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Prof. (Dr.) Harish Kumar
Prof. (Dr.) V.K. Sharma

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© Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzffarnagar

Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’2013)

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 Message
Welcome to TSPC 13
It is a great pleasure to welcome all of you to annully conference TSPC-13 at Bhagwant
Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar India. which is one of the countries recently
drawing much attention in the world arena of the most advanced ICT convergence
infrastructure.
Conference TSPC-13 is financial sponsored by IEEE-UP section & INSA, Govt of
India, CST & technical sponsored by BSNL, DST, Agilent, Texas Instruments India and
also collaboration with GBTU Lucknow & MTU Noida. TSPC,13 has been providing the
scientists, researchers and engineers policy makers, network planners, and service
providers in telecommunications from all over the world a scientific forum of disscussions
to exchange ideas and the research results as to develope new scientific discoveries in the relevant area of interest &
extensive exchange of information will be provided on newly emerging systems, standards, regulations, services,
and variety of applications in the area of communications & signal processing field, due to rapid penetration of
various smart devices such as smart phones, the network traffic is dramatically increasing and the network market is
changing recently. The network must be smarter in order to keep up with the change of network environment and
the advent of future smart services. To deal with these technology and market trends, we chose the phrase “Smart
Service Innovation through Mobile”.
Interactivity is the theme of TSPC-13. Under this theme, TSPC-13 consists of a plenary session with five
keynote speeches by remarkable world level experts, 03 tutorial sessions with interesting subjects, and 75 technical
sessions including 02 poster sessions. The TSPC carefully selected a limited number of 140 papers from 16 state to
be presented in the technical sessions. We hope these technical sessions will help you obtain better insights into the
latest trends and directions for the competitive broadcasting and telecommunications network markets. We believe
that TSPC-13 will provide an abundance of intelligent debate and information exchange, and a look at what is new
in the emerging field and technology.
I would like to express my deep appreciation and gratitude to all the program committee members, authors, the
reviewers, and advisory committee and arrangement & registration committee members for their terrific work in
collecting and editing the papers witin time on behalf of the Organizing and Technical Program Committees, Last
but not least, I would like to thanks all the plenary speakers, and fellow researchers that has been willing to share
their research knowledge and experience to all of us in this prestigious conference.
I hope the TSPC 13 will bring to you an unforgetable beautiful experience of enjoyment of your time in BIT.

Prof. Harish Kumar

Conference Chair
April 12, 2013 TSPC-13
 Committees
Chief Patron
Prof. R.K. Khandal
Vice Chancellor, GBTU Lucknow
Prof. S.K. Kak
Vice Chancellor, MMTU, Noida
Patron
Dr. Anil Singh
Chairman, BGI
Dr. Asha Singh
Vice-Chairperson
Advisory Committee
Prof. S.K. Koul (Fellow, IEEE)
Depty Director, IIT Delhi, Cordinator IEEE, Region-10
Prof. Bhim Singh (Fellow IEEE)
Dean PG, IIT Delhi
Prof. S.N. Singh
Chairman IEEE UP Section, IIT Kanpur
Prof. Fire Tom, Wada
Chief Scientist, Magna Design Net Inc. Japan
Dr. Gopal Chandra Manna
Sr. GM BSNL India
Prof. Pasi Liljeberg
University of Turku, Finland
Prof. Dharmendra Saraswat (Fellow IEEE)
University of California U.S.A
Prof. Madukar Chandra
Dean, Chemnitz University of Technology, Germany
Prof. Narendra S. Chaudhary
Dean, IIT Indor
Prof. D.S. Pundir
Director, KEC Dwarahat
Prof. V.K. Sharma
V.C Bhagwant University Ajmer
Prof. S.P. Singh
IIT Roorkee
Prof. Bhaskar Gupta
Jadavpur University Kolkata
Prof S.P. Koushik
Pro. V.C. KN Modi University, Rajasthan
 Committees

Organizing Committee
Prof. Harish Kumar Conference Chair
Prof. H.P. Singh Principal
Dr. Ajay Gupta Asst. Director
Mr. D.V. Singh Dy Registrar
C.A. Dushayant Kumar Account & Finance Officer

Organizing Committee Member

Er. Pushpneel Verma Asst. Prof. & Head-CSE
Mr. Raghav Mehra Assoc. Professor, MCA
Er. Vibhor Bhardwaj Asst. Professor ECE Deptt.
Er. Abhijeet Kumar Asst. Professor ECE Deptt.

