Lesson 5: Cell Cycle - Mitosis &
Meiosis
Cell Cycle
● a sophisticated process that
regulates each step.
● molecules that send signals
such as kinases and cyclin carry
out the regulation.
● organisms need the cell cycle
for many reasons such as
growth, tissue repair, and
formation of gamete cells,
which are essential for
reproduction.
● in bacteria, the division of a cell
into two is the actual formation
of a new organism because this
is a single-cell organism –”
binary fission”
● the cell cycle is divided into
four major phases:
○ G1- growth phase 1
○ S – synthesis phase
○ G2- growth phase 2
○ M- mitotic phase
● Interphase
○ non-dividing phase
○ G1,S, and G2 phases
● M- mitotic phase
○ cell-dividing phase
1) Prophase
2) Metaphase
3) Anaphase
4) Telophase
Each phase of the cell cycle carries out
specific metabolic activities
1. G1 ( Growth Phase 1 )
● the cell grows fast along with
the execution of its routine
metabolic processes
○ the synthesis of proteins
and organelles needed
for cell division
● the cell normally spends most
of its life in this phase
2. S ( Synthesis Phase )
● the cell’s DNA is being copied
faithfully through the process
of DNA replication, which
involves many regulatory
proteins.
3. G2 ( Growth Phase 2 )
● the cell makes final
preparations before its division.
● it makes additional proteins
and organelles.
4. M ( Mitotic Phase )
● in this phase, the cell will
undergo prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase.
Cell Cycle Checkpoints
● are important regulatory
requirements before the cell
cycle continues.
● each checkpoint plays a
crucial /critical role to ensure
normal cell physiology
● three recognized checkpoints:
1. G1 or Cell Growth Checkpoint
● where the checking occurs
towards the end of the G1
phase, in which it makes
surveillance if the cell is large
enough and has made the
required protein for the
synthesis phase.

2. G2 – DNA Synthesis Checkpoint
● in which the checking occurs
during the S phase, in which the
cell’s DNA is being checked for
correct replication down to the
last nucleotide, the cell will
proceed to mitosis.
3. Mitosis Checkpoint
● the final checkpoint before
division
● the checking occurs during
mitosis to make sure that the
cell has already completed the
mitotic process; if the
requirement is fulfilled the cell
divides and the cell cycle
repeats.
Cell Cycle Regulators
● these are proteins that function
to detect and repair DNA
damage and prevent rapid
uncontrolled cell division.
● the regulators are also
dependent on the signaling
relay of the cell.
Regulatory Molecules
1) cyclins
● are regulatory sub-units that do
not have a catalytic function;
the cell synthesizes this during
the cell cycle.
2) cyclin-dependent kinases ( CDK )
● is a catalytic sub-unit that
becomes active only when
cyclin is bound to it.
● The binding of CDK and cyclins
function together to
phosphorylate and stimulate or
deactivate the target molecules
in the succeeding steps of the
cell cycle.
● specific types of cyclin and CDK
combination determine specific
target molecule ( protein )
Types of Cell Division in Higher Living
Organisms
1. Mitosis
● the normal process of somatic
or body cell division from the
cleavage stage up to the death
of an organism.
2. Meiosis
● a special type of cell division
that gives rise to the sperm and
the egg
Stages of Mitosis
1. Prophase
● condensation of chromatids
into chromosomes.
● the nuclear membrane
disintegrates
● the chromatin condenses into
distinct chromosomes having
two chromatids joined by a
centromere.
2. Metaphase
● alignment of chromosomes at
the equatorial plate the fully
condensed chromosomes move
randomly until they are
attached to the spindle and
aligned at the equatorial
metaphase plate
● the centrioles align on opposite
poles and the polar fiber extend
 to the middle or center of the
cell.
3. Anaphase
● splitting of the chromosomes
● when the centromere splits, and
the two chromatids of each
chromosome migrate toward
opposite poles
● the rest of the spindle fibers,
not connected to chromatids,
lengthen and elongate the cell
● both poles will contain a
complete set of chromosomes
at the end of anaphase
4. Telophase
● nuclear membrane reappears
and cytoplasmic division begins
● the chromosomes reach the
opposite poles
● the nucleolus and chromosomes
start to de-condense along with
the degradation of spindle fiber
● this stage is the exact opposite
of the prophase.
