A PROJECT REPORT

On

ESTIMATION AND MITIGATION OF HARMONICS IN A

BUS SYSTEM
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the
award of degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

KADIYALA CHYTHANYA 16311A0216

M.DHEERAJ SAI KRISHNA 16311A0223
MOHMAMMED TAFEEL 16311A0227

Under the Guidance of

Dr.S.Ravi Chandran
Professor
Department of EEE

Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology

Yamnampet, Ghatkesar, Hyderabad-501301

2019-2020
 SREENIDHI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(AUTONOMOUS)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report titled “ESTIMATION AND MITIGATION OF
HARMONICS IN A BUS SYSTEM” has been carried out by the following students

KADIYALA CHYTHANYA 16311A0216

M.DHEERAJ SAI KRISHNA 16311A0223
MOHMAMMED TAFEEL 16311A0227

of IV year I semester, B.Tech(Electrical and Electronics Engineering) under our

supervision during the year 2019 – 2020 in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
award of Bachelor of Technology degree in Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad.

Dr.S.RAVI CHNDRAN Dr.MTL GAYATHRI Dr.C.BHARGAVA

Professor Associate Professor Head of Department
Department of EEE Department of EEE Department of EEE

EXTERNAL EXAMINER
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our deepest gratitude to our esteemed principal Dr.T.Ch.Shiva
Reddy and our Head Of the Department Dr. C.Bhargava forgiving us this opportunity to
do the project.

We wish to express our sincere thanks to Dr.S.Ravi Chandran, Professor, Electrical and
Electronics Engineering for providing his valuable guidance, timely help, cordial support
and excellent environment for completion of the project.

We would like to thank our project coordinators, Dr.MTL.GAYATHRI, Associate

Professor, EEE Department, for her consistent encouragement in completion of the
project.

Finally we wish to thank all the people involved, directly or indirectly, in the successful
completion of our project.

KADIYALA CHYTHANYA-16311A0216
M.DHEERAJ SAI KRISHNA-16311A0223
MOHMAMMED TAFEEL-16311A0227
 ABSTRACT

Power quality issues are becoming a major concern of today’s power system engineers. Harmonics play
significant role in deteriorating power quality, called Harmonic Distortion. Harmonic distortion in
distribution system is increasingly growing due to the widespread use of non-linear loads. Large
considerations of these loads have the potential to raise harmonic voltage and currents in an electrical
distribution system to unacceptable high levels that can adversely affect the system. The paper studies about
the estimation and mitigation of harmonics in the power line system network. This is done by using the
harmonic filter for a Bus system to estimate the harmonics. In an electric power system, a harmonic is a
voltage or current at a multiple of the fundamental frequency of the system, produced by the action of non-
linear loads such as rectifiers, discharge lighting, or saturated magnetic devices. For this work we are using
Mipower software for the solution to the problem.

Keywords: Harmonic Distortion, MiPower software

 CONTENTS

DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

CERTIFICATE ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

ABSTRACT iv

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.2 PROJECT OVERVIEW 1

1.3 THESIS OVERVIEW 2

CHAPTER 2

TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

2.1 INTRODUCTION 3

2.2 SYSTEM LAYOUT 5

2.3 COMPARISION 5

2.4 ELECTRICAL LOADS 6

CHAPTER 3

HARMONICS

3.1INTRODUCTION 13

3.2 HARMONIC NUMBER 17

CHAPTER 4

TYPES OF HARMONICS
 4.1 ODD AND EVEN ORDER HARMONICS 18

4.2 CURRENT HARMONICS 19

4.3 VOLTAGE HARMONICS 21

4.4 CAUSES OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT HARMONICS 21

CHAPTER 5

HARMONIC FUNDAMENTALS

5.1 FUNDAMENTALS 23

CHAPTER 6

GENERATION OF HARMONICS

6.1 LINEAR LOAD 24

6.2 NON-LINEAR LOAD 24

CHAPTER 7

CAUSES OF HARMONICS

7.1 CAUSES 29

CHAPTER 8

HARMONICS INDICATORS AND MEASUREMENTS

8.1 HARMONIC SPECTRUM 32

8.2 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION 32

8.3 HARMONICS, POWER FACTOR 33

CHAPTER 9

EFFECTS OF HARMONICS

9.1 EFFECTS 35
CHAPTER 10

MEASURES FOR HARMONIC REDUCTION

10.1 MEASURES 45

CHAPTER 11

SOLUTIONS TO COMPNENSATE AND REDUCE HARMONICS

11.1 SOLUTIONS 50

CHAPTER 12

HARMONIC MODELLING AND MITIGAION TECHNIQUES

12.1 MITIGATION TECHNIQUES 53

CHAPTER 13

MIPOWER SOFTWARE

13.1 INTRODUCTION 55

13.2 FEATURES 56

13.3 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 61

13.4 CLASSIFICATION OF BUS 63

13.5 PROCEDURE FOR IMPLEMENTATION 68

13.6 EXAMPLES 75

13.7 PROJECT BUS SYSTEM 79

CHAPTER 14

CONCLUSIONS 104

DEFINITIONS 105
REFERENCES 107
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In simple terms, harmonics are extra frequencies that when present in an electrical circuit, distort the AC
sine wave. A harmonic of a wave is a component frequency of the signal that is an integer multiple of the
fundamental frequency.

For example, if the fundamental frequency is f, the harmonics have frequencies 2f, 3f, 4f, . . . etc. Harmonic
frequencies are equally spaced by the width of the fundamental frequency and can be found by repeatedly
adding that frequency. In the case of the Australian electricity supply, the fundamental frequency is 50Hz.
The frequencies of the harmonics are 100Hz, 150Hz, 200Hz, 250Hz, 300Hz, 350Hz and so on. 150Hz is
called the 'third' harmonic (3 x 50Hz), 250Hz is called the 'fifth' harmonic (5 x 50Hz), etc. The presence of
harmonics in an electrical system distorts the clean shape of a sine wave.

Because of the strict requirement of power quality at the input AC mains, various harmonic standards and
engineering recommendations such as are employed to limit the level of distortion at the PCC. To comply
with these harmonic standards, installations utilizing power electronic and nonlinear loads often use one of
the growing numbers of harmonic mitigation techniques. Because of the number and variety of available
methods, the selection of the best-suited technique for a particular application is not always an easy or
straightforward process. Many options are available, including active and passive methods. Some of the
most technically advanced solutions offer guaranteed results and have little or no adverse effect on the
isolated power system, while the performance of other simple methods may be largely dependent on system
conditions. This paper presents a comprehensive survey on harmonic mitigation techniques in which a large
number of technical publications have been reviewed and used to classify harmonic mitigation techniques
into three categories: passive techniques, active techniques, and hybrid harmonic reduction techniques using
a combination of active and passive methods.

1.2 PROJECT OVERVIEW:

In recent years, there have been serious concerns regarding the quality of available power in electric
networks, making this issue a significant focus of research interest for both suppliers and users. Harmonics
are considered as one of the most important issue because of their reduction in power quality in power
system. This is due to the presence of harmonics in power system equipments, generation, distribution ends.

1
Our project mainly deals on presence of harmonics in Bus system and their effects on Power Quality. And
also deals how one bus affects another bus in the presence of Harmonics. By using MiPower Software we
will be able to Estimate and Mitigate the Harmonic effectively and efficiently.

1.3 THESIS OVERVIEW:

The thesis explains the “ESTIMATION AND MITIGATION OF HARMONICS IN A BUS SYSTEM”
Using MiPower Software. The organization of the thesis is explained here with:

Chapter 1 Presents introduction to the overall thesis and the overview of the project. In the project overview
a brief introduction of ESTIMATION AND MITIGATION OF HARMONICS IN A BUS SYSTEM
using Mi Power Software.

Chapter 2-3 Presents the introduction of Harmonics and Types of Harmonics.

Chapter 5-6 Presents the Generation and Causes for Harmonics.

Chapter 8-9 Presents the Effects and Measurement of Harmonic Reduction.

Chapter 10-11 Presents the Solution and Mitigation Techniques of Harmonics.

Chapter 12 Presents the Introduction of MiPower Software, its features and procedure of implementation.

Chapter 13 Presents the Conclusion and Future Scope of the Project.

2
 CHAPTER 2: TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

2.1 Introduction of Electrical Power Transmission and Distribution:

For economical generation of power, large generating stations are used. Generating sets in the range of
10 MW, 210 MW and 500 MW are being manufactured in many countries. Generating station are now not
necessarily located at load centers. In fact other factors like availability of fuel and water play more
dominating role in the selection of sites for thermal stations. Hydro stations are obviously located only at the
sites where water is available at sufficient head. A vast network of transmission system has been created so
that power generated at one station may be fed to grid system and may be distributed over large areas and
number of states. The transmission and distribution system comprises a network of three-phase circuits with
transforming and or switching substations at the various junctions. The parts of a transmission and
distribution network maybe grouped as given below.

 Electricity must be generated as and when needed.

 Current drawn is inversely proportional to voltage level for same quantity of power handled.
 For same quantity of power handled, lower the voltage, higher the current drawn and higher the
voltage drop.
 Power losses are given by I 2 R .

3
 1
 If the distribution of power is raised from 11KV to 33KV, voltage drop would be lower by a factor 3

1 2 1
and line losses would be lowered by a factor [ ] = .
3 9
 Lower voltage transmission and distribution calls for a bigger size conductor on account of current
handling capacity.

Electrical power transmission:

Several generating stations can be inter-connected. The main advantages are:

 1. Reduction in the number of spare plants required as one station can assist the other at the time of
emergency.

 2. During light loads one station or some generators can be shut off, thus affecting operational economy.

 Primary electric power transmission:

High voltages of the order of 66 kV 132 kV 220 kV and 400 kV are used for transmitting power by 3
phase 3 wire overhead system. This is supplied to substations usually at the out skirts of major distribution
center or city.

 Secondary electric power transmission:

The primary voltage is reduced to low values of the order of 3.3 kV, 11 kV or 33 kV for secondary
transmission.

 Primary electric power distribution:

The transmission lines or inner connectors terminate at large main substations from which the power is
distributed to small secondary substations scattered throughout the load area. The voltage may range from
11 kV to 132 kV.

 Secondary electric power distribution:

This consists of the low-voltage network laid along the streets, localities and over the rural areas. From
these sources connections to individual customers are provided. The circuit used for this purpose is 3 phase
4 wire, 440 V/220 V from which either 3 phase 440 V or single phase 220 V supply to the consumers may
be provided.

4
2.2 System layout of electric power transmission and distribution:

From the power stations PS, emanate 3 phase feeder supplying secondary distributions substations
located at points throughout the supply area. The normal voltages are 132 kV, 33 kV and 11 kV.

2.3 Comparison of AC and DC power transmission:

 Advantages of DC transmission:

1. It requires only two conductors.

2.  There is no problem of inductance, capacitance and phase displacement which is common in ac
transmission.
3. For the same load and sending end voltage, the voltage drop in dc transmission lines is less than that
in ac transmission.
4.  As there is no skin effect on conductors, therefore entire cross-section of conductor is usefully
utilized thereby affecting saving in material.
5.  For the same value of voltage insulating materials on dc lines experience less stress as compared to
those on ac transmission lines.
6.  A dc line has less corona loss and reduced interference with communication circuits.
7.  There is no problem of system instability so common in ac transmission.

 Disadvantages of DC transmission:

5
 1. Generation of power at high dc voltages is difficult due to commutation problems and cannot be
usefully utilized at Consumer ends.
2.  Step up or step-down transformation of dc voltages is not possible in equipment like transformer.

 Advantages of AC transmission:

1. Power can be generated at high voltages as there is no commutation problem.

2.  Ac voltages can be conveniently stepped up or stepped down.
3. High voltage transmission of ac power reduces losses.

 Disadvantages of AC transmission:

1. Problems of inductances and capacitances exist in transmission lines

2. Due to skin effect, more copper is required.
3. Construction of AC transmission lines is more complicated as well as costly
4.  Effective resistance of ac transmission lines is increased due to skin effect.

2.4 ELECTRICAL LOADS:

An electrical load is an electrical component of a circuit that consumes electric power. This is opposed
to a power source, such as a battery or generator, which produces power. In electric power circuits examples
of loads are appliances and lights.

Types of Electrical Loads:

Three basic types of loads exist in circuits: capacitive loads, inductive loads and resistive loads. These
differ in how they consume power in an alternating current (AC) setup.

a) Resistive Loads:

6
 A resistive load is a part of an electrical circuit that is typically used to convert current into forms of
energy such as heat. Unlike inductive loads, resistive loads generate no magnetic fields.

Common examples include most electrical heaters, and traditional incandescent lighting loads.

In a resistive load, the circuit current is in phase with the voltage i.e., the current rises immediately to its
steady-state value, without first rising to a higher value. That means, power factor for a resistive load is
unity. Resistive loads can therefore be said to have little inrush current.

b) Inductive Loads:

An inductive load is a part of an electrical circuit that uses magnetic energy to produce work. Inductive
circuits tend to be large and usually depend on a coil or other routing system to store and channel energy and
as a consequence most are found in industrial and heavy-duty appliances.

Common examples include transformers, electric motors, fans, fluorescent lamps, vacuum cleaners,
dishwashers, washing machines and the compressors in refrigerators and air conditioners. .

These loads store energy until it is needed and, once it is, they convert it with a series of magnetic fields;
together this process is known as “Induction” These sorts of loads often have to be harnessed and protected
to keep the energy flowing in only one direction, since the force of the power can cause damage to the
circuit or connected breakers otherwise.

7
In an inductive load, inductive reactance resists the change to current, causing the circuit current to lag
voltage. Thus, power factor of an inductive load is lagging.

c) Capacitive Loads:

A capacitive load is a part of an electrical circuit charges and releases energy. In engineering, capacitive
loads do not exist in a stand-alone format. Capacitors in large circuits are useful, however, in controlling
power use. They are often included at electrical substations to improve the overall "power factor" of the
system.

Common Examples of capacitive loads include capacitor banks, buried cables, capacitors used in various
circuits such as motor starters.

A capacitive load bank is similar to an inductive load bank in rating and purpose. However, lightly loaded
switched mode power supplies (applied to reduce harmonic currents) and long cable runs cause a system
draw, a leading current allowing reactive power to be supplied from these loads to the system. As a result,
power factor improves.

Capacitive reactance resists the change to voltage, causing the circuit current to lead voltage. Thus, power
factor of a capacitive load is leading.

