KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,

KUMASI
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
BSc (Architecture)

ARC 154:
Introduction to Timber
Framing Systems

COURSE LECTURERS:
Prof S.O. AFRAM & Arc. Desmond Opoku
Department of Architecture,
KNUST
 
 
 
 

1 
 
SYLLABUS FOR SEMESTER ONE

(i) Introduction to Staircases

 Principles of Design and Construction of stairs
 Location of stairs
 Requirements of a Good stair
 Classification/types of Stairs:
 Timber Stair Construction:

(ii) Opening in walls Part 1(Doors)

 Functions & Performance of Doors
 Location of doors
 Sizes of doors
 Types of doors
 Ironmongery

(iii) Opening in walls Part 2(Windows)

 Functions of windows
 Types of windows
 Fixing of windows
 Shading Devices

READING LIST/REFERENCES:

 Mitchell’s STRUCTURE and FABRIC Part 1, by Jack S. foster

 Appropriate Building Materials. A catalogue of potential Solutions. By Roland Stulz and
Kiran Mukerji
 Construction Technology for a Tropical Developing country. By Hannah Schrenkenbach
 Construction technology Volume 1. by R. Chudley
 Components: Mitchell’s Building series. By Derek Osbourn

2 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO STAIRCASES

 Principles of Design and Construction

 Location of stairs
 Requirements of a Good stair
 Classification/types of Stairs: Straight , Dog-legged, Quarter-turn, Bifurcated, Spiral/Helical
 Timber Stair Construction:
 Cut String stair
 Closed or housed string stair

PRINCIPLES AND DESIGN OF CONSTRUCTION OF STAIRS AND TIMBER STAIRS

 Definition:
 A stair maybe defined as a form of steps suitably arranged for the purpose of connecting
different floors of a building ( means of vertical communication)

 The enclosure containing the complete stairway is termed as Staircase or Stair well
 Materials can be Timber, Stones, Bricks, Steel, Plain concrete or reinforced concrete.

 Location of stairs;

 The location of stairs requires careful consideration, since in the advent of fire or any
such calamity they provide the only means of escape.
 In public buildings, they could be located near the main entrance and in residential
buildings they could be centrally placed to provide easy access from all rooms and
maintain privacy as well.

 Technical terms;

 Tread: the horizontal upper part of a step on which the foot is placed in ascending or
descending a stairway.
 Riser: The vertical portion of a step providing a support to the tread
 Flight: A series of steps without any platform, break or landing in their direction.
 Landing: A break in flight or series of steps
 Nosing: The outer projecting edge of a tread. Provided to give a good architectural effect
to treads and make staircase easy to negotiate.
 Line of Nosing: It is an imaginary line touching the nosing of each tread and is parallel
to the slope of the stair
 Pitch or Slope: the angle which the line of nosing makes with the horizontal.
 String or Stringers: these are the sloping members at the sides or middle providing
support for the steps.

3 
 
  Handrails: they are provided at the edges of the flight to render assistance in negotiating
a stairway.

 Baluster: It is a wooden, metal or masonry vertical member supporting a handrail.

 Newel: Post forming the junction of flights of stairs with landings or carrying the lower
end of strings
 Headroom or Headway: It is the clear vertical distance between the tread of a step and
the soffit of the flight or ceiling or beam of a landing immediately above it.
 
   
 

 
 
 

4 
 
  
 
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD STAIR

 Location:
 It should be so located that sufficient light and ventilation is ensured in the stairway
o Could be possibly located centrally for easy accessibility from different corners of
the building
o Width of Stair: this varies with the situation and purpose intended. Public building
with regular traffic of people: usually 1.3-1.4m, Residential buildings -900m

 Length of Flight: For comfortable ascent the number of steps in a flight should be
between 12-16

5 
 
  Pitch: In generally, the slope of stair should never exceed 40 degrees and not flatter than
25 degrees.
 Headroom: should not be less than 2.14m
 Step proportions: The rise and tread of each step in a stair should be uniform in
dimensions throughout.
 Thumb rule; (Tread mm) + 2(x Rise mm)= 550-650mm
 Size of step of residential building, usually-250x160mm
 Public buildings-270 x 150mm – 300 x 130mm

DESIGN OF STAIRS
 Apart from economic factors a number of others, related to comfort and safety in use,
must be considered in design
 Dimensions of a stair will depend on:
o the volume of traffic it must carry
o The nature of furniture and equipment that is likely to be carried on it.

o This means the widths of the flights and landings are important.

