AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

LW
LW

LTLT

W Chapter 9
W Field Length
Balanced
and
Climb Gradient Requirements
By T. G. Pai
 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Balanced Field Length and Aircraft Climb Gradients

Take off distance of multi - engine aircraft

Safe handling of one engine failure case during take off and
climb segments thereafter (OEI): FAR

Aircraft speeds during ground run and take off

Take off analysis for all engines operative (AEO) case

Distance to Take off after one engine failure (OEI)

Distance to Stop aircraft after one engine failure (OEI)
Definition of Balanced Field Length (BFL)

Initial Climb Gradients OEI and Enroute Climb Gradient AEO

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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Climb Gradients (CGR) Requirements in FAR

Initial Climb Gradient (OEI):

First Segment: Lift Off to clearing 35 ft obstruction
Second Segment: 35 ft to 400 ft climb at V2
*Third Segment: At 400 ft accelerating to best climb speed
Fourth Segment: 400 ft to 1500 ft

Enroute Climb Gradient (AEO): 1500 ft to cruise altitude

FAR gives Climb Gradient requirements along with Aircraft

configurations - flap position, gear up / down and Engine
operating conditions.

*not a climb segment and has no CGR requirement!

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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Balanced Field Length (BFL)

Take off Distance for multi-engine aircraft is taken as higher of

the following two:

115% of the distance required to clear 35 ft obstruction

with all engines operating (AEO)

Balanced Field Length with one engine inoperative

(OEI) (to be estimated for failure of most critical of the
engines)

What is Balanced Field Length? How is it estimated?

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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Forces on Aircraft and Acceleration - Ground Run

(AEO)

Acceleration a (1)

Here we need to use (T, D, L) values for ground run condition 6

 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design
Take Off Analysis – Distance and Time (1/3)

Using acceleration aj and velocity Vj at any instant tj, we can

calculate incremental changes in speed ΔVj and distance Δsj in
a time interval of Δt as
ΔVi = ai Δt and Δsi =ViΔt + ½ ai Δt2 (2)

Step by step integration using (1) and (2) above starting from t
= 0, V = 0, s = 0 and carried out till the speed Vj becomes VLOF
gives cumulative distance and time, as ground run distance sgr
and ground run time tgr as discussed below (3) and (4) 7
 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design
Take Off Analysis – Distance and Time (2/3)

Using initial values of velocity Vi and ground distance si at t = ti

and incremental changes in speed ΔVi and distance Δsi in a time
interval of Δt, we get the corresponding velocity Vi+1 and
ground distance si+1 at ti+1 = ti + Δt = (i – 1) Δt as
Vi+1 = Vi + ΔVi = Vi+ aiΔt (3)
si+1 = si + Δ si = si + [ViΔt + ½ aiΔt2] (4)
This integration process from i = 1 (t = 0 , V = 0, s = 0 )
continued till speed Vi becomes VLOF gives cumulative distance
si and time ti as the ground run sgr and ground run time tgr . 8
 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design
Take Off Analysis – Distance and Time (3/3)

By calculating climb angle γ at VLOF {sin γ = (T-D)/W}we can

find out time tclimb to clear 10.66 m (35 ft) obstacle as
tclimb = 10.66/ [VLOF tan γ] (5)
and the horizontal distance sclimb as 10.66/tan γ
sclimb = 10.66/tan γ (6)
Thus we have the distance to clear 35 ft obstruction and time
respectively as
s = sgr + sclimb and t = tgr + tclimb (7)
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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Drag for Ground Run

CD0 for ground run should be evaluated for take off
configuration of the aircraft with incremental drag due to
landing gear and flap (ΔCD0LG and ΔCD0Flap) accounted for.
CD0TO= CD0 + ΔCD0LG + ΔCD0Flap (8)