8
Lab Practical on Electrical Loads Using Power Analyser:

A power quality analyser is used to measure the power in W, kWh or to analyze and measure
harmonics. This power analyzer is a multi-function power analyser device that measure precisely direct
current, alternating current, AC-voltage, DC-voltage the intensity of DC or AC, phase rotation and idle,
apparent and effective power. While a reading is being taken, the polarity changes automatically, if negative
values are taken then a minus sign will appear on the device display.

Nowadays, power quality analysers have many features such as, insulated current input, measurement of
harmonics, AC and DC current measurement, AC and DC voltage measurement, frequency measurement,
phase rotation measurement and idle, apparent and effective power measurement. All this data can also be
logged and analysed with the delivered PC-Software. Power analysers of the type PCE PA 6000 can
determine the energy in single-phase systems.

Power quality analysers of type PCE-GPA 62 allow the energy measurement in symmetrically loaded three-
phase systems. Power analysers of type PCE-PA 8000, PCE-360 and PCE-830 support professional power
and energy measurements in single and three-phase systems.

Apart from being used as energy-measuring devices, power analysers like the PCE-830 can also be used for
network analysis and the determination of harmonics and phase rotation. On our website you will find other
power analysers used in the field of electronics.

9
A power quality analyser:

i. Resistive load:

An incandescent lamp has been taken as the resistive load for our practical and a power
quality analyser has been connected across it.

The following readings were obtained:

10
 Active power(W) 56.08 W
Reactive power(VAR) 56.20 VAR
Apparent power(VA) 1.18 VA
Distortion power factor 1
Displacement power factor 1
Power factor angle 0010

It has been observed that ,in case of a resistive load,the active and apparent powers are approximately equal
and the reactive power is very less.The power factor of the system is unity.

ii. Inductive load:

A fluroscent light has been taken as the inductive load for our practical and a power quality analyser
has been connected across it.

The following readings were obtained:

Active power(W) 0.94 W

Reactive power(VAR) 29.56 VAR
Apparent power(VA) 29.60 VA
Distortion power factor +0.032
Displacement power factor 0.031
Power factor angle 900

It has been observed that, in case of an inductive load, the apparent power is dominant. The current lags the
voltage by 900 .The power factor of the system is approximately zero.

iii. Capacitive load:

A 250µF capacitor has been taken as the capacitive load for our practical and a power quality
analyser has been connected across it.

The following readings were obtained:

11
 Active power(W) 1.23 W
Reactive power(VAR) 38.08 VAR
Apparent power(VA) 38.13 VA
Distortion power factor 0.032
Displacement power factor 0.032
Power factor angle -900

It has been observed that, in case of a capacitive load, the reactive power is dominant and it is being supplied
by the load..The current leads the voltage by 900 and the negative sign indicates that power factor has been
improved to the maximum extent and further improvement in poiwer facot is not possible.The power factor
of the system is approximately zero.

12
 CHAPTER 3: HARMONICS

3.1 INTRODUCTION:
In an electric power system, a harmonic is a voltage or current at a multiple of the fundamental frequency of
the system, produced by the action of non-linear loads such as rectifiers, discharge lighting, or saturated
magnetic devices. Harmonic frequencies in the power grid are a frequent cause of power quality problems.
Harmonics in power systems result in increased heating in the equipment and conductors, misfiring in
variable speed drives, and torque pulsations in motors.

A 250 Hz sine-wave signal, superposed onto the fundamental 50 Hz mains frequency, will be designated as
the 5th harmonic or as the harmonic of 5th order (5 x 50 Hz). Any signal component having a frequency
which is not an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency is designated as an inter harmonic component
or referred to more simply as an inter harmonic. Harmonics and inter harmonics are basically the result of
modern developments in electricity utilization and the use of electronic power conditioning modules. Using
switching power supplies to control loads and to reduce power consumption results in unwanted frequencies
superimposed on the supply voltage. The presence of voltage at other frequencies is, as far as possible, to be
avoided.

In the early 1800s, French mathematician, Jean Baptiste Fourier formulated that a periodic non-sinusoidal
function of a fundamental frequency f may be expressed as the sum of sinusoidal functions of frequencies
which are multiples of the fundamental frequency. In our discussions here, we are mainly concerned with
periodic functions of voltage and current due to their importance in the field of power quality. In other
applications, the periodic function might refer to radiofrequency transmission, heat flow through a medium,
vibrations of a mechanical structure, or the motions of a pendulum in a clock.

A sinusoidal voltage or current function that is dependent on time t may be represented by the following
expressions:
Voltage function,

13
v(t) = V sin (ωt) ...(1.1)

Current function,

i(t) = I sin (ωt ± θ) …(1.2)

where, ω = 2πf is known as the angular velocity of the periodic waveform and 0 is the difference in phase
angle between the voltage and the current waveforms referred to as a common axis. The sign of phase angle
θ is positive if the current leads the voltage and negative if the current lags the voltage.

Figure 1.1 contains voltage and current waveforms expressed by Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2) and which by definition
are pure sinusoids.

Fig 1.1
For the periodic non-sinusoidal waveform shown in Fig. 4.2, the simplified Fourier expression states-

V (t) = V0 + V1 sin(ωt) + V2 sin(2 ωt) + V3 sin(3 ωt) + … + Vn sin( n ωt) + Vn+1 sin (( n + 1) ωt) +
………….. (1.3)
The Fourier expression is an infinite series. In this equation, V0 represents the constant or the DC component
of the waveform.

14
 Fig 1.2

V1, V2, V3, … , Vn are the peak values of the successive terms of the expression. The terms are known as the
harmonics of the periodic waveform. The fundamental (or first harmonic) frequency has a frequency of f,
the second harmonic has a frequency of 2 x f, the third harmonic has a frequency of 3 x f, and the nth
harmonic has a frequency of n x f. If the fundamental frequency is 60 Hz (as in the U.S.), the second
harmonic frequency is 120 Hz, and the third harmonic frequency is 180 Hz.

Fig 1.3

The significance of harmonic frequencies can be seen in Fig. 1.3. The second harmonic undergoes two
complete cycles during one cycle of the fundamental frequency, and the third harmonic traverses three
complete cycles during one cycle of the fundamental frequency.

V1, V2, and V3 are the peak values of the harmonic components that comprise the composite waveform,
which also has a frequency of f.

The ability to express a non-sinusoidal waveform as a sum of sinusoidal waves allows us to use the more
common mathematical expressions and formulas to solve power system problems. In order to find the effect

15
of a non-sinusoidal voltage or current on a piece of equipment, we only need to determine the effect of the
individual harmonics and then vectorially sum the results to derive the net effect. Figure 1.4 illustrates how
individual harmonics that are sinusoidal can be added to form a non-sinusoidal waveform.

Fig 1.4

The Fourier expression in Eq. (1.3) has been simplified to clarify the concept behind harmonic frequency
components in a nonlinear periodic function. For the purist, the following more precise expression is
offered. For a periodic voltage wave with fundamental frequency of-

ω = 2πf,

v(t) = V0 + ∑(ak cos kωt + bk sin k ωr) (for k- 1 to ∞)…(1.4)

Where ak and bk are the coefficients of the individual harmonic terms or components. Under certain
conditions, the cosine or sine terms can vanish, giving us a simpler expression. If the function is an even
function, meaning f (-t) = f(t), then the sine terms vanish from the expression. If the function is odd, with f (-
t) = – f(t) then the cosine terms disappear.

For our analysis, we will use the simplified expression involving sine terms only. It should be noted that
having both sine and cosine terms affects only the displacement angle of the harmonic components and the
shape of the nonlinear wave and does not alter the principle behind application of the Fourier series. The
coefficients of the harmonic terms of a function-

For our analysis, we will use the simplified expression involving sine terms only. It should be noted that
having both sine and cosine terms affects only the displacement angle of the harmonic components and the

16
shape of the nonlinear wave and does not alter the principle behind application of the Fourier series. The
coefficients of the harmonic terms of a function-

f(t) contained in Eq. (1.4) are determined by- Coefficient

The coefficients represent the peak values of the individual harmonic frequency terms of the nonlinear
periodic function represented by f (t).

3.2 HARMONIC NUMBER (h):

Harmonic number (h) refers to the individual frequency elements that comprise a composite waveform. For
example, h = 3 refers to the third harmonic component with a frequency equal to third times the fundamental
frequency. If the fundamental frequency is 60 Hz, then the 3 rd (third) harmonic frequency is 3 x 60, or 180
Hz. The harmonic number 6 is a component with a frequency of 360 Hz.
Dealing with harmonic numbers and not with harmonic frequencies is done for two reasons. The
fundamental frequency varies among individual countries and applications. The fundamental frequency in
the U.S. is 60 Hz, whereas in Europe and many Asian countries it is 50 Hz. Also, some applications use
frequencies other than 50 or 60 Hz; for example, 400 Hz is a common frequency in the aerospace industry,
while some AC systems for electric traction use 25 Hz as the frequency.

The inverter part of an AC adjustable speed drive can operate at any frequency between zero and its full
rated maximum frequency, and the fundamental frequency then becomes the frequency at which the motor is
operating. The use of harmonic numbers allows us to simplify how we express harmonics. The second
reason for using harmonic numbers is the simplification realized in performing mathematical operations
involving harmonics.

17
 CHAPTER 4: TYPES OF HARMONICS

4.1 ODD AND EVEN ORDER HARMONICS:

As their names imply, odd harmonics have odd numbers (e.g., 3, 5, 7, 9, 11), and even harmonics have even
numbers (e.g., 2, 4, 6, 8, 10). Harmonic number 1 is assigned to the fundamental frequency component of
the periodic wave. Harmonic number 0 represents the constant or DC component of the waveform. The DC
component is the net difference between the positive and negative halves of one complete waveform cycle.

Fig 1.5

Figure 1.5 shows a periodic waveform with net DC content. The DC component of a waveform has
undesirable effects, particularly on transformers, due to the phenomenon of core saturation. Saturation of the
core is caused by operating the core at magnetic field levels above the knee of the magnetization curve.
Transformers are designed to operate below the knee portion of the curve.

When DC voltages or currents are applied to the transformer winding, large DC magnetic fields are set up in
the transformer core. The sum of the AC and the DC magnetic fields can shift the transformer operation into
regions past the knee of the saturation curve. Operation in the saturation region places large excitation power
requirements on the power system. The transformer losses are substantially increased, causing excessive
temperature rise. Core vibration becomes more pronounced as a result of operation in the saturation region.

18
We usually look at harmonics as integers, but some applications produce harmonic voltages and currents
that are not integers. Electric arc furnaces are examples of loads that generate non-integer harmonics. Arc
welders can also generate non-integer harmonics. In both cases, once the arc stabilizes, the non-integer
harmonics mostly disappear, leaving only the integer harmonics.

The majority of nonlinear loads produce harmonics that are odd multiples of the fundamental frequency.
Certain conditions need to exist for production of even harmonics. Uneven current draw between the
positive and negative halves of one cycle of operation can generate even harmonics. The uneven operation
may be due to the nature of the application or could indicate problems with the load circuitry. Transformer
magnetizing currents contain appreciable levels of even harmonic components and so do arc furnaces during
startup. Sub-harmonics have frequencies below the fundamental frequency and are rare in power systems.

When sub-harmonics are present, the underlying cause is resonance between the harmonic currents or
voltages with the power system capacitance and inductance. Sub-harmonics may be generated when a
system is highly inductive (such as an arc furnace during startup) or if the power system also contains large
capacitor banks for power factor correction or filtering. Such conditions produce slow oscillations that are
relatively un-damped, resulting in voltage sags and light flicker.

4.2 CURRENT HARMONICS

In a normal alternating current power system, the current varies sinusoidally at a specific frequency, usually

50 or 60 hertz. When a linear electrical load is connected to the system, it draws a sinusoidal current at the
same frequency as the voltage (though usually not in phase with the voltage).

Current harmonics are caused by non-linear loads. When a non-linear load, such as a rectifier is connected to
the system, it draws a current that is not necessarily sinusoidal. The current waveform can become quite
complex, depending on the type of load and its interaction with other components of the system. Regardless
of how complex the current waveform becomes, as described through Fourier series analysis, it is possible to
deconstruct it into a series of simple sinusoids, which start at the power system fundamental frequency and
occur at integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.

Further examples of non-linear loads include common office equipment such as computers and printers,
Fluorescent lighting, battery chargers and also variable-speed drives.

In power systems, harmonics are defined as positive integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. Thus,
the third order harmonic is the third multiple of the fundamental frequency. This type of harmonics is
generated in non-linear loads. Semiconductor devices like transistors, IGBTs, MOSFETS, diodes etc are all

19
non-linear loads. Transformers on saturation can also generate harmonics. Electrical motors do not
contribute to harmonics generation. Motors needs to reach on saturation level to generate harmonics current
which is very very rare occurrence. So semiconductors are the major contributors to harmonics generation.
Non-linear loads create disturbances in the fundamental harmonic, which produce all types of harmonics.
However, in this section we focus on the 3rd order harmonic due to its certain special characteristics in the
context of powers systems.

Power is supplied by a three phase system, where each phase is 120 degrees apart. This is done for two
reasons: Firstly it is because generators/motors that use three phases are more efficient due to the constant
torque the phases supply, and secondly it is because after power is supplied to a load, the three phases can
theoretically be added onto a neutral wire and cancel each other out. This saves the utility from creating
return wiring to the power plant. However, if the 3 phases contain 3rd order harmonics, the currents will not
fully add to zero. As seen in the figure, the 3rd harmonic will add constructively with the 3rd harmonics
within the other phases. This leads to an oscillating current in the neutral wire, which can be dangerous since
it is designed (i.e. small-size conductors) to carry minimal current. [1] To avoid 3rd harmonics adding
together delta connections are used, and the current is cycled around the connection instead of combining
into the neutral of a wye connection.

4.3 VOLTAGE HARMONICS

Voltage harmonics are mostly caused by current harmonics. The voltage provided by the voltage source will
be distorted by current harmonics due to source impedance. If the source impedance of the voltage source is
small, current harmonics will cause only small voltage harmonics. It is typically the case that voltage
harmonics are indeed small compared to current harmonics. For that reason, the voltage waveform can
usually be approximated by the fundamental frequency of voltage. If this approximation is used, current
harmonics produce no effect on the real power transferred to the load. An intuitive way to see this comes
from sketching the voltage wave at fundamental frequency and overlaying a current harmonic with no phase
shift (in order to more easily observe the following phenomenon). What can be observed is that for every
period of voltage, there is equal area above the horizontal axis and below the current harmonic wave as there
is below the axis and above the current harmonic wave. This means that the average real power contributed
by current harmonics is equal to zero. However, if higher harmonics of voltage are considered, then current
harmonics do make a contribution to the real power transferred to the load.