 Width: It is necessary to allow sufficient width for two persons to pass (requires 1015-
1065mm)
 For domestic stairs, 865mm is accepted with 800mm as minimum.
 Stairs for disabled persons should not be less than 900mm wide.
 Slope or pitch should neither be too steep nor too gradual; if the pitch is too small the
stairs take a great deal of space.
 The treads should be wide enough for the foot to be placed on the step when descending
without the leg touching the step above.
 All steps should be uniform to permit regular movement.
 Flights: Long flights of stairs without landings can be dangerous, especially for children
and the elderly.
 12-16 steps in a flight is acceptable.
 The length and width of the landings should be at least equal to the width of the flight.

6 
 
  Handrails: Handrails should be of such a size and shape that they are easy to grip.
 They should be placed at a height of 900 to 1000mm, vertically from the line of nosing to
the top of the handrail

CLASSIFICATION OF STAIRS

 Straight Stair:
A straight stair rises from floor to floor in one direction with or without intermediate
landing.

 Dog-legged Stairs (half turn):

A half turn rises to a landing between floors, turns through 180 degrees and rises parallel
to the lower flight to the floor above

 Quarter turn stair:

A quarter turn stair rises to a landing between two floors, turns through 90 degrees and
riese to the floor above.
 

 
 
Straight Stair

7 
 
 

 
 
Dog‐legged Stair 
 

 
Quarter turn Stair 

8 
 
 

 
 
 Bifurcated stair;
In this type of stairs, the flights are so arranged that there is a wide flight at the start
which is sub-divided into narrow flights at the mid-landing

 Geometrical Stairs:
 This form of stairs have no newels, the strings and handrails being continuous from floor
to floor around a well
 The geometric stairs may be rectangular, circular or elliptical on plan, with the steps in
the latter being tapered
 
 
 
 

9 
 
  
Bifurcated stair
 

 
Geometrical Stair

10 
 
  Newel Stair: 
Vertical posts, called newels or newel post are used in timber stairs at the end of the flight to 
support the strings and connect them to the floors and support the handrail etc  
In concrete, steel or stone, a circular stair may have a central newel from which the treads radiate 
E.g Spiral stair 
 
 

 
Newel Stair 
 
 
 

11 
 
Spiral stair/Helical stair
 
 A spiral stair with the treads tapering to a central, vertical support is the most economical
way of planning a stair as it takes up little floor area.
 Because the treads taper sharply to the central post, it is difficult to use and may be
dangerous to young children and people with limited mobility.
 Circular or elliptical stairs are constructed around a generous open well with tread having
a shallow taper towards the well.
 They are extravagant in the use of space and are used for grand means of access in large
buildings
 

 
 
Helical Stair 
 

12 
 
Timber Stairs

 Timber stairs are commonly used in domestic buildings with either closed or open risers
 In developed countries, timber stairs are produced by many joinery firms, prefabricated
and standardized to a wide range of plans sizes.
 Straight flight timber stair:
 This may be constructed between walls that give it continuous support or it may be open
on one or both sides
 The stringers employed in timber stair construction may be cut or closed (housed).

 Cut string: The upper surface is cut to receive treads and risers and the lower edge is
parallel to the pitch of the stair.

 Closed or Housed String: The top and the bottom edges are parallel to the slope of the
stair. Grooves are cut into its insides to receive treads and risers
 

 
 
 
 

13 
 
  
Tapered Stair 
 
 

14 
 
  
Dog‐legged timber Stair 
 
 
 
 
 
 

15 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

16 
 
  
 
 
 

17 
 
TIMBER STAIRS

 Timber stairs are commonly used in domestic buildings with either closed or open risers
 In developed countries, timber stairs are produced by many joinery firms, prefabricated
and standardized to a wide range of plans sizes.