Registration Committee Transport & Accommodation

Er. Mohit Rajput Er. Abhijeet Kumar
Er. Amita Thakur Er. Abhishek Saini
Er. Mayank Tripathi Mr. Parag Arora
Er. Aanchal Agarwal
Media Committee
Finance Committee Mr. Ujjal Tonk
Mr. Manish Kumar
Mr. Vivek Kumar Technical Support Committee
Mr. Naveen Dhaka
Reception Committee Mr. Neeraj Sharma
Er. Mohit Kumar Mr. Parag Arora
Mrs. Shivani Chauhan
Er. Amita Thakur Anchoring Commitee
Ms. Savita Gupta
Food Committee Mr. Raghav Mehra
Er. V.N. Pandey
Er. Prem Shankar Momento Presentation Committee
Mr. Ravindra Kumar Ms. Jyoti Garg
Ms. Rashmita Niyak
Seating Arrangement Committee
Er. Ankur Bhardwaj Civil and Interior Committee
Mr. Ravindar Kumar Mr. J.M. Thakral
Er. Neeraj Sharma Er. Rakesh Shahi

Welcome Committee & Decoration

Mrs. Shivani Chauhan
Er. Aparna Singh
Mr. Puneet

ix
Committees

Volunteers
Vivek Garg Shalni Gupta
Diksha Mehlotra Vandana
Meghna Khanna Richa
Pranjal Rastogi Rida Batul
Parnav Chaudhary Shakti Singh
Ruchi Priya Subhash Chandra
Supriya Bharti Bhanu Singh Rathore
Ratna Priya Kanchan Diksha Verma
Chaturanan Pathak Arvind Verma
Kundan Kumar Nitin Chauhan
Arun Bhardwaj Mudita Sharma
Shiv Pratap Tanya Agarwal
Vidit Mishra Shaurabh Singh Chauhan
Shivani Rajput

Technical Committee
Prof. Dharmendra Singh IIT Roorkee
Prof. D.R. Bhaskar Jamia Millia University, Delhi
Prof. M.N. Doja Jamia Millia University, Delhi
Dr. Rajeev Kumar Kanth University of Turku, Finland
Prof. Akshay Kumar Rathor National Uinversity Singapore
Dr Manoj Datta GIFU University, Japan
Prof. A.P. Mittal NSIT Delhi
Prof. Avdhesh Sharma IIT Jodhapur
Prof. Dilip D. Choudhary Pune University
Prof. Sarvjeet Singh NIT Jalandhar
Prof. B.K. Koushik NIT Kurukhetra
Dr. Vishal Verma Delhi Tech. University
Prof. M.C. Govil Government Engineering College Ajmer India
Prof. Y.K. Vijay Rajasthan University Jaipur
Prof. P.K. Pauras Agra University
Dr. Dhananjay Singh National Institute for mathematical Sceince, Korea
Prof. Deepashri Pune University
Mr. Vikas Chola Taxas Instrument India
Prof Kriti Matur DAU Indor
Dr. Kuldeep Sharma BARC Mumbai
Prof. D.K.P. Singh Accurate Institute of Technology, Gr. Noida
Prof. J.K. Dwivedi HBTI Kanpur
Prof. Monaj Shukla HBTI Kanpur
Prof. Saurabh Raina JP University, Noida
Prof. K.M. Soni Amity University Noida
Prof. GK Singh, Galgotias University, India
Prof. Prasant Johri Galgotias University, India
Prof. K.K. Paliwal, NC College Panipat, India
Prof. Rajeev Tiwari HCST Mathura
Dr. Madur Deo Upadhayay IIT Delhi
Dr. Rabins Porwal ITS Ghaziabad
Prof. Ravi Kumar KVG Engineering College Manglore
Dr. Rajeev Singh Bhagwant University, Ajmer