20
4.4 CAUSES OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT HARMONICS:

A pure sinusoidal waveform with zero harmonic distortion is a hypothetical quantity and not a practical one.
The voltage waveform, even at the point of generation, contains a small amount of distortion due to non-
uniformity in the excitation magnetic field and discrete spatial distribution of coils around the generator
stator slots. The distortion at the point of generation is usually very low, typically less than 1.0%.

The generated voltage is transmitted many hundreds of miles, transformed to several levels, and ultimately
distributed to the power user. The user equipment generates currents that are rich in harmonic frequency
components, especially in large commercial or industrial installations. As harmonic currents travel to the
power source, the current distortion results in additional voltage distortion due to impedance voltages
associated with the various power distribution equipment, such as transmission and distribution lines,
transformers, cables, buses, and so on.

Figure 1.6 illustrates how current distortion is transformed into voltage distortion. Not all voltage distortion,
however, is due to the flow of distorted current through the power system impedance. For instance, static
uninterruptible power source (UPS) systems can generate appreciable voltage distortion due to the nature of
their operation. Normal AC voltage is converted to DC and then reconverted to AC in the inverter section of
the UPS. Unless waveform shaping circuitry is provided, the voltage waveforms generated in UPS units tend
to be distorted.

Fig 1.6

21
As nonlinear loads are propagated into the power system, voltage distortions are introduced which become
greater moving from the source to the load because of the circuit impedances. Current distortions for the
most part are caused by loads. Even loads that are linear will generate nonlinear currents if the supply
voltage waveform is significantly distorted.

When several power users share a common power line, the voltage distortion produced by harmonic current
injection of one user can affect the other users. This is why standards are being issued that will limit the
amount of harmonic currents that individual power users can feed into the source.

The major causes of current distortion are nonlinear loads due to adjustable speed drives, fluorescent
lighting, rectifier banks, computer and data-processing loads, arc furnaces, and so on. One can easily
visualize an environment where a wide spectrum of harmonic frequencies are generated and transmitted to
other loads or other power users, thereby producing undesirable results throughout the system.

22
 CHAPTER 5: HARMONICS FUNDAMENTALS

Harmonics are a mathematical way of describing distortion to a voltage or current waveform. The term
harmonic refers to a component of a waveform that occurs at an integer multiple of the fundamental
frequency. Fourier theory tells us that any repetitive waveform can be defined in terms of summing
sinusoidal waveforms which are integer multiples (or harmonics) of the fundamental frequency. For the
purpose of a steady state waveform with equal positive and negative half-cycles, the Fourier series can be
expressed as follows:

where

f(t) is the time domain function

n is the harmonic number (only odd values of n are required)

An is the amplitude of the nth harmonic component

T is the length of one cycle in seconds

Understanding the mathematics is not important. What is important is understanding that harmonics are a
steady state phenomenon and repeat with every 60 Hz cycle. Harmonics should not be confused with spikes,
dips, impulses, oscillations or other forms of transients.

A common term that is used in relation to harmonics is THD or Total Harmonic Distortion. THD can be
used to describe voltage or current distortion and is calculated as follows:

Where,

IDn is the magnitude of the nth harmonic as a percentage of the fundamental (individual distortion).

Another closely related term is Distortion Factor (DF) which is essentially the same as THD.

23
 CHAPTER 6: GENERATION OF HARMONICS

The main cause of the harmonics generation are the “non-linear” loads. So, before talking about harmonics,
we need to define what is a “linear” load and what a “non-linear” load.

6.1 LINEAR LOAD

It is a load that draws instantaneously proportional current to the applied voltage, i.e., its impedance is
maintained constant along the whole alternating period. For public electricity supply of 50 or 60 Hz
sinusoidal voltage, this will mean a pure sinusoidal current also. Linear loads can be classified as resistive
(electrical heaters, incandescence light bulbs), capacitive (capacitors usually found as part of systems or
equipments), inductive (transformers, motors), or combinations of some of them.

Linear load consisting of Resistor and Capacitor

Fig 1.7

6.2 NON-LINEAR LOAD

Non-Linear load In opposition to linear-loads, a non-linear load changes its impedance with instantaneous
applied voltage, that will lead to a non-sinusoidal current draw when the applied voltage it’s so. In other
words, this kind of load does not have a constant relation current vs. voltage along the alternating period.
The simplest circuit to represent a non-linear load is a diode-rectifier, with its multiple variants (full-wave
diode rectifier, half-wave diode rectifier, single-phase or three-phase). Some examples of non-linear loads,
capable of injecting harmonics into an electrical distribution, are: industrial equipments (welding, arc
furnace), variable frequency drives (VFD), line-switched rectifiers, switch-mode power supplies, lighting
ballasts … and also modern electronic equipments, at low load levels, even they could be designed to

24
optimize efficiency around it’s rated working point. All these circuits can contain semiconductor power
devices such as diodes, thyristors (SCR’s), transistors, and/or switching of loads or circuits.

Example of Non-Linear load

Fig 1.8

Harmonics degrade the level of power quality and its efficiency, particularly in a commercial building or
industrial facility. In general, most buildings can withstand nonlinear loads of up to 15% of the total
electrical system capacity without concern. If the nonlinear loads exceed 15%, some non-apparent negative
consequences can result.

To understand how distortion is transferred from current harmonics injection into harmonic voltage
distortion, it’s necessary to indroduce the concept of Point of Common Coupling (PCC). It is defined as the
point where the distribution line (tipically public) reaches the end user, where the particular loads are going
to be connected. So for industrial or commercial users, this point could be “serviced” via a distribution
transformer (for example, MV to LV transformer), or a long distribution line, or combination of both. A
series impedance can summarize the equivalent distribution circuit between the “ideal” power source and
this PCC (represented in Fig).

Equivalent circuit of utility and PCC

Fig 1.9

25
The voltage at PCC can be deduced from voltage source Vs and voltage drop at Ls as:

Assuming a non-sinusoidal current draw (Is on Fig), hence a non-sinusoidal voltage waveform appears at
PCC caused by the voltage drop at the distribuition impedance Ls (VPCC on Fig).

Note that, even non-sinusoidal, both current draw Is and voltage at PCC (VPCC) are periodic signals.

That is, voltage at PCC now presents a significant harmonics content. The greater the current harmonics
injection, the greater the voltage harmonics will appear at PCC, which also will depend on the distribution
impedance Ls.

Voltage at PCC is affected by Harmonic Distortion

Fig 2.0

26
Returning to the aim of this section, in defining what the harmonics are, we need to retreieve Fourier
analysis for periodic signals: any complex periodic signal can be obtained as the addition of different “pure”
sinusoidal waves at different frequencies and amplitudes, multiple of the fundamental frequency. These
multiples of the fundamental frequency are called harmonics.

The mathematical expression of this definition, for a periodic signal I(t), is:

In the decomposition into individual sinusoidal waveforms of above,the fundamental waveform will be the
one for n=1, and the multiples of this are called harmonics of “n” order, for “n” ranging from 2 and above (it
can be N → ∞). I0 represents the 0Hz component (DC, or mean value greater than 0). фn represents the
phase displacement of each harmonic.

Assuming a signal with no DC component, we can write:

Being I1 (t) the fundamental waveform of frequency f1 (ω=2·π·f1 in the original expression), and In (t) the
different harmonics at multiple frequencies 2·f1 , 3·f1 , …,N·f1 .

27
 Example of Distorted Signal

Fig 2.1

For the case of distribution line and PCC circuit (Fig), the distorted signals Is(t) and VPCC(t) will have this
similar composition, being Is1 (t) and VPCC1(t) the 50Hz fundamentals, and Isn (t) and VPCCn(t) the
harmonics of such signals.

28
 CHATER 7: CAUSES OF HARMONICS

Harmonics are caused by non-linear loads, that is loads that draw a nonsinusoidal current from a sinusoidal
voltage source. Some examples of harmonic producing loads are electric arc furnaces, static VAR
compensators, inverters, DC converters, switch-mode power supplies, and AC or DC motor drives. In the
case of a motor drive, the AC current at the input to the rectifier looks more like a square wave than a
sinewave (see Figure)

Fig 2.2

The rectifier can be thought of as a harmonic current source and produces roughly the same amount of
harmonic current over a wide range of power system impedances. The characteristic current harmonics that
are produced by a rectifier are determined by the pulse number. The following equation allows
determination of the characteristic harmonics for a given pulse number:

h = kq ±1

where,

h is the harmonic number (integer multiple of the fundamental).

k is any positive integer .

q is the pulse number of the converter.

This means that a 6-pulse (or 3-phase) rectifier will exhibit harmonics at the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, 17th, 19th,
23rd, 25th, etc. multiples of the fundamental. As a rough rule of thumb, the magnitudes of the harmonic
currents will be the fundamental current divided by the harmonic number (e.g. the magnitude of the 5th
harmonic would be about 1/5th of the fundamental current).

A 12-pulse (or 6-phase rectifier) will, in theory, produce harmonic currents at the 11th, 13th, 23rd, 25th, etc.
multiples. In reality, a small amount of the 5th, 7th, 17th and 19th harmonics will be present with a 12-pulse
system (typically the magnitudes will be on the order of about 10 percent of those for a 6-pulse drive).
29
Variable frequency drives also produce harmonic currents at the output of the inverter which are seen by the
motor. Most of these harmonics are integer multiples of the inverter operating frequency and not the power
supply frequency, but little generalization can be made about their magnitude since this varies greatly with
the type of drive and the switching algorithm for the inverter semiconductors.

Some "inter harmonic" currents may also be present at the input or the output of the drive. Inter harmonics
do not fit the classical definition of harmonics since they do not necessarily occur at integer multiples of the
power supply or inverter fundamental frequency.

Harmonics can occur on the input at the power system frequency plus or minus the inverter operating
frequency. The inverter output can contain harmonics at the rectifier pulse number times the power system
frequency plus or minus the inverter operating frequency. Proper DC link design can minimize the presence
of inter harmonics.

The other sources of Harmonics are given as:

(1) Transformers under no load and light loads

(2) Saturated Reactors

(3) Thyrister controlled motor drives

(4) Arc Furnaces

(5) Arc Welders

(6) Conduction Furnaces

(7) Gas discharging lighting-low pressure/ high pressure Sodium vapour lamps

(8) High-pressure Mercury vapor lamps

(9) CFL/fluorescent tube lights

(10) Energy conservation devices e.g. soft starters, electronics ballast and fan regulators

(11) Rectifiers

(12) UPS

(13) Static VAR compensator

(14) HVDC transmission system

30
(15) Solar power conversion.

Harmonics degrade the level of power quality and its efficiency, particularly in a commercial building or
industrial facility.

In general, most buildings can withstand nonlinear loads of up to 15% of the total electrical system capacity
without concern.

If the nonlinear loads exceed 15%, some non-apparent negative consequences can result.

31
 CHAPTER 8: HARMONICS INDICATORS AND MEASUREMENTS

Individual harmonic percentage The amplitude (or rms) value of a particular harmonic In can be expressed
in relation to the fundamental I1 , or to the rms value of the total current Irms.

8.1 HARMONICS SPECTRUM

It is a graphical representation of previous concept, where decomposition of a distorted signal can be easily
analyzed. Many Power Quality instruments can offer this representation. For the case of Fig.5., such
representation will be as below.

8.2 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION (THD)

It is defined as a ratio between the r.m.s. value of all the harmonics and the r.m.s. of the fundamental
frequency.

Current THD (THDi ) - according to the definition above, the Total Harmonic Distortion for current will be:

32
which is usually given as a percentage [%] (by multiplying previous result per 100).

Calculation Example for the distorted signal

If we want to express THDi as function of total r.m.s. current, which is:

we can write:

Voltage THD (THDv ) – similarly, the Total Harmonic Distortion of voltage is expressed as:

8.3 HARMONICS, POWER FACTOR ANDDISTORTION POWER

In the presence of harmonics the expressions of Active Power, Reactive Power and Apparent Power need to
be defined carefully.

The Displacement Power Factor, cosφ, is due to the phase shift between voltage and current of the
fundamental frequency f1 :

P1 – Active Power of the fundamental

S1 – Apparent Power of the fundamental.

But, in the presence of harmonics, previous equation is no longer valid as global Power Factor, since the
power caused by the harmonics (voltage and current harmonics at different frequencies) need to be taken
into account:
33
Where,

P - Active Power, considering harmonics, and phase displacement φn between voltage and current for each:

S - Apparent Power, considering not only active (P) and reactive power (Q), but also distortion power (D),
can be represented in a three-dimension axis, being the modulus:

In a system or installation where the most distorted signal is the current, and voltage is nearly sinusoidal at
fundamental frequency, and retrieving Irms as function of THDi

we can write a relationship between THDi (current distortion) and Power Factor

that gives us an idea of the higher the THDi the lower the PF (compared to DPF=cosφ), and when no
harmonics are present, PF= cosφ.

34
 CHAPTER 9: EFFECTS OF HARMONICS

1. Power Factor

As, harmonics increase the Distortion Power (D), i.e., increase the Apparent Power (S) required by the
sytem, while the “effective” real power at the fundamental frequency f1 (P1) does not benefit from that. This
means higher current needs to be drawn from the PCC, so added wire section, and higher rating protection
and distribution circuits (yielding to transformers derating).

2. Conductor losses

Obviously, added current draw a part from the needed at the fundamental I1 , i.e. Irms,yield to added cable
losses at the conductors, Irms 2 ·R. In Fig we can graphically observe these two phenomena.

Conductor losses

Fig 8.1

3. Skin Effect

Describes the magnetic property of confining alternating current towards the outer area of a conductor, the
higher the frequency of that AC current. This “effective” reduced area (compared to real cross-sectional area
of the conductor), will mean higher resistive losses directly proportional to frequency. So, for higher order
harmonics, the Skin Effect can cause added losses or need for oversizing of conductors.

35
 4. Triplen harmonics and neutral conductor

The harmonics in which a signal can be decomposed, as we saw before, are entire multiples of the
fundamental. A part from the distinction between Odd (symmetrical) and Even (asymmetrical), they can be
classified according its phase rotation with the fundamental:

Positive sequence harmonics (4th, 7th, 10th,...): they do have the same phase rotation than the fundamental,
and circulate between phases.
Negative sequence harmonics (2nd, 5th, 8th,…): they have the opposite phase rotation than the fundamental,
and circulate between phases.
Zero sequence harmonics (3rd, 6th, 9th, …), also known as Triplen harmonics: these harmonics are on
phase with the fundamental, and circulate between phases and neutral. What is the same, they do not cancel
and add up directly in the Neutral conductor.