 Straight flight timber stair:

 This may be constructed between walls that give it continuous support or it may be open
on one or both sides

 The stringers employed in timber stair construction may be cut or closed (housed).
 Cut string: The upper surface are cut to receive treads and risers and the lower edge is
parallel to the pitch of the stair.
 Closed or Housed String: The top and the bottom edges are parallel to the slope of the
stair. Grooves are cut into its insides to receive treads and risers
 

 
18 
 
  
 
 
 

19 
 
 
 
 
 

20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

21 
 
  
 
 
Straight Stair 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

22 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO TIMBER FRAMING SYSTEMS
OPENING IN WALLS PART 1- DOORS
 A door is a screen used to seal an opening into a building or between rooms within a
building.

 Also described as a framework of wood, steel, aluminum, glass or a combination of these

materials, secured in an opening left in a wall for the purposes of providing access to the
users of the structures.

 External Doors:
 These are used to close the access to the interior of a building and provides a measure of
security.
o Need to be weather resistant due to exposure to the elements
o Resistance provided by Thickness, Stability and Durability

External walls designed to give a degree of thermal and sound insulation should have doors
which maintain this insulation properties

 Internal Doors:
 They are used to close the access through internal wall, partitions and cupboards
o Generally, internal doors are thinner than their external counterparts since weather
protection is no longer a requirement

 Functions and Performance of Doors

 Fire Resistance: Doors can also be designed to regulation requirement to help
control/resist the spread of fire in buildings for a period of at least 30 minutes.
 Privacy: Doors also acts for visual and oral privacy of internal space. Opaque
materials are used for doors intended for bedrooms, bathrooms, wc etc to prevent
vision through. Sound proof doors are also designed for oral privacy
 Aesthetics: Expensive, durable and durable materials are also used for special
doors to perform aesthetic function to a building

 Location of Doors

 From the consideration of proper space utilization and privacy, doors should as far as
possible, be located near the corner of the room(say 200mm from the corner)
 The location of a door should meet the functional requirements of the room. (size, sound,
vision, escape etc)

23 
 
  Number of doors should be kept at a minimum to achieve optimum utilization of space;
large numbers cause obstruction and consume usable space due to circulation.

 Size of Doors

 The size of doors depend on the functional requirements of the room. For example W C./
bathrooms where only one person is expected to go at a time, door width of 700mm is
adequate
 External Door 875mm x 45x 2ooomm
 Internal Door 750mm x 40 x2000mm
 Bath/wc 700mm x 40x 2000mm

 Doors to public buildings- 1200 x 2000mm

 Hospital, Library -1200 x 2100mm
 Garage doors -2500 x 2200mm

 Types of doors

There are several door types:

SIDE HUNG DOORS

 Side hung (outward or inward opening)
 Side hung (combination of outward and inward opening)
 Side hung, Double door
 Side hung swing door, single leaf (single or double swing )

24 
 
 SLIDING DOORS

 Single track, single leaf, straight run (Top hung)

 Single Track, Double Leaf
 Two leaf double Sliding/folding door

INDUSTRIAL DOORS
 They are straight sliding doors or sliding folding doors, Top hung with bottom guide or
bottom roller

25 
 
  Special Doors;

 Flexible Doors: These are specified for positions where the user has his hands otherwise
occupied(pushing a trolley, driving a service vehicle in a warehouse.)

 Automatic Doors: These are doors with initiating, sensing and timing devices, which
triggers a motor gear to physically open a door.

 Others are, Collapsible doors, Rolling Shutter doors, Revolving doors etc

Collapsible steel doors

Rolling Shutter door

26 
 
  
Revolving Door 
 

       
 
Flexible door 
 
Door Frames
 Doors are hung on door frames which are fixed inside the wall opening.
 Rebates in the door frame to receive the door should be 12-13mm deep
 Frames are normally built in as construction work of wall proceeds.
 They are fixed to the wall with galvanized steel cramps, screwed to the back of the jamb
to coincide with the joints of block work.
 