Significance of Mitosis
1. Tissue repair and replenishment
2. Growth
3. Development
4. Continues physiological cycle
Stages of Meiosis
The First Meiotic Division ( Meiosis 1) –
( Reductional Division )
Prophase I
● the nucleolus and the nuclear
membrane start to disintegrate;
chromosomes are already
distinct with sister chromatids
fused together by a centromere
● the pairing of homologous
chromosomes happens on this
stage called synapsis
● the two homologous
chromosomes come from
paternal and maternal genetic
material
● tetrads are four sister
chromatids from the pair of
chromosomes that are visible
during prophase
● crossing over between non-
sister chromatids occurs during
this stage
● chiasmata is the point of
crossing over, resulting in the
genetic variability of sex cells
2. Metaphase I
● the tetrads line up at the
equatorial plane (metaphase
plate) of the cell along with an
increase in the number of
spindle fibers
● the spindle fibers facilitate this
movement as it attaches into a
kinetochore.
3. Anaphase I
● the homologous chromosomes
migrate toward each pole
● half of the total chromosome
number will move to one pole
and another half to the other
pole
4. Telophase I
● the daughter cells divide
entirely with an equal amount
of chromosomes along with the
reappearance of the nuclei
● the chromosomes grow less
visible
5. Interkinesis I
● the stage pertains to the short
pause before entry into Meiosis
II
● there is no DNA replication
during this stage
2. The Second Meiotic Division
(Meiosis II ) - Equational Division
- to complete each process, the
cell carrying a haploid number
of chromosomes needs to
undergo Meiosis II
Prophase II
● the nucleus disintegrates again,
while the chromosomes
shortens and become thicker
● as the spindle fiber arranges
and elongates, the centrioles
move toward opposite poles
Metaphase II
● the spindle fibers from opposite
poles bind to two kinetochore
of every centromere
● The chromosomes migrate to a
new equatorial plate
Anaphase II
● the centromere separate,
permitting microtubules to
attach to the kinetochore for
chromatid migration toward
opposite poles
● Upon movement toward
opposite poles, the sister
chromatids are now called
sister chromosomes
Telophase II
● the chromosomes start to
uncoil and lengthen, along with
the disappearance of spindle
fibers and reformation of the
nuclear envelope and cleavage
furrow
● this produces two haploid cells
● the total number of daughter
cells produced is four (all
haploid) from the two cells
produced in Meiosis I that
progressed to Meiosis II
Telophase II
● the chromosomes start to
uncoil and lengthen, along with
the disappearance of spindle
fibers and reformation of the
nuclear envelope and cleavage
furrow
● this produces two haploid cells
● the total number of daughter
cells produced is four (all
haploid) from the two cells
produced in Meiosis I that
progressed to Meiosis II
Significance of Meiosis
1. For reproduction which
produces sperm cells and egg
cells, are essential for
fertilization in mammals.
2. For chromosomal segment
exchange which allows a
unique genetic material to
transfer to the offspring – more
unique and diverse individuals,
genotypically and
phenotypically
Some Disorders and Diseases
Resulting from the Malfunction of
the Cell during the Cell Cycle:
1. Changes in chromosome
number
 ● non-disjunction is the result of
the failure of chromosomes to
separate during meiosis
● aneuploidy- with either extra
or missing chromosomes
example: Down’s syndrome with extra-
chromosome number 21 (Trisomy 21)
2. Reciprocal translocations
● occur when non-homologous
chromosomes trade or
exchange segments like
crossing over
● deletions and duplications may
result when crossing over in
Prophase I does not occur
properly
example: cancers like leukemia and
synoviosarcomas
3. Genetic mutation
● inheritable changes in the
genetic material
● they can arise from mistakes in
DNA replication when one
nitrogen base is substituted for
another
● cosmic rays, X-rays, ultraviolet
radiation, and mutagenic
agents
example: human sickle cell anemia is a
genetic disorder that affects the
structure of the oxygen-carrying
molecule found in RBC.
4. Cancerous cells
● a disease of uncontrolled cell
division
● development and progression
are usually linked to a series of
changes in the activity of cell
cycle regulators
● unchecked cell growth, as a
mass of cancerous cells grows,
it can develop into a tumor
Lesson 6: Transport Mechanisms
Membrane Transport
● At the cellular level, the
transport mechanism is very
important to accommodate the
needs of the cell in the form of
ions, nutrients, and other
molecules.
● the cell carries this out with or
without the use of energy in the
form of ATP
Structural Components of the
Cell Membrane
● all cells are separated from
their surroundings by a cell
membrane
● this structure regulate the
materials that enter or leave
the cell
● as regulator of the cell ,
sometimes it becomes
permeable, impermeable , and
most of the time semi-
permeable (selective
membrane)
● it also serves as the protection
and support of the cell as well
as giving shape to the cell
Two Models of Cell Membrane
1. Lipoprotein Sandwich Model
2. Fluid Mosaic Model
Lipoprotein Sandwich Model
● the complex lipid bilayer, a
structure with two layers of
highly organized phospholipid
molecules are located in
between (sandwich) the
peripheral protein molecules
which are situated in the
membrane surface.