Effect of Triplen Harmonics

Fig 8.2

36
For that reason, in the presence of significant components of such harmonics in a 3-phase installation,
Neutral conductor will need to be oversized (compared to phase conductors) to carry out these extra-current.
For example, in the presence of around 10 Arms 3rd order harmonic in each of the 3 phases, will mean an
extra current of around 30 Arms in Neutral conductor (at 150Hz in a 50Hz installation), like in Fig.. If no
triplen harmonics were present, Neutral current will carry no current (no 50Hz component present in Fig)

5. Resonances
Especially in installations in presence of capacitors bank for power factor correction, in the case a load
generating harmonics, such as a non-linear load, this combined circuit will contain following equivalent
elements.

Ls , equivalent inductance of the distribution installation (transformer, cables)

CPF, power factor capacitor bank.
RL , linear part of the load.
Vs , Voltage source. In presence of non-linear load, voltatge harmonics may be present at PCC.

Resonance example
37
 Fig 8.3

The equivalent complex impedance:

so for certain harmonic frequencies we can meet resonace frequencies when denominator is 0, i.e:

6. Motors and Generators

A part from being a possible cause of harmonics, generators themselves can be affected by other harmonic
sources, in terms of efficiency losses, overheat, derating.

One of the main reasons is the high impedance of generators, that will transfer easily current harmonic
distortion into voltage harmonic distortion (i.e., affecting other loads supplied from that source).

For the case of motors, we refer to them as loads of the electrical installation, more than voltage sources .

But the direct effects of harmonics both for motors and generators are mainly the same:

• Core losses (iron) increase with harmonics, caused by Eddy currents (loss increase with square of the
frequency) and hysteresis.
• Copper losses, which are proportional both to THDi (Irms 2 ·R) and frequency (Skin Effect). Refer to
previous description of both effects.
• Negative sequence harmonics, have the effect of force against torque rotation, so they can cause motor
vibration, added heat, need for derating, etc.

7. Transformers

The same effects of core losses and copper losses (windings) described for motors above, appear for the case
of transformers.

38
Also triplen harmonics in the neutral conductor of a Delta-Wye distribuition transformer can dangerously
overheat them.

There is also a potential risk of resonance between transformer inductance and supplied capacitive loads, at
the harmonics frequencies.

Laminated transformers cores can also vibrate at certain harmonic frequencies, causing audible noise and
overheat.

Transformer windings can be affected also by Proximity Effect: two close conductors carrying alternating
current in the same direction, cause more magnetic flux in the area close to both conductors, causing the
current distribution to the more distant areas of these two conductors. This effect of reduced “effective” area,
similarly to Skin Effect, is proportional to frequency, so for higher order harmonics the AC resistance of
winding conductors will be further increased, i.e., added losses.

For all the effects described above, transformers need to be derated in the presence of harmonics, or
specially designed to handle harmonics, identifying them by a rating parameter called “K factor”, function
of the harmonics capability. The “k factor” transformers could be a more optimal solution (cost and weight),
rather than derating (for example, can be designed with only oversizing neutral for triplen harmonics).

8. Circuit breakers and fuses

Since thermal-magnetic tripping mechanism in circuit breakers responds proportionally to rms current, a
highly distorted current signal (Irms much higher than the fundament I1 ) can cause unwanted MCB’s
tripping, or need to oversize them.
Also, circuit-breakers that are designed to interrupt current at zero current crossover, can meet in the case of
very distorted current (with several zero crossovers within a fundament period) premature interruption of the
circuit.

Similarly for fuses, the higher the rms current, the higher the heating effect of that current in the fuse, so the
faster the fuse will act. Then, for the case of non-linear loads, it may be necessary to derate fuse selection.
Moreover, higher order harmonics can cause skin-effect and proximity effect in the internal construction of
the fuse, so additional unwanted overheat.

39
 9. Thyrister drives: AC variable frequency drives with thyrister converter when operated at slow
speed, generally result in poor power factor.

1. Power cable:Normal level of harmonics currents cause heating in cables. However, cables
involved under system resonance condition may be subjected to voltage stress and corona, which
can lead to insulation failure.
2. Metering equipments:In general, harmonics flowing in induction type metering equipment will
generate additional coupling paths thereby increasing the speed of the disc and hence an apparent
increase of costs.
3. Switchgear and relay:Harmonics current increases heating and losses in switchgear there by
lowering its normal current capacity and shortening the life due to voltage stress fuses require
derating due to the heat generated by harmonics.

10. Earthing system and computer performance:

 In a 3 phase and neutral system- when 3rd harmonics and multiples are expected, the neutral conductor size
should be the same size as the phase conductor size.
Computer hanging up, loosing instructions, data or misbehaving can be as much attributed to poor quality of
power. Eearthing of computer equipment should be independent and be fixed into the mains earthing at one
point – preferably at the entry point only. Multipoint earthing introduces coupling to various other
equipments.

11. Communication network:

 The induction coupling between the AC power transmission lines containing harmonics and the
neighbouring communication network causing high noise levels.

Capacitor:

Capacitors for power factor correction are always present in industrial installations and are worst affected if
harmonics are present.

Capacitors do not generate harmonics, but provide network loop for the possible resonance. Capacitive
reactance decreases with frequency whereas inductive reactance increases directly with frequency.

40
At the resonant frequency of any inductive capacitance (LC) circuit, the inductive reactance will equal the
capacitive reactance. In an actual electrical system utilising power factor correction capacitor, both series
and parallel resonance and a combination of the two can occur.

In the case of a series circuit, the total impedance at the resonant frequency reduces to only the resistive
component of the system. If this component is small, high current magnitudes will result at the resonant
frequency.

In the case of a parallel circuit, the total impedance at the resonant frequency is very high (approaching
hypothetically infinity) thus, when excited from even a small source at the resonant frequency; a high
circulating current will flow between the parallel capacitor and inductor.

The voltage across the parallel combination could be quite high. Consequently, if the resonant point of either
or both these type of circuits happens to be close to one of the frequencies generated by the harmonic
sources in the system, the result may the flow of excessive amount of harmonic current and/ or the
appearance of excessive harmonic voltage.

These occurrences may cause such problems as capacitor bank failures; excessive capacitor fuse operation
and dielectric break down of insulated cables. In most low voltage installations, the following guidelines
may be followed:
1. If the KVA of the harmonic generating loads is less than 10% of the transformer KVA rating capacitor
can be installed without concern for the resonance.
2. If the KVA of the harmonic generating load is less than 30% of the KVA rating and the capacitor KVAR
is less than 20% of the transformer KVA rating, capacitor can be installed without concern for the
resonance.
3. If the KVA of the harmonic generating load is more than 30% of the transformer KVA rating capacitors
should be applied as filter.

The above guidelines are applicable when transformers with 5 to 6% impedance are used and the system
impedance is less than 1% at the transformer base.

12.Flicker

Obviously, voltage harmonics and interharmonics supplying lighting circuits can cause fluctuations of light
intensity, perceptible to the human eye. This phenomena may affect basically to incandescent and
fluoresecent lamps.

41
Other effects of the harmonics

• Electronic equipment may be sensitive to the voltage distortion supplying it, due to higher voltage peaks,
unexpected zero-crossing, affectation to protection circuits, etc.
• Digital circuits can be affected by misinterpretation of logical values in presence of harmonics.
• Reduced service life of components and equipment under continuous distorted supply voltage.
• Affectation to IT equipment such as memory losses, turn offs.
• UPS may need to handle with high distording loads, i.e., high current peaks may be over the range of the
crest factor capacity of this UPS. In such case, the voltage distortion can even increase, if the inverter of the
UPS is not capable enough.

42
 CHAPTER 10: MEASURES FOR HARMONIC REDUCTION

Transformers

Transformers by themselves, or forming part of active front-ends (as we will see in next section for multi-
pulse converters), can have the ability to cancel certain load harmonics. In fact, what they do is to
discriminate certain harmonics to circulate upstream in the installation, rather than eliminate them.

• Delta-Star transformer: triplen harmonics in the secondary are not able to circulate in the primary of the
distribution system, since they are confined in the Neutral of the star connection.

• Zig-zag transformer: can also be used to trap triplen harmonics, by placing them close to the distorting
loads, and avoiding its propagation upstream.

• Delta-Star-Delta transformer: placing two similar non-linear loads on each of the transformer secondaries
(one Delta, the other Star), will have the effect of cancel harmonics 5th and 7th in the Delta primary.

Reactors (AC line, or DC link)

Harmonics pollution of non-linear loads (for example a VFD, see Fig.10) can be minimized by placing
series inductor (reactor), either to the AC line, to the DC link circuit, or both, with the ability of filtering
upstream harmonic current, and also decoupling the line voltage distortion from that at the non-linear load
side.

Either of these added elements can limit also current peaks. These reactors do have the drawback of added
voltage drop, and what can be more important, they are designed for a certain working point (close to
maximum current demand), away from which the THDi minimization is not so effective (i.e, if THDi on a
VFD is reduced from more than 100% to 35% at full load, it may be quite possible to have THDi higher than
50% below half load).

43
Passive Harmonic Filters

Passive harmonic filters consist usually of resonant filters composed of Inductors and Capacitors (and
sometimes damping resistors) tuned to cancel or trap a certain harmonic frequency, usually of low order
(5th, 7th, 11th,..).

Observe Fig on a 6-pulse bridge rectifier input stage, generating high levels of 5th harmonic, an Harmonic
Passive Filter is added (inductors Ls , capacitors CS ), to minimize the current distortion at PCC. Such effect
is obtained by tuning the resonance frequency of LS -CS at that 5th harmonic. If other harmonic frequencies
were needed to cancel in a same installation, additional passive filters (L,C) would need to be added, tuned
at those different harmonics.

A part from being tuned only for a certain frequency harmonic, passive harmonic filters do have their
harmonic mitigation functionality only at a certain working point (i.e., at a given load), which means that
away from that point, usually lower load levels, the harmonic distortion is not minimized.

Moreover, they do have the effect of reducing the power factor, if no additional circuit is added to
compensate that (additional parallel inductors). Also, they introduce the possibility of resonance, as
explained in , and can be affected for each particular line or source impedance. Even that, passive filters are
an easy, robust and cost-effective solution for “closed” (repetitive working conditions) installations or
systems.

44
Active Harmonic Filters

Active harmonic filters are power electronic equipments to cancel (or reduce) current harmonic pollution of
an installation. The working principle consists in measuring the current harmonics of the load, and generate
in real-time the same harmonics but in phase opposition, in such way that the addition of both currents seen
from the electrical installation contains nearly no harmonics, but only the fundamental f1 (see Fig.13) . This
yields to THDi lowering, at levels typically below 5%.

They also have the capability of reducing reactive power of the load, i.e., increasing power factor to nearly
1.

Due to its design and working principle, the distortion minimization is achieved for all load leves (within
active filter capacity), and they are not affected by resonances nor line impedances.

So, compared to passive filters, they offer several advantages: can compensate several harmonics at the
same time, correct also very high order harmonics, increase the power factor of the installation, offer more
flexibility (not dependant on the load or source impedance).

On the other hand, they are a more complex and expensive equipment.

Note that the rating (kVA) of A.H.F. has to be chosen not for the total rating of the installation (total power
demand of the load), but for the Distorting Power that has to be compensated (Example: an installation with
a total power demand of S=60kVA, but with only 20kVA of them corresponding to distortion power D,
would need an A.H.F. of around 25-30 kVA rated power).

For reasons given above, and taking into account the robust and low cost of Passive Filters in order to
compensate strong presence of a given harmonic, the Hybrid Filters (combination of Passive and Active),
could be a good choice in certain cases.

45
For healthy operation of power system, two things serve as guidelines:

1.The consumer is responsible for maintaining current distortion within permissible/acceptable levels.
2. The electricity board is responsible for maintaining voltage distortion within permissible/acceptable
levels.

There are different types of filters:

– Single tuned filters.
– High Pass Filter (first, 2nd or third order etc.)

A capacitor with a series reactance can be so designed as to tune to a given harmonic. It offers almost a zero
impedance parallel path and absorbs a particular harmonic. At the fundamental frequency, it also helps in
power factor correction. Thus, wherever filters are required, a portion of the P.F. capacitor bank is converted
into a filter or filters. A filter bank increases the cost of capacitor installation because of extra circuit
breakers and reactors.

Undesirable harmonic current is prevented from flowing into power system by use of high series impedance
to block them or direct them by means of low impedance shunt path.

Series filters should be designed to carry full load current and should be insulated to full rated voltage of the
system, while shunt filters are less expensive and provide reactive compensation in fundamental frequency.
Therefore, it is generally preferred to use shunt filters.

46
 CHAPTER 11: SOLUTIONS TO COMPENSATE AND REDUCE HARMONICS

1.Oversize the neutral wiring.

In modern facilities, the neutral wiring should always be specified to be the same capacity as the power
wiring, or larger—even though electrical codes may permit under-sizing the neutral wire. An appropriate
design to support a load of many personal computers, such as a call center, would specify the neutral wiring
to exceed the phase wire capacity by about 200 percent. Particular attention should be paid to wiring in
office cubicles. Note that this approach protects the building wiring, but it does not help protect the
transformers.

2.Use separate neutral conductors.

On three-phase branch circuits, instead of installing a multi-wire branch circuit sharing a neutral conductor,
run separate neutral conductors for each phase conductor. This increases the capacity and ability of the
branch circuits to handle harmonic loads. This approach successfully eliminates the addition of the harmonic
currents on the branch circuit neutrals, but the panelboard neutral bus and feeder neutral conductor must still
be considered.

3. Use DC power supplies, which are not affected by harmonics.

In the typical data center, the power distribution system converts 480-volt AC utility power through a
transformer that steps it down to 208-volt AC power that feeds racks of servers. One or more power supplies
within each server convert this AC input into DC voltage appropriate for the unit’s internal components.

These internal power supplies are not energy efficient, and they generate substantial heat, which puts a
costly burden on the room’s air conditioning system. Heat dissipation also limits the number of servers that
can be housed in a data center. Could it be worthwhile to eliminate this step by switching to DC power?

According to a recent article in Energy and Power Management magazine, ''Computers and servers
equipped with DC power supplies instead of AC power supplies produce 20 to 40 percent less heat, reduce
power consumption by up to 30 percent, increase server reliability, offer flexibility to installations, and
experience decreased maintenance requirements.”

That sounds good, but when cost, compatibility, reliability and efficiency are considered together, the move
from AC to DC power is not justified for most data centers. AC power— even though it is slightly less
efficient—is universally acceptable to existing equipment.
47
Furthermore, there are no Underwriter’s Laboratory (UL) safety standards for high-voltage DC in data
centers yet, while standards for AC systems are mature. That means the safety risks could outweigh the
potential gain with DC power, for now.