27 
 
 Door Frames

 fig 205 hanna

 
 
 
Classification of doors

Depending on the type of material used, arrangement of different components, method of

construction and nature of working operations, doors can be broadly classified into
different types:
 FLUSH DOORS
 PANELLED DOORS
 BATTENED and LEDGED DOORS
 BATTENED, LEDGED and BRACED DOORD
 FRAMED, BATTENED, LEDGED and BRACED DOORS

BATTENED and LEDGED Door

 Simplest door form, usually used for narrow openings. Recommended for wc’s,
bathrooms where economy rather than appearance is of main consideration
 Usually tongued and grooved and fixed together with horizontal battens known as ledges
 Battens are 75mmm to 100mm wide and 20mm thick. Ledges vary from 25mm to 30mm
and generally the middle and bottom ledges are wider than the top one
 Top ledge-110mm, Others 175-200mm
 
       

28 
 
  
 
Battened, ledged & braced 
 
 It’s an improvement on the former. The braces are housed and not tenoned into the 
ledges 
 The braces incline downwards towards the side on which the door hung 
 The door can be used for wider openings in situations where appearance is not 
important as economy  
 

       
 

29 
 
 

 
Framed Battened, ledged & braced

 Considered to be superior in strength, durability and appearance

 It is considered suitable for external use as well as situations where door is likely to be
subjected to rough handling.

30 
 
Panelled doors

 Panelled doors may be made either with glazing or may be mainly timber or plywood.
 In some the wood panels are raised and fixed tongued and grooved into stiles and rails
 Others may be made of plywood (10mm thick)fixed into stiles and rails
 
 

Paneled doors

 
 
 
 
 

31 
 
  
 
32 
 
  
 
 
 
 
Flush doors

 Flush doors have pleasing appearance, simple construction, high strength and durability
(cost less as compared with panelled doors)
 There are basically three types:
 SOLID CORE
 SEMI-SOLID CORE(Skeleton core)
 CELLULAR CORE

 SOLID CORE:
 They are made with core timber, chipboard or compressed fibreboard strips.
 The timber core has timber strips glued together, with plywood facings on both side
glued to the solid core
 The edge is edged with vertical lipping to provide a neat finish.
 They have better surface stability and acoustic resistance than the other two types.

33 
 
 
 

 
 
  
 
SKELETON CORE FLUSH DOOR:

 This is made with a core of small section timbers. The main members of this structural
core are the stiles and rails, with intermediate rails
 The framing core members are joined with glued, tongued and grooved joint
 There is a facing of plywood or hardboard on the frame  
 
         

34 
 
  
 
CELLULAR CORE FLUSH DOOR

 They are made with a cellular, fibreboard or paper core in a light softwood frame with
lock and hinge blocks, covered with plywood facings glued to the frame.
 These doors are for light duty such as internal domestic doors. (Poor acoustic privacy,
security and fire resistance)
 
         

35 
 
  
 
Ironmongery
 Components forming essential working parts are required to pivot, fold or slide open
doors. These are collectively referred to as IRONMONGERY.
 This includes hinges, springs, locks etc.
 Butt Hinges: Most common hinge screwed to the edge of a door. They are recessed into
the frame as well as the door

 Rising butts: Rising butts lift the door as it opens so as to clear a carpeted floor ( self
closing)
 Tee hinge: are used for heavy doors of then ledged type
 Pin (lift off butt): with this the door can be taken down without unscrewing the hinge
and is for pre-hung door assembled in a factory
 Parliament Hinge: This hinge is used to enable a door to fold back. It projects from the
face of the frame
 Bolts: barrel bolt, lever bolt, cremorne bolt, panic bolt etc
 

36 
 
  
 

37 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

38 
 
  
 

39 
 
  
 
 

40 
 
 Opening in walls- WINDOWS
 Window: Is an opening in a wall for the purpose of providing daylight, vision and
ventilation
 Functions:
 To admit and direct ventilation
 To admit daylight
 Make vision in or out possible

 The selection of size, shape , location and the number of windows to be provided in a
room depends upon these:
 Size of the room
 Location of the room and its utility
 Direction of wind and its speed
 Climatic considerations of the site such as humidity, temperature variation etc.
 Architectural treatment desired for the building

 Design of windows: Points to note-

 Size and number should be adequate to provide light and ventilation
 Windows provided on the Northern sides permit maximum daylight without glare
 Buildings in humid regions need special attention for adequate ventilation. Should
facilitate cross ventilation past the bodies of occupants.
 Security; burglar-proofing to prevent forced entry.