x
TUTORIAL TRACK
 Intelligent System Applications in Solving
Engineering Problems
Abstract—Due to increased complexity of the systems,
cost reduction and detail modeling of the systems, the
requirements of optimization have been increased. The
conventional methods, which guarantee to provide the
optimal solution, fail to solve many practical problems due
to intensive requirements of these methods. The most
familiar conventional optimization techniques fall in two
categories viz. calculus based method and enumerative
schemes. Though well developed, these techniques possess
significant drawbacks. Calculus based optimization
generally relies on continuity assumptions and existence of
derivatives. Enumerative techniques rely on special
convergence properties and auxiliary function evaluation.
Moreover, these optimizations are generally single path
search and stuck with the local optima.
Intelligent based optimization methods such as
genetic algorithm (GA), particle warm optimization
(PSO), bacteria foraging, ant colony, neural networks etc
are multi-path search and provide solution near to global
optima. This presentation briefly covers some of the
important techniques of optimization along with scope and
future challenges.
ABOUT SPEAKER
Prof. S.N. Singh obtained his M.
Tech. and Ph. D. in Electrical
Engineering from Indian Institute of
Technology Kanpur, in 1989 and
1995, respectively. Presently, he is a
Professor in the Department of
Electrical Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Kanpur, India.
Before joining IIT Kanpur as
Associate Professor, Dr. Singh worked with UP State
Electricity Board as Assistant Engineer from 1988 to
1996, with Rookree University (Now IIT Rookree) as
Assistant Professor from 1996 to 2001 and with Asian
Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand as Assistant
Professor from 2001 to 2002. Dr Singh received several
awards including Young Engineer Award 2000 of
Indian National Academy of Engineering, Khosla
Research Award of IIT Roorkee, and Young Engineer
Award of CBIP New Delhi (India), 1996. Prof Singh is
receipt of Humboldt Fellowship of Germany (2005,
2007) and Otto-monsted Fellowship of Denmark
(2009-10).
His research interests include power system
restructuring, FACTS, power system optimization &
control, power quality, wind power, etc. Prof Singh is a
Fellow of Institution of Electronics and
Telecommunication Engineers (IETE) India, a Senior
Member of IEEE, USA, a Fellow of the Institution of
Engineering & Technology (UK) and a Fellow of the
Institution of Engineers (India).
Prof Singh has published more than 330 papers in
International/national journals/conferences. He has also
written two books one on Electric Power Generation,
Transmission and Distribution and second is Basic
Electrical Engineering, published by PHI, India.
Prof Singh is Chairman, IEEE UP Section and
Chairman, IEEE PES/IAS joint Chapter of IEEE UP
Section. He is member, Board of Governors, IIT
Kanpur, MMMEC Gorakhpur and KNIT Sultanpur. He
is also senate member of MNNIT Allahabad, MANIT
Bhopal and IIT Mandi.
 Evaluating Sustainability, Environmental
Assessment and Toxic Emissions during
Manufacturing Process of RFID based Systems
Harish Kumar
Professor & Dean Academics,
Bhagwant Group of Institutions, Muzaffarnagar, India

Abstract—The present state of the art research in the
direction of embedded systems demonstrate that analysis
of life-cycle, sustainability and environmental assessment
have not been a core focus for researchers. To maximize a
researcher’s contribution in formulating environmentally
friendly products, devising green manufacturing processes
and services, there is a strong need to enhance life-cycle
awareness and sustainability understandings among
embedded systems researchers, so that the next generation
of engineers will be able to realize the goal of a sustainable
life-cycle. In this work an attempt has been made to
investigate and evaluate the life-cycle management and
environmental assessment in fabricating processes of the
RFID based systems. We have chosen a general life cycle
assessment approach which involves the collection and
evaluation of quantitative data on the inputs and outputs
of materials and energy associated with the RFID based
systems. Based on the developed generic models, we have
obtained the results in terms of environmental emissions
for a production of paper substrate printed RFID
antennas. We also make an attempt to raise several
sustainability issues and quantify the toxic emissions
during the manufacturing process.
Mobile Communication Network Architecture
Dr. G.C. Manna and S. Chandran
Sr GM BSNL
BSNL, India