4. Use K-rated transformers in power distribution components.

A standard transformer is not designed for high harmonic currents produced by non-linear loads. It will
overheat and fail prematurely when connected to these loads. When harmonics were introduced into
electrical systems at levels that showed detrimental effects (circa 1980), the industry responded by
developing the K-rated transformer.

K-rated transformers are not used to handle harmonics, but they can handle the heat generated by harmonic
currents and are very efficient when used under their K-factor value.

K-factor ratings range between 1 and 50. A standard transformer designed for linear loads is said to have a
K-factor of 1. The higher the K-factor, the more heat from harmonic currents the transformer is able to
handle. Making the right selection of K-factor is very important, because it affects cost and safety. The table
shows appropriate K-factor ratings to use for different percentages of non-linear current in the electrical
system.

5.Use Powerware power distribution units (PDUs) with harmonic-mitigating

transformers.

The K-rated, dry-type transformer is widely used in electrical environments, but there have been more
recent advancements in transformer design that offer even better performance in reducing voltage distortion
and power losses due to current harmonics.

Eaton’s energy-efficient Harmonic Mitigating Transformer (HMT) is designed to handle the non-linear
loads of today's electrical infrastructures. This transformer uses electromagnetic mitigation to deal
specifically with the triplen (3rd, 9th, 15th, etc.) harmonics. Secondary windings of the transformer are
arranged to cancel zero sequence fluxes and eliminate primary winding circulating currents. This
transformer also addresses the 5th and 7th harmonics by using phase shifting.

Using these two electromagnetic techniques, the Eaton HMT allows loads to operate the way their
manufacturers designed them, while minimizing the impact of the harmonics to energy losses and distortion.

48
Eaton HMTs exceed NEMA TP-1 efficiency standards, even when tested with 100-percent non-linear loads.
Wherever a K-rated transformer is specified, an equivalent HMT is a direct substitute.

Powerware PDUs equipped with HMT transformers are efficient and effective at mitigating the harmonics
generated by computer equipment and other non-linear electronic loads.

Key Advantages of using Powerware PDUs with HMT transformers

• Prevents voltage flat-topping caused by non-linear loads

• Reduces upstream harmonic currents

• Eliminates transformer overheating and high operating temperatures

• Eliminates primary winding circulating current

• Saves energy by reducing harmonic losses

• Maintains high energy efficiency even under severe non-loading conditions

• Treats power quality harmonic issues that K-rated transformers do not address

• Suitable for high K-factor loads without increasing in-rush current

• Improves power factor

OTHER METHODS FOR HARMONIC REDUCTION

Filtering is one method to reduce harmonics in an industrial plant when the harmonic distortion has been
gradually increased or as a total solution in a new plant. There are two basic methods: passive and active
filters.

Tuned single arm passive filter

The principle of a tuned arm passive filter is shown in figure. A tuned arm passive filter should be applied
at the single lowest harmonic component where there is significant harmonic generation in the system. For
systems that mostly supply an industrial load this would probably be the fifth harmonic. Above the tuned
frequency the harmonics are absorbed but below that frequency they may be amplified.
49
• Detuned - Single tuning frequency
• Above tuned frequency harmonics absorbed
• Below tuned frequency harmonics may be amplified
• Harmonic reduction limited by possible over compensation at the supply frequency and network itself

This kind of filter consists of a choke in series with a capacitor and the best location for the passive filter is
close to the harmonic generating loads. This solution is not normally used for new installations.

Tuned multiple arm passive filter

The principle of this filter is shown in figure 5.2. This filter has several arms tuned to two or more of the
harmonic components which should be the lowest significant harmonic frequencies in the system. The
multiple filter has better harmonic absorption than the one arm system.
The multiple arm passive filters are often used for large DC drive installations where a dedicated
transformer supplies the whole installation.

50
Capacitive below the tuned frequency/Inductive above

• Better harmonic absorption

• Risk of amplification of harmonics due to filter resonance

• Limited by KVAr and network

There are some drawbacks related to using passive filters. On partial loads there is a risk of voltage rise due
to excess filter capacitance causing a leading power factor. This may create an overvoltage situation and
even an unwanted process interruption. Particular care should be taken if generator supplies are used as they
have strictly defined tolerances for leading power factors.

External active filter

A passive tuned filter introduces new resonances that can cause additional harmonic problems. New power
electronics technologies are resulting in products that can control harmonic distortion with active controls.
These active filters, see figure 5.3, provide compensation for harmonic components in the utility system
based on existing harmonic generation at any given moment in time.

51
An active filter compensates for the harmonics generated by nonlinear loads by generating the same
harmonic components in opposite phase as shown in figure. External active filters are most suited to
multiple small drives. They are relatively expensive compared to other methods.

52
 CHAPTER 12: HARMONIC MODELING AND MITIGATION TECHNIQUES

When considering the addition of a large non-linear load to a plant power system, it may be warranted to
perform harmonic modeling analysis of the system if it comprises 25% or more of the plant load. Harmonic
modeling is a mathematical way of predicting harmonic distortion levels and potential resonances based on
available power system data.

All but the simplest of systems will require a computer to perform this analysis. A number of software
packages are available specifically for this purpose. Components such as transformers, capacitors, motors,
and the utility system impedance are taken into account, and non-linear loads are represented by multiple
frequency harmonic current sources. Such a modeling study will indicate if harmonic levels will fall within
IEEE or utility limits.

If a harmonic modeling study indicates excessive harmonic levels or a potentially harmful resonance
condition, there are a number of alternative corrective measures that can be taken. Firstly, as has already
been mentioned, consideration can be given to implementing a rectifier with a pulse number higher than 6.
As a comparison, a 6-pulse rectifier will produce on the order of 25% current THD, whereas a 12-pulse
rectifier will produce about 12% current THD.

An 18-pulse rectifier will produce on the order of 5% current THD. Somewhat lower harmonics can be
achieved using rectifiers with a pulse number greater than 12, however, the incremental benefit in harmonic
reduction decreases while the complexity of the design increases. If a problem is anticipated due to a power
system resonance, it may be worthwhile to relocate or disconnect a small amount of power factor correction
capacitance to shift a resonant frequency away from a characteristic harmonic.

Harmonic filters can also be added to the system. Harmonic filters generally consist of one more tuned
series LC legs which shunt specific harmonic currents away from the power system. Harmonic filters have
the added benefit of supplying leading KVARs and thus provide power factor correction. The following is a
typical one-line diagram showing how a harmonic filter would tie in to the power system.

53
Lastly, a Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) rectifier is another means to reduce harmonic currents in the power
system. Implementing PWM control of the rectifier switching devices allows elimination of a number of
harmonics and compliance with IEEE Std. 519-1992. The PWM rectifier also offers the ability to improve
the power factor at the input to the drive.

54
 CHAPTER 13: MIPOWER SOFTWARE

13.1 INTRODUCTION

Mipower is state of the art window base Power System Software. MiPower is highly interactive, user
friendly software for all analysis, planning, design and simulation on any given Power System irrespective
of the geographical and environmental constraints.

MiPower is an Indian based software and was developed by Power Systems engineer Dr. Nagrath. It is
licensed software and is outsourced by Power Research & Developments Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

MiPower is armed with robust power system engine in the backend and a lucid top-notched Windows GUI
in the front end. Approach, technique and methodology employed are field proven and time tested. This
conforms to standard ANSI, IEEE, IEC and other worldwide accepted standards. Core power system engine
includes

Single Phase Load Flow

There Phase Load Flow

Transient Stability

Over Current Relay Co-ordination

Short Circuit

Dynamic Stability

Harmonic Analysis

Electro-Magnetic Transients

Line and Cable Parameter

Most distribution companies throughout India use this particular software. MiPower does not have any sort
of limits on the number of buses present in the system. It has been designed specifically taking into account
the environmental conditions within India.
55
MiPower is driven by a robust power system analysis toolbox covering various aspects of power system
studies from steady state analysis to stability and security assessment, including reliability and protection.
The toolbox caters to the needs of power system planners and operations engineers. Windows based
platform makes it highly interactive and user-friendly. Professionally designed GUI and centralized
databases add to the efficacy of the software tool.

The MiPower main opening window is shown as below:

In order to design any network using MiPower software, the two main components that are required for
proper execution of the network are the GUI(graphical user interface) and the database. By creating a
database and then linking it with the GUI, we create a path through which we can assign suitable values to
the components of the network as is required.

13.2 MIPOWER FEATURES

1. Power system network Editor
2. Database manager
3. Graph utility
4. Free Programmable Blocks
5. Load Flow Analysis
6. Short circuits Analysis
7. Transient Stability Study
8. Relay Co-ordination

56
 9. Voltage Instability Analysis
10. Harmonic Analysis
11. Network reduction
12. Sub-Synchronous Resonance
13. Electro Magnetic Transient Analysis
14. Line and Cable Parameter Calculation
15. Long term Load Forecast
16. Three-Phase Load Flow Analysis

POWER SYSTEM NETWORK EDITOR

1. Icons of all power system components.

2. Multi-Layering of objects to view, select edit and present the results.

3. Multi-level nesting of sub-systems.

4. Resizing for individual drawing elements.

5. Switching ON/OFF for all power system elements.

6. Highlighting of study results lies within a band of minimum, normal and maximum limits.

7. Panning to facilitate fast and easy scrolling along X and Y direction.

8. Realtime zooming facility for the diagram to any fractions of a zoom level.

9. Reduction of the whole drawing to any fraction to fit any paper size.

10. GPS Interface

DATABASE MANAGER

1. Enhanced database creation including detailed modeling of power system components.

2. Use of advanced techniques for all studies.
3. Studies at your fingertips – once database is created accurately any study can be conducted.
4. User defined number of contingencies and Schedules.
5. Splitting of database into two groups – element information and library information – avoids
repetitive entry of power system elements having same parameters.
6. Toggling Facility – Database to Network editor, Database to Graph to facilitate easier navigation.

57
GRAPH UTILITY

1. Multiple X and Y columns can be plotted in the same view

2. User defined colour, thickness, symbols and number of symbols on curve, title and font.

3. Conversion of graphs to dxf and text formats.

4. Harmonic analysis of graphs.

5. Mathematical operations on Graphs.

6. Pick Drag and drop facility for relay curves.

7. Changing the base voltage of the plotted graphs.

FREE PROGRAMMABLE BLOCKS

Designed for Simulation and testing of Control Blocks

Customized Design of Governors, AVR’S, SVC’S, HVDC/FACTS/STATCOM controllers are possible

Control blocks can be linked with Transient stability for testing the performance of the system.

APPLICATIONS

1. Steady State Analysis.

2. Stability Assessment.
3. Transient Studies.
4. Security Monitoring, Assessment and Control.
5. Protection Co-Ordination.
6. Planning Studies.
7. Mipower Utilities.

58
COMTRADE VIEWER

In this module an option is provided for the user to view the COMTRADE files both in numerical and
graphical way.
The COMTRADE viewer reads the .DAT file and .CFG file for the inputs and it displays the samples both
in numerical as well as graphical format. The data display offers a high-resolution graphical interface for
displaying, analyzing and manipulating analog and digital channels of an oscillography record or a periodic
load file. Displayed channels are marked, zoomed, numerically processed and summarized

AUTOCAD INTERFACE

AutoCAD Interface is a utility to convert the MiPower Network to AutoCAD and to plot the results obtained
using the MiPower applications on an existing AutoCAD diagram. By invoking Network option, conversion
of MiPower network to AutoCAD (.dxf file) file can be done. Results option helps the user to plot power
system study results obtained from MiPower on AutoCAD network (.dxf file) which is having the ZZcodes.

AUTOMATIC SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM GENERATION

ASLG is a utility to generate the single line diagram of the electrical system. Input to ASLG is the MiPower
database file for the particular electrical system.
Easy creation of network after entering the data in the database manager.

Presenting network in parts.

DC NETWORK SOLUTION

DC Network Solution is a module to analyze the DC networks. The output of the program is the currents
flowing in the network and the voltages at the nodes, which is computed based on the network topology, the
resistances of the branches and the source in the network.

59
BATTERY SIZING

Battery sizing is a study function to determine the number of cells and cell size of the battery for a
designated duty cycle. The number of cells is determined to satisfy the maximum system voltage during the
battery charging period and minimum system voltage during battery discharging period. The number of
cells/string is determined to provide sufficient power to the load cycle considering the minimum system
voltage and minimum operating temperature. It also considered different factors that affect the battery
performance, such as design margin, aging compensation, initial capacity, etc.

HARMONIC LOAD FLOW

With the increasing proportion of harmonic currents in the power system, Harmonic Load Flow performs
conduct the harmonic assessment to compute Total harmonic distortion factors for voltages and currents in
three phase system. Harmonic load flow also computes harmonic transfer impedance and driving point
impedance for both transmission and distribution power systems.

Harmonic analysis is done using Harmonic Load Flow and Frequency Scan analysis.

The key features of the module are :

1. Computation of VTHD , ITHD , Telephone Interference Factor (TIF)

2. Modeling harmonic voltage and current source

3. Frequency Scan Analysis foruser-defined harmonic order

4. Computation ofpositive, negative and zero sequence harmonics

5. Transformer modeling with wide range of winding connections

6. Graphical view for visualization of bus wise VTHD , ITHD and Frequency Scan

The output of the Harmonic Load Flow is useful in design of filters to reduce the harmonics.

60
13.3 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS:

Load flow study is a method to analyze the power flow. It is the steady state analysis of the power
system networks and hence uses non-linear algebraic equations to find the state vectors at each node. It is
mainly done to find the operating state of the system for the given loading. To solve non-linear algebraic

equations, it is important to have fast, efficient, and accurate numerical algorithms. The numerical methods
are:

1. Gauss method.
2. Gauss Seidel method.
3. Newton Raphson method.
4. Decoupled Load Flow method.
5. Fast Decoupled Load Flow method.

The inputs and outputs of the Load Flow analysis are shown in the attached picture below:

Load flow analysis mainly involves 3 steps viz:

1. Modelling of power system components and network.

2. Developing the load flow equations.
3. Choosing a suitable numerical method to obtain the state vectors.

By using the voltage and power angle vectors we calculate the real power flow, reactive power flow, line
losses and slack bus power.

Modelling of Power System Components and Networks:

Power system components are:

1. Generator

61
 2. Load
3. Transmission lines
4. Transformer

The modelling of generator and load is not as complex as modelling of a transformer and transmission
lines. Usually transmission lines are modelled as a Pi-model so the same model is adapted for the
modelling of transformer.