Fluid Mosaic Model
● the peripheral proteins are not
situated in the membrane
surface, instead, embedded
within the lipid bilayer of
phospholipids
● phospholipids are depicted as
spheres which is hydrophilic ,
and with tails which is
hydrophobic
● small carbohydrate molecules
are attached to some of the
lipid and protein molecules
● proteins are responsible for the
special characteristics of
different types of membranes,
controlling their ability to
transport molecules, to receive
chemical messages, to attach
adjacent cells , etc.
Two Major Types of Cellular Transport
1) Passive Transport
● an energy-independent
mechanism of the cell, allowing
small molecules to enter into it
without energy consumption
● the basis of movement is
through a concentration
gradient
examples: simple diffusion, facilitated
diffusion, osmosis, and plasmolysis
Simple Diffusion
● only the cell membrane is
required for small molecule
movement
● the cell membrane is semi-
permeable due toits
amphipathic nature, as it
contains both hydrophobic and
hydrophilic regions
● common molecules that freely
pass the cell membrane via
diffusion are carbon dioxide,
water, and oxygen
● simple diffusion cannot
accommodate charged
molecules or ions and large
molecules such as nucleic acids,
proteins, carbohydrates, and
large lipids
● it is the movement of particles
from an area of higher
concentration to an area with
less concentration
● concentration gradient is the
difference between the area
with greater concentration and
the area of lesser concentration
● diffusion is always from the
area with high particle
concentration to low particle
concentration
● the end of diffusion is the
attainment of equilibrium
wherein the concentration of
particles on both sides of the
membrane is the same
“dynamic equilibrium”
Facilitated Diffusion
● trans-membrane proteins are
required and act as a carrier of
some molecules and ions
(glucose, Na ions, and Cl ions)
 which cannot enter the cell via
diffusion
● the process is also ATP-
independent like simple
diffusion
● requires a specific carrier
Facilitated Diffusion Osmosis
● a type of diffusion wherein the
movement of water molecules
across a semi-permeable
membrane from the side or
area where water is greater in
concentration to where it is less
concentrated
● at the cellular level, a change in
solute concentration, either
outside or inside the cell,
mediates osmosis
Osmosis
● the solute concentration
defines the differences of
solutions:
a. Isotonic solution
- if the solute concentration is
equal inside and outside the cell
b. Hypotonic solution
- it has a lower concentration of
solute outside than inside the
cell
c. Hypertonic solution
- it is a solution with higher
concentration of solutes outside
the cell
Plasmolysis
● in plant cells, change in osmotic
pressure affects the rigidity of
the cell
● a hypertonic solution results to
plasmolysis in a plant cell, this
causes water molecules to
move out of the plant cell
causing shrinkage
● a plant cell has a cell wall ,
instead of a complete
shrinkage, the plasma
membrane will just detach from
the cell wall
2) Active Transport
● it is the way by which the
substances enters or goes out
of the cell against a
concentration gradient
● the activity against the
concentration gradient will not
be possible without the use of
energy in the form of ATP
● another requirements is a
protein transversely located in
the plasma membrane called
active transport pumps
● the role of ATP is to
phosphorylate the active
transport pump to facilitate the
entry of ions and other
molecules
Best Examples of Active Transport
Pumps
1. potassium pumps
2. sodium pumps
3. vitamins
4. amino acids
5. hydrogen ions
Vesicular and Bulk Transport
● the cell requires huge quantity
(bulk) into and out of the
cytoplasm
● requires ATP for the mechanism
to take place
 ● two forms of vesicular
transport:
a. exocytosis
b. endocytosis
Endocytosis
● moves a large quantity of
substances into the cell from
the extracellular fluid
● two known forms of
endocytosis:
Pinocytosis (cell drinking)
- responsible for bulk liquid
transport
- occurs when the cell membrane
engulfs liquid to form a
pinocytic vesicle
Exocytosis
● the process by which the cell
moves out a bulk quantity of
materials out of the cell
● this process is applicable to the
transport of hormones,
enzymes, and other important
polypeptides out of the cell
● the transported proteins, such
as hormones, are of
significance to the endocrine
and other cell signaling
mechanism.

b. Phagocytosis (cell eating)

- responsible for solid bulk
transport into the cell
- starts when solid particles
encounter the cell membrane
- upon contact, a bud-like
projection called pseudopods
will surround and eventually
enclose the solid particle in a
phagocytic vesicle
- vesicle pinches off from the cell
membrane and moves into the
cell

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
● a phagocytic process relies
upon the interaction of the
substance that tries to enter the
cell and the cell surface
receptor
● this is the usual mechanism that
some metabolites, hormones,
other proteins, and viruses gain
entry into the cell