Strength of Materials Lecture Note

CHAPTER 3
INTERNAL ACTIONS IN BEAMS

Beams: are structural members which offer resistance to bending due to applied loads.
Most beams are long prismatic bars, and the loads are usually applied normal to the axes of
the bars.
Beams are the most important of all structural members, so it is important to understand the
basic theory underlying their design.

Classification of beams

Beams or any other structures are classified into two general parts.
 Statically determinate: The number of unknown reactions equals three and then using the
three equilibrium equations we can determine force at any part of the structure.
 Statically indeterminate: If the number of unknown reactions at beam supports is more
than three, the beam is statically indeterminate. To determine the support reactions for such
a beam we must consider its load-deformation properties in addition to the equations of
static equilibrium.

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Types of Loads

Loads on beams can be classified as concentrated or distributed.

 Concentrated forces are those applied over a very limited portion of the beam.
 Distributed forces are applied over a considerable portion (length) of the beam.

 w is the intensity of the distributed load and is expressed as a force per unit
length of beam.

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 The intensity may be constant or variable, continuous or discontinuous. Look at

the following diagram of a beam carrying a distributed load.

 ω is constant from C to D
 ω is variable from A to C and
from D to B
 ω is discontinuous at pt D where
it changes magnitude abruptly

Resultant of a Distributed Load

The following figures illustrate the three most common cases and the resultants of the distributed
loads in each case.

In both (a) and (b) the resultant load R is

represented by the area formed by the
intensity ω and the length over which the
force is distributed. The Resultant passes
through the centroid of this area.
In part (c) the trapezoidal area is broken
into a rectangular and a triangular area,
and the corresponding resultants R1 and
R2 of these subareas are determined
separately.

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r For a more general load distribution, as shown below, we

must start with a differential increment of force dR =w dx .

r The total load R is then the sum of the differential forces, or

R = ∫ ω dx
r As before the resultant R is located at the centroid of the area under consideration. The x-
coordinate of this centroid is found by the principle of moments:

R x = ∫ xω dx

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Examples:

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Internal effects in beams

r In addition to supporting tension or compression, a beam can resist shear, bending and
torsion. These three effects are illustrated below.

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 V - shear force
 M - Bending Moment
 T - torsional Moment

r To design a structural or mechanical member it is necessary to know the loading acting

within the member in order to be sure the material can resist this loading.
r Internal loadings can be determined by using the method of sections. To illustrate this
method consider the cantilever beam below. If we are asked to determine the internal
loadings on the cross section at point B, we draw an imaginary section a-a perpendicular
to the axis of the beam and then separate the beam into two segments.
r The internal loadings acting at B will then be exposed and become external on the free-
body diagram of each segment.

 The force components NB that acts perpendicular to the cross section, is termed the
normal force.
 The force component VB that is tangent to the cross section is called the shear force, and
the couple moment MB is referred to as the bending moment.
 The internal reactions can be determined by applying the equations of equilibrium to the
free-body of either segment.
 NB is obtained by applying ∑ F x = 0
 VB is obtained by applying ∑ F y = 0

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 MB can be obtained by applying ∑ M B = 0, since the moments of NB and VB

about B are zero.

Sign Convention

r Although the sign convention can be arbitrarily assigned, the one that is widely accepted
is the following:
 The normal force is positive if it creates tension

 The shear force is taken to be positive when it causes clockwise rotation of the
beam segment on which it acts.
 Positive bending moment tends to bend the segment on which it acts in a concave
upward manner.

Shear-Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

r The variation of shear force V and bending moment M over the length of a beam provides
information necessary for the design analysis of the beam. In particular the maximum
magnitude of moment is usually the primary consideration in the design or selection of a
beam, and its value and position should be determined.
r The variations in shear and moment are best shown graphically, and the expressions.
r The expressions for V and M when plotted against distance along the beam give the shear-
force and bending-moment diagrams for the beam.

Procedures for Constructing Shear-Force and Bending-Moment Diagrams:

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 Step1: Determine the values all external reactions on the beam by applying the equations of
equilibrium equations to the free-diagram of the beam as a whole.
 Step2: Specify separate coordinates of x having an origin at the beam’s left end and
extending to regions the beam between concentrated forces and/or couple moments or where
the distributed load is continuous. We should avoid sectioning the beam at a point where
there is a concentrated load.
 Step3: Section the beam at each distance x and draw the free-body diagram of one of
the segments. Be sure V and M are shown acting in their positive direction. Isolate a portion
of the beam, either to the right or left of an arbitrary transverse section, with a free-body
diagram and apply the equations of equilibrium to this isolated portion of the beam.
 Step 4: Determine V and M
The shearing V is obtained by summing forces perpendicular to the beam’s axis. The
moment is obtained by summing moments about the sectioned end of the segment.
 Step 5: Construct Shear and Moment Diagrams
Plot the shear diagram (V versus x) and the moment diagram (M versus x). If computed
values of the functions describing V and M are positive, the values are plotted above the x-
axis, whereas negative values are plotted below the x-axis. Generally, it is convenient to plot
the shear and bending moment diagrams directly below the free-body diagram of the beam.