 Formation of the Bus Admittance Matrix:

Consider the following power system network. The bus admittance derivation for the considered
network is shown in the picture below where 'Z' represents the impedance of the transmission lines and
'y' represents the line charging admittances.

Formation of Bus Admittance matrix is the first and basic step for any load flow analysis.

Observations on Bus Admittance Matrix:

1. The diagonal elements are more dominant when compared to off diagonal elements.
2. It is a sparse matrix for a large power system network.

62
The whole load flow analysis is based on the fact that the Real Power is sensitive to the changes in Power
angle at the node and the Reactive Power is sensitive to the changes in the Voltage at the node.

13.4 Classification of Buses:

1. Slack/Reference/Swing bus:

It is usually the bus connected to the generator with maximum generation capacity. The data related
to this bus is only voltage and power angle which is kept constant throughout all the iterations. Real
power and Reactive power flow is calculated after the results converge for two consequent iterations.

2. Generator/ Voltage Controlled/ P-V bus:

It is usually the bus where the voltage is constant so there is a condition to declare a bus as P-V bus
I.e. if the calculated reactive power stays within the limits for that iteration, the voltage of the bus is
constant so only the power angle is calculated for this bus else if the reactive power exceeds the limits (it
acts as a load bus), we replace the limits accordingly and both voltage and power angle are computed.
After the convergence, the Power flow is calculated.

3. Load/ P-Q bus:

For this bus both voltage and power angle are computed by using the numerical methods. After the
convergence, the Power flow is calculated.

Numerical Methods and their Comparison:

1. Gauss method:

It is not used at all because of it's poor convergence. The governing equation is shown below

2. Gauss Seidal Method:

63
It has a lesser significance when compared to other methods ( I.e. NR, DLF, FDLF) as it takes a lot of
iterations for the solution to converge. It fails to converge under the following conditions:

When the system has large number of radial lines,

Heavily loaded lines,

When there is a series capacitor on the transmission line.

The number of iterations depends upon the acceleration factor and also on the position of the slack bus if
there are generators with same generating capacity. It has geometric convergence. The equation for this
method is shown below

3. Newton Raphson Method:

Newton Raphson method is one the significant numerical methods. It overcomes all the
disadvantages caused by Gauss Seidal method. It has quadratic convergence and it has more tolerance
towards the selection of slack bus location. The main disadvantages of this method are the Jacobian
matrix has to be calculated for every iteration hence it is time taking and hectic. It also occupies a lot of
memory to store the entire data of every iteration. The equations used in NR method are shown below

64
4. Decoupled Load Flow Method:

This method uses the fact that the Real Power at any bus is strongly coupled to the Power angle of
that bus and is weakly coupled to the Voltage of that bus and the Reactive power at any bus is strongly
coupled to the Voltage at the bus and is weakly coupled to the Power angle of that bus. The equations
used in DLF method are given below:

The main advantage of this method is the storage required is less. But it doesn't overcome the
disadvantages of NR Method I.e. hectic calculations and time taken to compute the state vectors and it
has a poor convergence when compared to NR Method. So, it is not used to do the analysis. Instead
additional assumptions are made to arrive at FDLF method.

5. Fast Decoupled Load Flow:

Along with the decoupling few physically justifiable and additional assumptions are made to
overcome the main disadvantage of recalculating the Jacobian matrix. Hence, in this method the
assumptions made shall reduce the time taken to compute the state vectors by a great extent and also the
memory occupancy is also reduced. The equations used to compute the state vectors using this method
are given below

65
Features of Database Manager:

 Enhanced database creation including detailed modeling of power system components.

 Use of advanced techniques for all studies.

 Studies at your fingertips – once database is created accurately any study can be conducted.

 User defined number of contingencies and Schedules.

 Splitting of database into two groups – element information and library information – avoids repetitive
entry of power system elements having same parameters.

 Toggling Facility – Database to Network editor, Database to Graph to facilitate easier navigation.

We can utilize the Power System Network Editor to design any power system network by freely assigning
various components on the screen. First a database is created and connected to the opened Power System
Network editor. From there on the suitable components are taken, drawn on the screen according to network
requirements. Each component is assigned its own ratings.

The components can be taken from among shunt and series elements. They are as follows:

Shunt Elements Series Elements

Buses Transmission Line
Generator Transformer
PV module Protective devices
Filters Loads

66
From there, load flow analysis of the system can be carried out through any of the three iteration methods.
After executing the designed network, a report can be generated that lists out all the details of the entire
network; starting from the generator to the load as well as for all the components in between. A summary of
the network is also included in the report.

Alternatively, a network can also be designed by using the database manager to enter the ratings of all the
various components and then simulating the designed database. Some things to be noted while using
MiPower are that:

 Transformers are always considered to be step-down transformers, thus care must be taken when
connecting transformers within the network
 Solar PV modules are always On-grid solar systems in MiPower
 When connecting a solar PV module, a conversion generator must also be connected in the network
else the load flow will not converge
 Whether or not the load flow for the network will converge or not must be checked by going to
[plotload flow studies]

Here we have focused on utilizing the Power System Network Editor as well as the database manager.The
following Mipower problems have been solved.

67
13.5 PROCEDURE FOR IMPLEMENTATION

1. Double click the MiPower icon in your computer. A popped up window as shown below will appear.
Click OK.

2. Administration window will appear. Click MiPower box. Then Check Super User dialog box as
shown below.

3. The MiPower main screen will appear. Open Power System Network Editor by Double click the
Power System Network Editor Icon.

68
 Double Click

4. Select menu option Database  Configure. Configure Database dialog is popped up as shown
below.

Click here to specify the

Name of the database

Click Browse button.

5. Open dialog box is popped up as shown below. Where you are going to browse the desired directory
and specify the name of the database to be associated with the single line diagram. Click open button
after entering the desired database name. Configure Database dialog will appear with path chosen.

69
 Click Click to clear the

OK Database

Note: Do not work in the MiPower directory

Click

Here

Unchecked

The box

6. Uncheck the Standard Relay Libraries unless you are working on relay co-ordination studies. If the
units are given in PU values check the p.u status box. Enter the Base MVA and Base frequency as
shown above. Click OK button to create the database to return to Network Editor.

Base Voltage Configuration

In the network editor, configure the base voltages for the single line diagram. Select menu option Configure
Base voltage. The dialog shown below appears. If necessary change the Base voltages, color, Bus width
and click OK.

70
Procedure to Draw Power System Element – Bus

Click on Bus icon provided on power system tool bar. Draw a bus and a dialog appears prompting to give
the Bus ID and Bus Name. Click OK. Database manager with corresponding Bus Data form will appear.

Click on
Rename
Bus Icon

Modify
the value

Modify the min and max value of voltage ratings (Usually 5 %) of the rated voltage. Bus description is also
can be changed.

Procedure to Draw Transmission Line.

Click on Transmission Line icon. To draw the line click in between two buses and to connect, double click
LMB (left mouse Button) on the From Bus and to joint it to another bus, double click the mouse button on
the To Bus. Element ID dialog will appear. Enter Element ID number and click OK.

71
 Click Transmission

Line icon

Database manager with corresponding Line/ Cable data form will be open. Enter the details of that line as
shown below.

Database with corresponding Generator Data from will appear. Enter all the necessary data and details.

Enter Manufacturer Ref No., for example 1 and click on Generator Library button. Generator Library form
will appear as shown below.

72
Enter all necessary data, Save and close. In generator Data form click Save. Network Editor Screen will be
invoked.

Procedure to Enter Load Data

Click on Load icon. Load must be connected at any particular bus by clicking the LMB on that designated
bus. Element ID dialog will appear.

73
Give ID No as 1 and click OK. Load Data form will appear. Enter load details. Then click Save button,
which invokes Network Editor.

74
13.6 EXAMPLE:

FOR A TWO BUS SYSTEM

Procedure for Simulation:

1. First we need to draw the Buses. ( Each of 11KV)
2. Then we need to draw the Transmission line.
3. The next step is to draw the Generator.
4. For each step each components specification is to be specified.

TWO BUS SYSTEM

75
Procedure for Solving:
1. Go to solve and click Load flow Analysis and Select Newton Raphson Method.
2. To check whether it is correct Go to Plot and Select Newton Raphson Method.
3. Then, Generation should to be Equal to the Sum of Load and Loss. This is the most important part.
4. Then, check it with the Execution.
5. Now connect the Harmonics ( RMS Current Source)
6. To Solve, Click Harmonic Analysis and Select Execute.
7. Select the Number of Harmonics and also select the Harmonics.
8. And then we will get the graph of THD.

LOAD FLOW BY NEWTON RAPHSON METHOD

76
 MW GENERATION = MW LOAD + MW LOSS

TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION

FOR THREE BUS SYSTEM

77
13.7 PROJECT BUS SYSTEM

78
 FIVE BUS SYSTEM

OUTPUTS:
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

|::::: LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS :::::|

|-----CASE NO : 1 CONTINGENCY : 0 SCHEDULE NO : 0-----|

|-----CONTINGENCY NAME : Base Case RATING CONSIDERED : NOMINAL -----|

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

%% First Power System Network

|~~~~~ INPUT DATA ~~~~~|

|***** SYSTEM SPECIFICATION *****|

79
Largest Bus Number Used : 5

Actual Number of Buses : 5

Number of Two Winding Transformers : 0 Number of Three Winding Transformers : 0

Number of Transmission Lines : 4 Number of Series Reactors : 0

Number of Series Capacitors : 0 Number of Circuit Breakers : 0

Number of Shunt Reactors : 0 Number of Shunt Capacitors : 0

Number of Shunt Impedances : 0 Number of Generators : 2

Number of Loads : 3 Number of Load Characteristics : 0

Number of Frequency Relays : 0 Number of Gen.Capability Curves : 0

Number of Filters : 0 Number of Tie Line Schedules : 0

Number of Convertors : 0 Number of DC Links : 0

Number of Shunt Connected FACTS : 0 Number of Power Injections : 0

Number of TCSC Connected : 0 Number of SPS Connected : 0

Number of UPFC Connected : 0 Number of Wind Generators : 0

Number of wtg Curves : 0 Number of wtg Detailed Curves : 0

Number of solar plants : 0 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Load Flow - Fast De-Coupled Technique : 0

Number of Zones : 1

Print Option : 3 - Both Data and Results Print

Plot Option : 1 - Plotting with p.u. Voltage

No Frequency Dependent Load Flow, Control Option: 0

Base MVA : 100.0

Nominal System Frequency (Hz) : 50.0

Frequency Deviation (Hz) : 0.0

Flows in MW and MVAr, Option : 0

Slack Bus : 0 (Max. Generation Bus)

Transformer Tap Control Option : 0

Q Checking Limit (Enabled) : 4

80
Real Power Tolerance (p.u.) : 0.00100

Reactive Power Tolerance (p.u.) : 0.00100

Maximum Number of Iterations : 15

Bus Voltage below which Load Model is Changed : 0.75000

Circuit Breaker Resistance (p.u.) : 0.00000

Circuit Breaker Reactance (p.u.) : 0.00010

Transformer R/X Ratio : 0.05000

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

|***** PRESENT WORTH ANALYSIS DATA *****|

Annual Percentage Interest Charges : 15.000

Annual Percent Operation & Maintenance Charges : 4.000

Life of Equipment (Years) : 20.000

Energy Unit Charge (kWh) : 2.500 Rs

Loss Load Factor : 0.300

Cost Per MVAr (Lakhs) : 5.000 Rs

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

|***** ZONE WISE MULTIPLICATION FACTORS *****|

ZONE P LOAD Q LOAD P GEN Q GEN SH REACT SH CAP C LOAD

---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------

0 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

1 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

|~~~~~ SYSTEM DATA ~~~~~|

81
|***** BUS DATA *****|

BUS NO. AREA ZONE BUS kV VMIN(p.u.) VMAX(p.u.) NAME

-------- ---- ---- -------- ---------- ---------- --------

1 1 1 11.000 0.950 1.050 Bus1

2 1 1 11.000 0.950 1.050 Bus2

3 1 1 11.000 0.950 1.050 Bus3

4 1 1 11.000 0.950 1.050 Bus4

5 1 1 11.000 0.950 1.050 Bus5

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

|***** TRANSMISSION LINE DATA *****|

STA CKT FROM FROM TO TO LINE PARAMETER RATING KMS

NODE NAME* NODE NAME* R(p.u.) X(p.u.) B/2(p.u.) MVA

--- --- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------- --------- --------- ------ ------

3 1 1 Bus1 2 Bus2 0.21240 0.28512 0.00000 5 1.00

3 1 2 Bus2 3 Bus3 0.21240 0.28512 0.00000 5 1.00

3 1 3 Bus3 4 Bus4 0.21240 0.28512 0.00000 5 1.00

3 1 4 Bus4 5 Bus5 0.21240 0.28512 0.00000 5 1.00

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Total Line Charging Susceptance (p.u.) : 0.00002

Total Line Charging MVAr at 1 p.u. Voltage : 0.002

Number of Lines Opened on Both the Ends : 0

Total Line Charging susceptance of Existing Lines (p.u.) : 0.00002

Total Line Charging MVAr at 1 p.u. Voltage of Existing Lines : 0.002

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
82
Total Capacitive Susceptance : 0.00000 p.u. - 0.000 MVAr

Total Inductive Susceptance : 0.00000 p.u. - 0.000 MVAr

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

|***** GENERATOR DATA *****|

Sl.No* FROM FROM REAL Q-MIN Q-MAX V-SPEC CAP. MVA STAT

NODE NAME*POWER(MW) MVAr MVAr p.u. CURV RATING

------ -------- -------- --------- --------- --------- --------- ---- ------- ----

1 5 Bus5 6.0000 0.0000 4.5000 1.0000 0 7.50 3

2 1 Bus1 6.0000 0.0000 4.5000 1.0000 0 7.50 3

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

|***** LOAD DATA *****|

Sl.No. FROM FROM REAL REACTIVE COMP COMPENSATING MVAR VALUE CHAR
F/V

* NODE NAME* MW MVAr MVAr MIN MAX STEP NO. NO.