TYPES OF WINDOWS
Hinged windows (casement windows)
 Side hung
 Top hung
 Bottom hung
Pivoted windows
 Horizontally pivoted
 Vertically pivoted
 Louvres

Sliding windows
 Vertically sliding
 Horizontally sliding
 Composite windows
 Side hung projected
 Top hung projected

41 
 
  Bottom hung projected
 Sliding folding

SIDE HUNG
 A casement consist of a square or rectangular window frame of wood with the opening
light or casement hinged at one side of the frame to open in or out.
 A casement may have a DEAD LIGHT or FIXED LIGHT. This window has a fixed
glazing that cannot be opened.

42 
 
  PIVOTED WINDOWS
 The width of a casement window is limited by the window frame’s ability to support the
weight of the casement.

The advantage of a pivoted window is that the weight of the frame and glass is balanced over the
pivots that are fixed centrally. (Either vertically or horizontally pivoted)

43 
 
  COMPOSITE ACTION WINDOWS
 Composite action windows are designed to act like side-, top-, or bottom-hung
windows for normal ventilation purposes.
 They open on pivots which can be locked so that the pivots then slide in grooves
in the frame and open on hinged side stays

44 
 
  SLIDING FOLDING WINDOWS
 The sashes in this type of window are hinged to each other and fold horizontally
to one or both sides of the window.
 The sash is hung on a pivoted wheel that runs in an overhead track at the top of
the window frame
 The lower edge of each sash is fixed to a pivoted wheel that runs in a track to
guide movement and maintain it in a vertical position

Materials
 Timber (mostly tropical hardwoods) well seasoned and treated with preservatives. Odum
does not require paint for protection. Others should be painted and varnished
 Metal; Steel windows require protection against corrosion in humid area and along the
coast
 Aluminum is lighter and does not normally require protection.
 uPVC (unplasticated polyvinly chloride)

Fixing windows
 Traditional method of fixing windows in position in a wall is to build solid walling
around them as construction proceeds ( window is said to be “built-in’)
 Advantages are that there is a good fit of the wall to the window
 Window can be secured solidly in horizontal courses as the wall is raised
 The alternative method is to “fix-in” (fit) the window after the wall has been built.
 The wall is constructed leaving an opening with extra clearance for fitting the window.

45 
 
  The window frames are secured in position in solid walls by means of L shaped
galvanized steel cramps that are screwed to the back of the frame and built into the brick
or block courses.

46 
 
 Naco louvre windows

47 
 
 48 
 
Vertical & Horizontal protective devices
 In a tropical environment, the desired indoor comfort conditions can be achieved if the
elevation of the building can be shaded
 In single storey buildings, this can be done with specific roof designs
 Portions of the building that cannot be protected can be fitted with artificial shading
devices or “sun-breakers”

 SHADING DEVICES:
 Fixed vertical fins
 Fixed horizontal fins
 Combined fixed vertical and horizontal fins
 Movable vertical devices
 Movable horizontal devices

 These can be designed as part of the structural framework of the building

 As a system of slender and protruding columns or thin vertical reinforced concrete
fins
 Fixed between cantilevered floor slabs either at right angle to the wall or
obliquely.

49 
 
  Fixed Horizontal devices:
 These can be solid or partially solid overhangs, horizontal or tilted fins, fixed
between vertical supports.

50 
 
  Combined Fixed vertical & horizontal devices:
 Also known as “ egg-crate’ device
 Appears as a perforated “curtain wall” in front of the elevation, supported by part
of the vertical and horizontal structural framework of the building

Movable shading devices

 Some Metal window producing firms manufacture different types of vertical and
horizontal movable fins.
 These can shade openings or the whole wall by being moved in the desired direction by
vertical or horizontal pivots
Modern movable shading devices can be moved automatically as the sun moves or can be
electronically moved.

51 
 
Ironmongery
 These are the hardware used for fixing of windows. Some of them are the hinges and
others prevent the windows from slamming backward or shut Eg Friction stays, casement
stays etc

52 
 
 
 

53