In calculating induced drag kCL2 for ground run, we should

use CL corresponding to aircraft attitude in ground run and
ΔCL generated by the flaps partially deflected (65%) for
take off. Attitude of aircraft in ground run is nearly 0° and
with wings set a small angle (~ +2 °) there is a small CL
generated by clean wing as in cruise condition (CLCruise ) .
Thus we get for ground run
CLGr Run= CLCruise + ΔCLFlap TO (9)
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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Drag for Take Off Climb Segment

CD0 for climb has to consider aircraft configuration after
rotation phase with flap deflected and landing gear
deployed as in the case of ground run. Thus we have
CD0Climb = CD0Gr Run (10)

Although we consider CD0 for climb segment as applicable

for ground run with landing gear deployed and flaps in
deflected position, the CL in climb is estimated at the take
off speed of VTO = 1.2 VStall and as applicable for a shallow
climb: W = ½ρVTO2 S CLClimb . Climb CL generated works
out to be CLClimb = CLmax TO /1.44 ( and NOT CLmax TO).

Thus we have
CDClimb = CD0 Climb+ k CLClimb2 (11)
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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Stall Speed Decision Speed

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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design
Take Off with One Engine Inoperative
(OEI)

V= 0 Vs Vmc V1 Vr Vmu Vlof V2

FAR 25
Speed Description
Requirement
Vs Stall speed -
Vmc Minimum control speed -
with one engine
inoperative (OEI)
V1 OEI decision speed ≥ Vmc
Vr Rotation speed 5% > Vmc
Vmu Minimum unstick speed ≥ Vs
for safe flight
Vlof Liftoff speed 10% > Vmu
5% > Vmu (OEI)
V2 Takeoff climb speed at 20% > Vs
35 ft 10% > Vmc
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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Key Take Off Speeds

V1: Decision Speed

Engine Failure before this : STOP the Aircraft
Engine Failure after this: CONTINUE with Take off
(expected to be higher than 0.5V2)

Nearly same - within 5 to 10%

Vr: Rotation Speed
Pilot initiates aircraft rotation to flight attitude

Vlof: Lift Off Speed

Speed at which aircraft leaves the ground

V2: Take off Safety Speed

> 1.2 Vs
Speed at the end of the first segment climb
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AAE 3104 Aircraft Design
AAE 3104 Aircraft Design
 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

{T – D - µ (W-L)}

D
µ (W-L)

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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Balanced Field Length – One Engine Inoperative

Decision Speed

(other engines shut off)

All Engine
Operative
TO distance

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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Engine Failure beyond Critical Failure Point

TO Dist < Stopping Dist

Decision Speed

All Engine
Operative
TO distance Stopping Distance

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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Engine Failure before Critical Failure Point

TO Dist > Stopping Dist

Decision Speed

All Engine
Operative
TO distance Stopping Distance

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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design
Engine Failure at Critical Failure Point

TO Dist = Stopping Dist

Decision Speed

All Engine
Operative
TO distance

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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design
Balanced Field Length – One Engine Inoperative

Decision Speed

All Engine
Operative
TO distance

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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Acceleration Distance to Take Off – OEI

TO Distance OEI
7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Distance to Take Off

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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design
Acceleration Distance to Take Off – OEI Case
Assuming decision speed to be higher than 0.5V2, choose 8
speeds between 0.5V2 & V2 for calculating acceleration
distance to Take Off (aircraft attaining ground speed of V2)
after one engine failure at these speeds.

Starting from each of these 8 chosen speeds and

corresponding ground distance already covered, obtain time
history of velocity and distance by using net accelerating
force at time intervals of Δt in terms of thrust of remaining
operating engine(s), drag of inoperative engine, drag of the
aircraft (for ground run) and rolling friction as discussed in
slides 6 – 7.

At the instant when the aircraft attains a ground speed of V2

or VLOF the aircraft is ready for rotation and climb 24
 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design
Take Off Distance for OEI Case

Take off ground run or distance to accelerate to take off for

OEI case is given when the speed attained is VLOF or V2.