STAT

------ -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- ------- ------- ------- ---- ----

1 4 Bus4 1.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 0

3 0

2 3 Bus3 1.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 0

3 0

3 5 Bus5 1.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 0

3 0

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

83
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

|***** OUTPUT DATA *****|

Total Specified MW Generation : 12.00000

Total Minimum MVAr Limit of Generator : 0.00000

Total Maximum MVAr Limit of Generator : 9.00000

Total Specified MW Load : 3.00000 Changed to 3.00000

Total Specified MVAr Load : 0.00000 Changed to 0.00000

Total Specified MVAr Compensation : 0.00000 Changed to 0.00000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Total (Including Out of Service Units)

Total Specified MW Generation : 12.00000

Total Minimum MVAr Limit of Generator : 0.00000

Total Maximum MVAr Limit of Generator : 9.00000

Total Specified MW Load : 3.00000 Changed to 3.00000

Total Specified MVAr Load : 0.00000 Changed to 0.00000

Total Specified MVAr Compensation : 0.00000 Changed to 0.00000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

|----- GENERATOR DATA FOR FREQUENCY DEPENDENT LOAD FLOW -----|

SLNO* FROM FROM P-RATE P-MIN P-MAX %DROOP PARTICI BIAS

NODE NAME* MW MW MW FACTOR SETTING

C0 C1 C2

------ -------- -------- -------- --------- --------- --------- --------- ---------

1 5 Bus5 6.000 0.0000 6.0000 4.0000 0.0000 0.0000

0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

84
 2 1 Bus1 6.000 0.0000 6.0000 4.0000 0.0000 0.0000

0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Slack Bus Angle (degree) : 0.00

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

|~~~~~ OUTPUT RESULTS ~~~~~|

TOTAL NUMBER OF ISLANDS IN THE GIVEN SYSTEM : 1

TOTAL NUMBER OF ISLANDS HAVING ATLEAST ONE GENERATOR : 1

|----- SLACK BUSES CONSIDERED FOR THE STUDY -----|

ISLAND NO. SLACK BUS NAME SPECIFIED MW

---------- --------- -------- ------------

1 1 Bus1 6.000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

|----- CONVERGENCE INDEX -----|

ITERATION MAX P BUS MAX P MAX Q BUS MAX Q

COUNT NUMBER PER UNIT NUMBER PER UNIT

--------- --------- -------- --------- --------

1 5 0.050 4 0.005

2 5 0.013 4 0.000

3 5 0.004 2 0.000

4 5 0.001 2 0.000

5 5 0.000 5 0.025

6 5 0.023 5 0.010

7 5 0.001 5 0.000

85
Number of P Iterations : 5 and Number of Q Iterations : 6

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

|***** BUS VOLTAGES AND POWERS *****|

NODE FROM V-MAG ANGLE MW MVAr MW MVAr MVAr

NO. NAME p.u. DEGREE GEN GEN LOAD LOAD COMP

-------- -------- ------ ------ -------- -------- -------- -------- --------

1 Bus1 1.0000 0.00 -2.858 0.174 0.000 0.000 0.000

2 Bus2 1.0056 0.49 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

3 Bus3 1.0113 0.96 0.000 0.000 1.000 0.000 0.000

4 Bus4 1.0192 1.59 0.000 0.000 1.000 0.000 0.000

5 Bus5 1.0293 2.35 6.000 0.000 1.000 0.000 0.000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

NUMBER OF BUSES EXCEEDING MINIMUM VOLTAGE LIMIT (@ mark) : 0

NUMBER OF BUSES EXCEEDING MAXIMUM VOLTAGE LIMIT (# mark) : 0

NUMBER OF GENERATORS EXCEEDING MINIMUM Q LIMIT (< mark) : 0

NUMBER OF GENERATORS EXCEEDING MAXIMUM Q LIMIT (> mark) : 0

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

|***** LINE FLOWS AND LINE LOSSES *****|

SLNO CS FROM FROM TO TO FORWARD LOSS %

NODE NAME NODE NAME MW MVAr MW MVAr LOADING

---- -- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------

1 1 1 Bus1 2 Bus2 -2.858 0.174 0.0174 0.0230 62.9$

86
 2 1 2 Bus2 3 Bus3 -2.864 0.140 0.0173 0.0228 62.6$

3 1 3 Bus3 4 Bus4 -3.859 0.101 0.0310 0.0411 83.9#

4 1 4 Bus4 5 Bus5 -4.855 0.038 0.0482 0.0643 104.6@

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

! NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BEYOND 125% : 0

@ NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 100% AND 125% : 1

# NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 75% AND 100% : 1

$ NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 50% AND 75% : 2

^ NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 25% AND 50% : 0

& NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 1% AND 25% : 0

* NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 0% AND 1% : 0

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BUSES BETWEEN WHICH ANGLE DIFFERENCE IS > 30 degrees ARE: ZERO

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ISLAND FREQUENCY SLACK-BUS CONVERGED(1)

------ --------- ----------- ------------

1 50.00000 1 1

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

|***** SUMMARY OF RESULTS *****|

TOTAL REAL POWER GENERATION (CONVENTIONAL) : 6.000 MW

TOTAL REAL POWER INJECTION (-ve LOAD) : 0.000 MW

TOTAL REACT. POWER GENERATION (CONVENTIONAL) : 0.174 MVAr

GENERATION p.f. : 1.000

TOTAL REAL POWER GENERATION (WIND) : 0.000 MW

87
TOTAL REACT. POWER GENERATION (WIND) : 0.000 MVAr

TOTAL REAL POWER GENERATION (SOLAR) : 0.000 MW

TOTAL REACT. POWER GENERATION (SOLAR) : 0.000 MVAr

TOTAL SHUNT REACTOR INJECTION : -0.000 MW

TOTAL SHUNT REACTOR INJECTION : -0.000 MVAr

TOTAL SHUNT CAPACIT.INJECTION : -0.000 MW

TOTAL SHUNT CAPACIT.INJECTION : -0.000 MVAr

TOTAL TCSC REACTIVE DRAWL : 0.000 MVAr

TOTAL SPS REACTIVE DRAWL : 0.000 MVAr

TOTAL UPFC INJECTION : -0.000 MVAr

TOTAL SHUNT FACTS INJECTION : 0.000 MVAr

TOTAL SHUNT FACTS DRAWAL : 0.000 MVAr

TOTAL REAL POWER LOAD : 3.000 MW

TOTAL REAL POWER DRAWAL (-ve gen.) : 2.858 MW

TOTAL REACTIVE POWER LOAD : 0.000 MVAr

LOAD p.f. : 1.000

TOTAL COMPENSATION AT LOADS : 0.000 MVAr

TOTAL HVDC REACTIVE POWER : 0.000 MVAr

TOTAL REAL POWER LOSS (AC+DC) : 0.113834 MW ( 0.113834+ 0.000000)

PERCENTAGE REAL LOSS (AC+DC) : 1.897

TOTAL REACTIVE POWER LOSS : 0.151154 MVAr

88
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

|----- ZONE WISE DISTRIBUTION -----|

Description Zone # 1

---------------- ----------

MW generation 3.1420

MVAr generation 0.1742

MW wind gen. 0.0000

MVAr wind gen. 0.0000

MW solar gen. 0.0000

MVAr solar gen. 0.0000

MW load 3.0000

MVAr load 0.0000

MVAr compensation 0.0000

MW loss 0.1138

MVAr loss 0.1512

MVAr - inductive 0.0000

MVAr - capacitive 0.0000

89
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

|----- ZONE WISE EXPORT (+ve) / IMPORT (-ve) -----|

Zone # 1 MW & MVAr

------ -------- --------

1 -----

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

|----- AREA WISE EXPORT (+ve) / IMPORT (-ve) -----|

Area # 1 MW & MVAr

------ -------- --------

1 -----

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

|----- AREA WISE DISTRIBUTION -----|

Description Area # 1

---------------- ----------

MW generation 3.1420

MVAr generation 0.1742

MW wind gen. 0.0000

MVAr wind gen. 0.0000

MW solar gen. 0.0000

MVAr solar gen. 0.0000

90
MW load 3.0000

MVAr load 0.0000

MVAr compensation 0.0000

MW loss 0.1138

MVAr loss 0.1512

MVAr - inductive 0.0000

MVAr - capacitive 0.0000

HARMONIC ANALYSIS
CASE NO : 1 SCHEDULE NO : 0

%% First Power System Network

LARGEST BUS NUMBER USED : 5 ACTUAL NUMBER OF BUSES : 5

NUMBER OF ELEMENTS IN RX_B2 FORMAT: 4

NUMBER OF 2 WIND. TRANSFORMERS : 0 NUMBER OF 3 WIND. TRANSFORMERS : 0

NUMBER OF SCOTT TRANSFORMERS : 0

NUMBER OF SINGLE CIRCUIT LINES : 0 NUMBER OF DOUBLE CIRCUIT LINES : 0

NUMBER OF QUAD CIRCUIT LINES : 0

NUMBER OF SERIES REACTORS : 0 NUMBER OF SERIES CAPACITORS : 0

NUMBER OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS : 0

NUMBER OF SHUNT REACTORS : 0 NUMBER OF SHUNT CAPACITORS : 0

NUMBER OF SHUNT IMPEDANCES : 0 NUMBER OF SHUNT ADMITT. (phase): 0

91
NUMBER OF GENERATORS : 2 NUMBER OF LOADS : 3

NUMBER OF FILTERS : 0

NUMBER OF RMS V/I SOURCES : 1 NUMBER OF CONVERTERS : 0

NUMBER OF INSTANT. V/I : 0

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BASE MVA : 100.000

NOMINAL SYSTEM FREQUENCY : 50.000

INITIAL VOLTAGE OPTION : 0

INITIAL VOLTAGE OF 1 P.U. IS ASSUMED

NUMBER OF ZONES : 1

PRINT OPTION : 3

BOTH DATA AND RESULT APPEAR IN THE REPORT FILE

PLOT OPTION : 1

PLOT FILES ARE GENERATED

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

NUMBER OF HARMONIC ORDERS : 5

HARMONIC ORDERS : 2 3 4 5 6

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

NUMBER OF BUSES OF INTEREST : 3

BUS NUMBERS : 3 4 5

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

TRANSFOMRER R/X RATIO : 0.05000

CIRCUIT BREAKER R-PU : 0.00000

CIRCUIT BREAKER X-PU : 0.00010

NUMBER OF LINE TYPES 3x3 : 0

NUMBER OF LINE TYPES 6x6 : 0

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

NUMBER OF LINE TYPES 12x12 : 0

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
92
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BUSNO STATUS ZONE BUSVOLT KV BUS NAME VOLT-MAG ANG-DEG

----- ------ ---- ---------- -------- -------- --------

1 1 1 11.000 Bus1 1.0000 0.000

2 1 1 11.000 Bus2 1.0000 0.000

3 1 1 11.000 Bus3 1.0000 0.000

4 1 1 11.000 Bus4 1.0000 0.000

5 1 1 11.000 Bus5 1.0000 0.000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

R, X, B/2 DATA

STATUS FROM FROM TO TO POSITIVE/ZERO

BUS NAME BUS NAME R(P.U) X(P.U.) B/2(P.U) LENGTH

------ ---- -------- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------

3 1 Bus1 2 Bus2 0.21240 0.28512 0.00000

0.33471 1.30579 0.00000 1.00000

3 2 Bus2 3 Bus3 0.21240 0.28512 0.00000

0.33471 1.30579 0.00000 1.00000

3 3 Bus3 4 Bus4 0.21240 0.28512 0.00000

0.33471 1.30579 0.00000 1.00000

3 4 Bus4 5 Bus5 0.21240 0.28512 0.00000

0.33471 1.30579 0.00000 1.00000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

GENERATOR CONNECTION DATA

FROM FROM POSITIVE NEGATIVE ZERO STATUS

BUS NAME R(P.U) X(P.U.) R(P.U.) X(P.U.) R(P.U.) X(P.U.)

---- -------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- ------

93
 5 Bus5 0.01333 3.37333 0.01333 3.84000 0.01333 1.33333 3

1 Bus1 0.01333 3.37333 0.01333 3.84000 0.01333 1.33333 3

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

VOLTAGE/CURRENT SOURCE DATA

CURRENT SOURCE BUS : 4 (TYPE - 1)

COUNT PHASE A PHASE B PHASE C

AMP-RMS ANGLE-DEG AMP-RMS ANGLE-DEG AMP-RMS ANGLE-DEG

----- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- ---------

2 28.169 0.000 28.169 120.000 28.169 240.000

3 32.193 0.000 32.193 120.000 32.193 240.000

4 16.096 0.000 16.096 120.000 16.096 240.000

5 24.144 0.000 24.144 120.000 24.144 240.000

6 0.000 0.000 0.000 120.000 0.000 240.000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BUS A-P-MW A-Q-MVAR B-P-MW B-QMVAR C-P-MW C-Q-MVAR MD STATUS

---- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- -- ------

4 0.333 0.000 0.333 0.000 0.333 0.000 0 3

3 0.333 0.000 0.333 0.000 0.333 0.000 0 3

5 0.333 0.000 0.333 0.000 0.333 0.000 0 3

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

INJECTED 2th HARMONIC CURRENT IN AMPs AND DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

BUS NAME C-A-AMP A-A-DEGR C-B-AMP A-B-DEGR C-C-AMP A-C-DEGR

---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------

1 Bus1 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

2 Bus2 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

3 Bus3 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

4 Bus4 28.169 0.000 28.169 120.000 28.169 -120.000

5 Bus5 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

94
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2th HARMONIC BUS VOLTAGES IN VOLTS-DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

BUS NAME V-A-VOLT V-A-DEGR V-B-VOLT V-B-DEGR V-C-VOLT V-C-DEGR

---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------

1 Bus1 122.332 91.177 122.340 -148.826 122.341 -28.821

2 Bus2 131.464 89.709 131.473 -150.293 131.473 -30.289

3 Bus3 140.671 88.433 140.680 -151.569 140.679 -31.565

4 Bus4 149.938 87.314 149.947 -152.688 149.946 -32.684

5 Bus5 139.522 88.781 139.531 -151.221 139.531 -31.216

2th HARMONIC LINE FLOWS IN AMPS-DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

FROM NAME TO NAME I-A-AMP I-A-DEGR I-B-AMP I-B-DEGR I-C-AMP I-C-DEGR

---- -------- ---- -------- ------- -------- ------- -------- ------- --------

1 Bus1 2 Bus2 13.165 -178.724 13.165 -58.724 13.165 61.276

13.164 1.276 13.164 121.276 13.164 -118.724

2 Bus2 3 Bus3 13.164 -178.724 13.164 -58.724 13.164 61.276

13.163 1.276 13.163 121.276 13.163 -118.724

3 Bus3 4 Bus4 13.163 -178.724 13.163 -58.724 13.163 61.276

13.162 1.277 13.162 121.276 13.162 -118.723

4 Bus4 5 Bus5 15.014 -1.119 15.014 118.881 15.014 -121.119

15.015 178.881 15.015 -61.119 15.014 58.881

2th HARMONIC SHUNT INJECTIONS IN AMPS-DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