Examples

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Relationship between Distributed Load, Shear, and Moment

 Previous methods of constructing shear and moment diagrams will be very tedious if a
beam is subjected to many concentrated forces, couple moments, and distributed loads.
 In this section a simpler method for constructing these diagrams is discussed. The method
is based on differential relations that exist between the load, shear, and bending moment.
 Consider the following figure:

 As can be from the figure, an element dx of the beam isolated. The loading ω represents
the force per unit length of beam.
 At the location x the shear V and Moment M acting on the element are drawn in their
positive directions.
 On the opposite side of the element where the coordinate is x + dx, these quantities are
also shown in their positive directions. But, their values should be V + dV and M + dM,
since V and M change with x.
 The applied loading ω may be considered constant over the length of the element, since
this length is a differential quantity.

Appling Equilibrium Equations to the differential element:

i. Summing the vertical forces to zero

∑ F y = 0; V – ω dx – (V + dV) = 0 Or

dV
ω=– …………………………(*)
dx

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Slope of the shear = - distributed load Force diagram at intensity at each point

We may now express the shear force V in terms of the loading ω by integrating the equation (*)
V x

∫ dV = – ∫ ω dx Or
V0 x0

V = V 0 + (the negative of the area under the loading curve from x 0 ¿ x )

The change in shear force is equal to the area under the distributed loading diagram

ii. Summing the moments about the left side of the element to zero;
dx
∑ M = 0; M + dx 2
+ ( V + dV)dx – (M + dM = 0

Simplifying the above equation,

dM
V= …………………………¿
dx

Slope of Moment Diagram at any location x in the beam = Shear force at that section of the
beam.

Equation (**) expresses fact that the shear everywhere is equal to the slope of the moment curve.
We may now express the moment M in terms of the shear V by integrating equation (**). Thus,

M x

∫ dM = ∫ V dx
M0 x0

Or

M = M 0+ (the area under the shear diagram from x 0 ¿ x )

The change in moment is equal to the area under the shear diagram

Summary Notes

 For beams where there is no externally applied moment M o at x0 =0, and the total moment
at any section equals the area under the shear diagram up to that section.
 Summing the area under the shear diagram is usually the simplest way to construct the
moment diagram.

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 When V passes through zero and is continuous function of x with dV/dx ≠ 0, the bending
moment M will be a maximum or a minimum, since dM/dx = 0 at such a point. Critical
values of M also occur when V crosses the zero axis discontinuously, which occurs for
beams under concentrated loads.
 Equations (*) & (**) may be combined to yield

 If the S.F. is zero the bending moment will remain

constant.
 If the S.F. is positive the slope of the B.M. curve is positive.
 If the S.F. is negative the slope of the B.M. curve is negative.
 The difference in B.M. between any two points equals the area under the S.F. curve for
the same points.
 Between concentrated loads, there is no change in shear and the shear force curve plots as
a straight horizontal line.
 At each concentrated load or reaction, the value of the shear force changes abruptly by an
amount equal to the load or reaction force.
 The maximum bending moment occurs at a point where the shear curve crosses its zero
axis.

Regions of concentrated Force and Moment

 When a concentrated force acts downward so the shear force diagram will jump
downward at that particular point.
 When a concentrated moment Mo is applied clockwise, the moment diagram will jump
upward. When Mo acts counterclockwise, the moment diagram will jump downward.

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Examples:

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ASSIGNMENT

1. Determine the reaction at A and B for the loaded beam.

2. Determine the reaction at A and B for the beam subjected to a combination of distributed
and point loads.

3. Calculate the support reactions at A and B for the beam subjected to the two linearly
varying load distributions.

4. Determine the reactions at A and B for the beam subjected to distributed and
Concentrated loads.

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5. Calculate the support reactions at A and B for the beam subjected to two linearly varying
loads.

6. For beam loaded below.

a. Calculate reactions (it can be reaction force or moment).
b. Calculate shear force and bending moment equation for each segment or section.(for one
beam there are different section based on loading)
c. Draw shear force diagram and bending moment diagram
d. Determine the maximum shear force and the maximum bending moment

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