure 2.2.1 (b) contains a high
concentration of heavy metals, it is typically regarded as a harmless material due to its low
leaching potential. The ageing and weathering processes of BA can further reduce the
reactivity and potential for heavy-metal release through the formation of stable complex
compounds by the reaction of CO2 and water. Moreover, ageing can transform metallic Al
into stable Al2O3, thereby reducing the likelihood of H2-gas formation (Lynn et al., 2017).
Therefore, BA's quality can be enhanced through ageing and weathering, making it a viable
building material.
 Figure 2.2.1 (b): a) Bottom ash

2.2.2 Fly Ash

The physical and chemical properties of FA are crucial, as they determine its subsequent use
and disposal. The characteristics of fly ash depend on the type of coal used, the combustion
conditions and temperature at which the coal was burned, the collector configuration, the air-
to-fuel ratio, and other variables (Yousuf et al., 2020). There were few generalisations made
regarding the particle size distribution, morphology, surface area, hydraulic conductivity or
permeability, and density of fly ash (Romeo et al., 2018). FA is composed of predominantly
fine particles ranging in colour from grey to tan to reddish-brown, with an average particle
size of 20 m and a bulk density ranging from 0.54 g/cm3 to 0.86 g/cm3 (Aprianti S, 2017).
As shown in Figure 2.2.2, 70 to 90% of the particles were solid glass spheres, with the
remainder consisting of Quartz, Mullite, Hematite, Magnetite, and a small amount of
unburned Carbon (Sett, 2017)

FA is divided into two classes by the American Society for Testing and Materials (C618
12a): Class C and Class F (Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined
Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete, 2019). FA generally contains significant amounts of
Silicon Dioxide (SiO2), Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3), and Calcium Oxide (CaO), and the class
is subdivided according to its chemical composition and origin (Yousuf et al., 2020). Class F
fly ash derived from the combustion of anthracite or bituminous coal possesses only
pozzolanic properties, whereas Class C fly ash derived from the combustion of lignite or sub-
bituminous coal possesses both pozzolanic and cementitious properties (Hemalatha &
Ramaswamy, 2017). The content of calcium, silica, alumina, and iron is the primary
distinction between these two classes. Class F fly ash contains less than 10% CaO and a
minimum of 70% SiO2 +Al2O3 +Fe2O3, whereas Class C fly ash contains more than 20% CaO
and a minimum of 50% SiO2 +Al2O3 +Fe2O3 (Yousuf et al., 2020).
 Figure 2.2.2: Morphology of Fly Ash (Hemalatha & Ramaswamy, 2017).

2.3 Application of the Bottom Ash and Fly Ash in the Energy Recovery Facility

2.3.1 Road Pavement (Bottom Ash)

Diverse fundamental physical tests have been conducted to investigate the reuse of BA in
pavement, and a recent study found that up to 80 % of the natural fine aggregates could be
changed with BA, implying that the asphalt mixture possessed great engineering properties,
such as stability and indirect tensile strength (H. Luo et al., 2019). Afterwards,
implementation studies were conducted to determine the relationship between the use of
MSWI BA and the corresponding field application design methods (“Bituminous Mixtures
and Pavements VII,” 2019; Toraldo et al., 2019). Multiple studies have indicated that BA has
a great deal of application potential in asphalt road pavement systems. Bottom ash is typically
used to replace fine aggregates as opposed to coarse aggregates. Bottom ash can reliably
improve the asphalt mixture's resilient modulus, tensile strength, and fracture behaviour when
added as a filler (Roberto et al., 2018).

In a 2017 paper, Sormunen and Kolisoja advised using BA as a lower structural layer of the
asphalt pavement, as opposed to a wearing layer, to increase the road system's durability
(Sormunen & Kolisoja, 2017). In addition, BA was utilised for the surface course (wearing
layer) of the asphalt pavement system (Loginova et al., 2019). The implementation of BA to
the surface course resulted in outstanding performance and a high potential for large friction
(Loginova et al., 2019). Although there were no construction difficulties in the majority of
cases, the amount of initial voids in the mixture was greater than usual (H. L. Luo et al.,
2017). However, this disparity in voids was hardly investigated in terms of construction
quality and engineering performance. Up to 20% substitution with bottom ash resulted in a
mixture with a well-developed aggregate structure that was resistant to compression, rutting,
and softness, as well as enhanced mechanical properties (Loginova et al., 2019)

Bottom ash has been implemented in the field. Using BA as a substitute to subgrade materials
for hot mix asphalt (HMA) pavements, Huang et al. (2020) found that the tensile strain at the
bottom of the HMA layer was reduced, as was the compressive strain on top of the subgrade
(Huang et al., 2020). Bottom ash was used as an unbound granular subbase in France; the
road pavement had a CBR value of >120% according to FWD measurements (Zhu et al.,
2020) and had been in use for 20 years. BA was also utilised as an aggregate replacement in
an asphalt-stabilized base course in New Hampshire, United States. A two-year study
revealed that the relatively constant hot-mix formulations met the specifications and that the
bitumen effectively encapsulated the bottom ash. In Houston, Texas, bottom ash was used as
a base course with asphalt stabilisation and then surfaced with conventional HMA; according
to three years of monitoring, the test section had excellent performance with only minor
surface cracking (Cho et al., 2020).

2.3.2 Concrete Walls (Fly Ash)

Utilizing FA in the construction industry is not a new technology, but it is a growing

technology that improves both the quality of construction and the quality of the environment.
The addition of fly ash to concrete provides economic, environmental, and technical benefits
(Al-Kutti et al., 2018; Hemalatha & Ramaswamy, 2017; Hsu et al., 2018). Current cement
industries use fly ash as a pozzolanic material for the production of Portland Pozzolana
Cement because its SiO2 and Al2SiO3 content is very similar to that of Portland Cement (Yin
et al., 2018). It chemically reacts with calcium hydroxide in the presence of moisture and at
room temperature to produce compounds with cementitious properties (Aprianti S, 2017).
Evidently, the use of fly ash in conjunction with Portland cement contributes to the
consumption of Ca(OH)2, which is produced during cement hydration and results in the
formation of cementitious products (Hemalatha & Ramaswamy, 2017). The generation of a
glassy phase from fly ash and calcium hydroxide results in the formation of additional CSH
gel and an increase in density and strength (Bicer, 2018).

In comparison with younger ages, the compressive strength increased with age (Hemalatha &
Ramaswamy, 2017). This environmentally friendly innovation increases the durability and
service life of concrete structures (Yousuf et al., 2020). Fly ash can be used as a partial
cement replacement by weight or as an admixture (Sett, 2018). Utilizing fly ash as a
component of blended cement can result in significant energy and cost savings during cement
production (Yousuf et al., 2020). There are strict standards governing its use, such as the
American Society for Testing Materials Standard ASTM C 618 and the European Standard
EN 450-1[35] (Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural
Pozzolan for Use in Concrete, 2019). FA can replace up to 75% of the cement weight.
Geopolymer concrete with FA is the new cement alternative in the field of building and
construction materials. This concrete mixture yielded a material with high compressive
strength, low creep, good acid resistance, and low shrinkage (Singh et al., 2019).

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