BUS NAME I-A-AMP I-A-DEGR I-B-AMP I-B-DEGR I-C-AMP I-C-DEGR

---- -------- ------- -------- ------- -------- ------- --------

5 Bus5 15.015 178.881 15.015 -61.119 15.015 58.881

1 Bus1 13.165 -178.724 13.165 -58.724 13.165 61.276

4 Bus4 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

3 Bus3 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

5 Bus5 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
95
INJECTED 3th HARMONIC CURRENT IN AMPs AND DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

BUS NAME C-A-AMP A-A-DEGR C-B-AMP A-B-DEGR C-C-AMP A-C-DEGR

---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------

1 Bus1 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

2 Bus2 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

3 Bus3 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

4 Bus4 32.193 0.000 32.193 120.000 32.193 -120.000

5 Bus5 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3th HARMONIC BUS VOLTAGES IN VOLTS-DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

BUS NAME V-A-VOLT V-A-DEGR V-B-VOLT V-B-DEGR V-C-VOLT V-C-DEGR

---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------

1 Bus1 209.849 90.785 209.864 -149.218 209.864 -29.213

2 Bus2 225.468 89.806 225.483 -150.196 225.483 -30.192

3 Bus3 241.141 88.955 241.156 -151.047 241.156 -31.043

4 Bus4 256.858 88.207 256.873 -151.794 256.873 -31.790

5 Bus5 239.065 89.186 239.080 -150.816 239.080 -30.812

3th HARMONIC LINE FLOWS IN AMPS-DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

FROM NAME TO NAME I-A-AMP I-A-DEGR I-B-AMP I-B-DEGR I-C-AMP I-C-DEGR

---- -------- ---- -------- ------- -------- ------- -------- ------- --------

1 Bus1 2 Bus2 15.055 -179.149 15.055 -59.149 15.055 60.851

15.053 0.851 15.053 120.851 15.053 -119.149

2 Bus2 3 Bus3 15.053 -179.149 15.053 -59.149 15.053 60.851

15.050 0.851 15.050 120.851 15.050 -119.148

3 Bus3 4 Bus4 15.050 -179.149 15.050 -59.149 15.050 60.852

15.048 0.852 15.048 120.852 15.048 -119.148

4 Bus4 5 Bus5 17.149 -0.748 17.149 119.253 17.149 -120.748

17.151 179.252 17.151 -60.747 17.151 59.252

3th HARMONIC SHUNT INJECTIONS IN AMPS-DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

96
BUS NAME I-A-AMP I-A-DEGR I-B-AMP I-B-DEGR I-C-AMP I-C-DEGR

---- -------- ------- -------- ------- -------- ------- --------

5 Bus5 17.151 179.252 17.151 -60.747 17.151 59.252

1 Bus1 15.055 -179.149 15.055 -59.149 15.055 60.851

4 Bus4 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

3 Bus3 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

5 Bus5 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

INJECTED 4th HARMONIC CURRENT IN AMPs AND DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

BUS NAME C-A-AMP A-A-DEGR C-B-AMP A-B-DEGR C-C-AMP A-C-DEGR

---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------

1 Bus1 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

2 Bus2 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

3 Bus3 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

4 Bus4 16.096 0.000 16.096 120.000 16.096 -120.000

5 Bus5 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4th HARMONIC BUS VOLTAGES IN VOLTS-DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

BUS NAME V-A-VOLT V-A-DEGR V-B-VOLT V-B-DEGR V-C-VOLT V-C-DEGR

---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------

1 Bus1 139.954 90.593 139.964 -149.410 139.964 -29.405

2 Bus2 150.359 89.854 150.369 -150.148 150.369 -30.144

3 Bus3 160.782 89.211 160.793 -150.791 160.792 -30.787

4 Bus4 171.221 88.647 171.231 -151.355 171.231 -31.351

5 Bus5 159.372 89.386 159.382 -150.617 159.382 -30.612

4th HARMONIC LINE FLOWS IN AMPS-DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

FROM NAME TO NAME I-A-AMP I-A-DEGR I-B-AMP I-B-DEGR I-C-AMP I-C-DEGR

---- -------- ---- -------- ------- -------- ------- -------- ------- --------

1 Bus1 2 Bus2 7.530 -179.358 7.530 -59.358 7.530 60.642

97
 7.529 0.642 7.529 120.642 7.529 -119.357

2 Bus2 3 Bus3 7.528 -179.358 7.528 -59.358 7.528 60.643

7.526 0.643 7.526 120.643 7.526 -119.357

3 Bus3 4 Bus4 7.526 -179.357 7.526 -59.357 7.526 60.643

7.524 0.643 7.524 120.643 7.524 -119.357

4 Bus4 5 Bus5 8.573 -0.565 8.573 119.436 8.573 -120.565

8.575 179.435 8.575 -60.565 8.575 59.435

4th HARMONIC SHUNT INJECTIONS IN AMPS-DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

BUS NAME I-A-AMP I-A-DEGR I-B-AMP I-B-DEGR I-C-AMP I-C-DEGR

---- -------- ------- -------- ------- -------- ------- --------

5 Bus5 8.575 179.435 8.575 -60.565 8.575 59.435

1 Bus1 7.531 -179.358 7.531 -59.358 7.531 60.642

4 Bus4 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

3 Bus3 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

5 Bus5 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

INJECTED 5th HARMONIC CURRENT IN AMPs AND DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

BUS NAME C-A-AMP A-A-DEGR C-B-AMP A-B-DEGR C-C-AMP A-C-DEGR

---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------

1 Bus1 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

2 Bus2 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

3 Bus3 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

4 Bus4 24.144 0.000 24.144 120.000 24.144 -120.000

5 Bus5 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5th HARMONIC BUS VOLTAGES IN VOLTS-DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

BUS NAME V-A-VOLT V-A-DEGR V-B-VOLT V-B-DEGR V-C-VOLT V-C-DEGR

---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------

1 Bus1 262.518 90.483 262.537 -149.520 262.537 -29.515

98
 2 Bus2 282.024 89.882 282.043 -150.121 282.043 -30.116

3 Bus3 301.549 89.359 301.568 -150.643 301.568 -30.639

4 Bus4 321.087 88.900 321.106 -151.102 321.106 -31.098

5 Bus5 298.879 89.501 298.898 -150.502 298.898 -30.497

5th HARMONIC LINE FLOWS IN AMPS-DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

FROM NAME TO NAME I-A-AMP I-A-DEGR I-B-AMP I-B-DEGR I-C-AMP I-C-DEGR

---- -------- ---- -------- ------- -------- ------- -------- ------- --------

1 Bus1 2 Bus2 11.300 -179.478 11.300 -59.478 11.300 60.523

11.296 0.523 11.296 120.522 11.296 -119.477

2 Bus2 3 Bus3 11.295 -179.477 11.295 -59.478 11.295 60.523

11.290 0.523 11.291 120.523 11.291 -119.477

3 Bus3 4 Bus4 11.290 -179.477 11.290 -59.477 11.290 60.523

11.285 0.524 11.285 120.523 11.285 -119.476

4 Bus4 5 Bus5 12.860 -0.460 12.860 119.541 12.860 -120.460

12.865 179.540 12.865 -60.460 12.865 59.540

5th HARMONIC SHUNT INJECTIONS IN AMPS-DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

BUS NAME I-A-AMP I-A-DEGR I-B-AMP I-B-DEGR I-C-AMP I-C-DEGR

---- -------- ------- -------- ------- -------- ------- --------

5 Bus5 12.866 179.540 12.865 -60.460 12.865 59.540

1 Bus1 11.300 -179.478 11.300 -59.478 11.300 60.523

4 Bus4 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

3 Bus3 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

5 Bus5 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

INJECTED 6th HARMONIC CURRENT IN AMPs AND DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

BUS NAME C-A-AMP A-A-DEGR C-B-AMP A-B-DEGR C-C-AMP A-C-DEGR

---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------

1 Bus1 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

2 Bus2 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

99
 3 Bus3 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

4 Bus4 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

5 Bus5 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6th HARMONIC BUS VOLTAGES IN VOLTS-DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

BUS NAME V-A-VOLT V-A-DEGR V-B-VOLT V-B-DEGR V-C-VOLT V-C-DEGR

---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------

1 Bus1 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

2 Bus2 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

3 Bus3 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

4 Bus4 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

5 Bus5 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

6th HARMONIC LINE FLOWS IN AMPS-DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

FROM NAME TO NAME I-A-AMP I-A-DEGR I-B-AMP I-B-DEGR I-C-AMP I-C-DEGR

---- -------- ---- -------- ------- -------- ------- -------- ------- --------

1 Bus1 2 Bus2 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

2 Bus2 3 Bus3 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

3 Bus3 4 Bus4 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

4 Bus4 5 Bus5 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

6th HARMONIC SHUNT INJECTIONS IN AMPS-DEGREE FOR A, B AND C PHASES

BUS NAME I-A-AMP I-A-DEGR I-B-AMP I-B-DEGR I-C-AMP I-C-DEGR

---- -------- ------- -------- ------- -------- ------- --------

5 Bus5 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

1 Bus1 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

4 Bus4 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

100
 3 Bus3 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

5 Bus5 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000 0.000 -90.000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

VOLTAGE HARMONIC DISTORTION FACTORS

NODE NAME %HDF-A %HDF-B %HDF-C %HDF-AVR

---- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------

1 Bus1 6.0474 6.0479 6.0479 6.0477

2 Bus2 6.4972 6.4977 6.4977 6.4975

3 Bus3 6.9482 6.9487 6.9486 6.9485

4 Bus4 7.4001 7.4005 7.4005 7.4004

5 Bus5 6.8878 6.8882 6.8882 6.8881

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

INDIVIDUAL VOLTAGE HARMONIC DISTORTION FACTORS

NODE NAME %HDF-T %HDF-2 %HDF-3 %HDF-4 %HDF-5 %HDF-6

---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------

1 Bus1 6.0477 1.9263 3.3044 2.2038 4.1338 0.0000

2 Bus2 6.4975 2.0701 3.5504 2.3676 4.4409 0.0000

3 Bus3 6.9485 2.2151 3.7971 2.5318 4.7484 0.0000

4 Bus4 7.4004 2.3610 4.0446 2.6961 5.0560 0.0000

5 Bus5 6.8881 2.1970 3.7645 2.5096 4.7063 0.0000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

TELEPHONE INFLUENCE FACTORS

NODE NAME %TIF-A %TIF-B %TIF-C %TIF-AVR

---- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------

1 Bus1 6215 6215 6215 6215

2 Bus2 6677 6677 6677 6677

3 Bus3 7139 7140 7140 7140

4 Bus4 7603 7603 7603 7603

5 Bus5 7077 7077 7077 7077

101
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

I-THD and RMS current for series branches

FROM NAME TO NAME RMS-HARMONIC(A) FUNDAMENTAL(A) RMS-TOTAL(A) I-

THD(%)

---- -------- ---- -------- --------------- -------------- ------------ --------

1 Bus1 2 Bus2 24.173615 0.010606 24.173618 227925.584

2 Bus2 3 Bus3 24.168743 0.010606 24.168746 227879.649

3 Bus3 4 Bus4 24.163524 0.010606 24.163526 227830.438

4 Bus4 5 Bus5 27.538405 0.010606 27.538407 259651.151

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Square of the individual harmonic current in filter

COUNT RMS-FILT-HARMONIC(A) PER_PHASE-LOSS UNIT

----- -------------------- -------------- ----

102
103
 CHAPTER 14: CONCLUSIONS
Although the likelihood of harmonic problems is very low, the cases in which they do occur can result in
decreasing power system reliability.

An understanding of the causes, potential effects and mitigation means for harmonics can help to prevent
harmonic related problems at the design stage and reduce the probability of undesired effects occurring on
start-up.

It should be kept in mind that if the harmonic producing loads are small in relation to the total plant load,
then harmonics are not an issue.

When the non-linear loads become a substantial portion of the total load, it becomes worthwhile to give
some consideration to harmonics.

In these cases, harmonic modeling analysis is recommended to predict harmonic levels and identify
potential resonance problems regardless of the rectifier pulse number.

104
 CHAPTER 15: DEFINITIONS

1. S: Apparent power

2. P: Active power

3. Q: Reactive power

4. RSC: The short circuit ratio is defined as the short circuit power of the supply at PCC to the nominal

apparent power of the equipment under consideration. Rsc = Ss / Sn.

5. ω1 : Angular frequency of fundamental component ω1 = 2*π*f1 , where f1 is fundamental frequency

(eg. 50 Hz or 60 Hz).

6. n: Integer n = 2, 3, ... ∞. Harmonic frequencies are defined as wn = n*ω1 .

7. I n: RMS-value of the n:th harmonic component of line current.

8. Zn: Impedance at frequency n*ω1 .

9. %Un: Harmonic voltage component as a percentage of fundamental (line) voltage.

10. THD: Total Harmonic Distortion in the input current is defined as:

11. where I 1 is the rms value of the fundamental frequency current.

12. The THD in voltage may be calculated in a similar way. Here is an example for the 25 lowest

harmonic components with the theoretical values:

13. PWHD: Partial weighted harmonic distortion is defined as:

105
14. PCC: The Point of Common Coupling is defined in this text as a point of utility supply which may be

common to the equipment in question and other equipment. There are several definitions of PCC in

different standards and even more interpretations of these definitions in the literature. The definition

chosen here is seen as technically most sound.

15. PF: Power Factor defined as PF = P/S (power / volt-ampere) = I 1 / I s * DPF (With sinusoidal

current PF equals to DPF).

16. DPF: Displacement Power Factor defined as cosφ1 , where φ1 is the phase angle between the

fundamental frequency current drawn by the equipment and the supply voltage fundamental

frequency component.

17. RRU: Regenerative rectifier unit. An IGBT bridge that is operated in diode mode.

18. PDS: Power drive system. Combination of an inverter and a motor.

19. ISU: IGBT supply unit. Same as an active supply unit. Often also called the active front end and

active infeed converter.

106
REFERENCES

1. https://literature.rockwellautomation.com/idc/groups/literature/documents/wp/mvb-wp011_-en-p.pdf

2. https://library.e.abb.com/public/bc35ffb4386c4c039e3a8ec20cef89c5/
Technical_guide_No_6_3AFE64292714_RevF_EN.pdf

3. https://www.electricalindia.in/harmonics-causes-effects/

4. http://www.prdcinfotech.com/business/software-engineering-group/software-products/mipower/mipower-
applications/
5. https://www.tridaxsolutions.com/mipower.html

107