At this speed (VLOF) obtain climb angle for OEI case (with
reduced thrust) and calculate time to clear 35 ft obstacle and
corresponding horizontal distance as discussed in slide 8.

This distance is added to ground run distance to get Take Off

distance for OEI case.

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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Distance to Take Off - OEI

(Accelerate - Go)

Dist to
Take off

Aircraft Speed at Engine Failure

Engine failure at lower speed requires longer acceleration
distance to take off compared to that with engine failing at
higher speed 26
 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design
Deceleration Distance to Stop - OEI

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Stopping Distance
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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design
Calculation of Deceleration Distance to Stop

Choose 8 speeds between 0.5V2 to V2 to calculate distance to

Stop for one engine failure at these speeds. Ground distance
covered at the time of Engine failure is s1 = sfailure

Sequence of events envisaged following one engine failure:

2 sec delay in cutting off working engine/s and
1 sec further delay in initiating airbrakes/ brakes
Brakes applied limiting deceleration levels to 0.25 g

For the duration of first 2 sec delay in cutting off working

engine/s, use reduced level of acceleration based on thrust of
working engines to estimate ground distance s2.

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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design
Calculation of deceleration Distance to Stop

For subsequent 1 sec delay in commencing braking action,

calculate rolling distance s3 covered in 1 sec at the aircraft
speed from previous step (slightly > speed at engine failure)

Estimate distance s4 required to bring the aircraft to rest

from this end speed by limiting deceleration levels not
exceeding 0.25 g (from passenger comfort considerations).

Stopping distance following Engine failure at chosen speed is

s= s1+ s2 + s3 + s4

Repeat these calculations for the 8 speeds chosen from 0.5 V2

to V2 and plot the stopping distance with speed at engine
failure
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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Deceleration Distance to Stop - OEI

Dist to Stop

Aircraft Speed at Engine Failure

Engine failure at higher speed requires longer deceleration
distance to stop than that with engine failing at lower speed
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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Distance to Take Off and Distance to Stop - OEI

Take off Distance OEI
7 6 5 4 3 2 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Stopping Distance
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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

(BFL)

Dist to
Take off

Dist to Stop

Aircraft Speed at Engine Failure

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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

(BFL)

Dist to
Take off

TO Dist AEO
Dist to Stop
V2

Aircraft Speed at Engine Failure

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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Distance to Take off : Engine failure at V1

 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Balance Field Length - OEI

Deceleration Distance to Stop: Engine failure at V1
AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Take off Distance - AEO

Take off Distance - AEO Balance Field Length - OEI
AAE 3104 Aircraft Design
 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Climb Gradients Requirements (CGR) in FAR

Flight Segments considered for Climb Gradient (OEI) in FAR:

Altitude Flight
Flight Segment Initial Final Speed
(ft) (ft)
First Segment 0 35 V2
Second Segment 35 400 V2
Third Segment* 400 400 V2 to VBest Climb
Fourth Segment 400 1500 VBest Climb
*not a climb segment and has no CGR requirement!
Enroute Climb Gradient (AEO): 1500 ft to cruise altitude

FAR gives Climb Gradient requirements for above flight

segments along with Aircraft configurations - flap position, gear
up / down and Engine operating conditions OEI or AEO 38
 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

Climb Gradients (CGR) Requirements in FAR

Initial Climb: 0 to 1500 ft ( 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Segments)

Enroute Climb (AEO): 1500 ft to cruise altitude

We discuss next the Climb Gradient requirements (CGR) for

flight segments in Initial Climb and Enroute Climb along with
Aircraft configurations - flap position, gear up / down and
Engine operating conditions given in FAR

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AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

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AAE 3104 Aircraft Design
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 AAE 3104 Aircraft Design

End of
Chapter 9
Balanced Field Length
and
Climb Gradient Requirements
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