Abstract—A Communication Network consists of
three building blocks: (1) Access Network- A sender
(and a receiver) network (2) Core Network-A complex
switching matrix to connect the sender to receiver and
(3) Transmission Network-the interconnection among
several switches from sender end switch to receiver end
switch. The success story of mobile communication is
based on revolution in VLSI technology together with
embedded software support which has made all the
equipments intelligent and service aggressive.
The information hungry world has lead telecom
equipment manufacturers to develop fabulous service
delivery platform to meet various type of customer
needs. Thus, to provide instant services to the users,
Communication network is now grossly dependent upon
efficient signalling system for quick exchange of
information among equipments before sending them
alert messages. Further, Communication service is now
transforming into a new business through deployment of
cognitive radio technology and spectrum bidding
concept.
The tutorial discusses the basics of radio access
technologies deployed by mobile network operators viz.
GSM, CDMA and WiMAX and the user network access
equipment i.e. mobile handset and data card. To
understand connectivity between the end users, the
functions of different core network equipments , their
interconnection and signalling information exchange is
explained step by step . A glimpse of future generation
cognitive radio network is of interest to researchers to
formulate their thesis work.
 Contents
Messages vi
Committees viii
Tutorial Track xi

TRACK I ANTENNA DESIGN FOR COGNITIVE RADIO APPLICATIONS

1. Design of Sierpinski Grid Patch Antenna for Multiband Application and
Sustainability Analysis in its Manufacturing Process
Rajeev Kumar Kanth, Pasi Liljeberg, Hannu Tenhuen, Qiang Chen, Axel Janstch,
Lirong Zheng, Harish Kumar, Leena Varshney and Vibha Rani 3
2. Band Reconfigurable Antenna
Satish Gupta, Mithilesh Kumar and Upadhayay M.D. 7
3. A Multi Band Switchable Circularly Polarized Slotted Microstrip Patch Antenna
Ajit Yadav, Shweta Gautam and Mithilesh Kumar 11
4. Probe Feed and Aperture Feed Microstrip Antenna for WLAN Application
Bharat Rochani, Prashant Singodiya, Monika Agrawal and Abhimanyu Joshi 15
5. Broadband and High Gain Microstrip Patch Antenna for WLAN
Arun Kumar, Arjun Singh and Prabhat Sharma 19
6. A Compact Microstrip Patch Antenna for UWB Applications
Abhijeet Dasgupta 23
7. Design and Development of Band Pass Filter at 94 GHz
Sanjeev Kumar Shah, Vinay Negi, Sandeep Singh and Saurabh Tomar 26
8. A Compact Microstrip Slot Patch Antenna for Ku-band Applications
Aijaz Ahmed 29
9. A Reconfigurable Multiband Square Patch Antenna
Shweta Gautam, Ajit Yadav and Mithilesh Kumar 33
10. UWB Antenna with Dual Stop Band Notch for Wireless Communication
Moh. Atif Sarif, Harish Kumar, Meenakshi Arya and Amita Thakur 37
11. Microstrip Low Pass Filter using Double Dumbell Shaped Defected Ground
Structure
Abhiruchi Nagpal and P.K. Singhal 40
12. Broadband E-H Shaped Microstrip Patch Antenna for Wireless System
Khushboo Naruka and Ritika Tiwari 43
13. Gain Enhancement in Microstrip Patch Antenna using Edge Modification of
Patch and Partial Substrate Removal
Rajeev Kumar, Devaki Nandan Yadav and Lakhivinder Singh Solanki 46
14. Dual Band Circle with Rectangular Segment Fractal Antenna
Vimlesh Verma and P.K. Singhal 49
15. Study of Wideband Semi Circular Micro Strip Patch Antenna
Sunita Virmani 53
16. Multi Band Fractal Antenna for Wireless Application
Vimlesh Verma and P.K. Singhal 57
17. Novel Design of Improved Bandwidth Fractal Antenna
Ravindra Prakash Gupta, Vimlesh Verma, Priyanka Bansal, Ruchi Modi and P.K. Singhal 60
18. Design of Multiband and Wideband Sierpinski Fractal Antenna
Abhishek Saini, Vibhor Bhardwaj, Hanny Kumar and Abhijeet Kumar 64

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 xvii

Contents

19. Analysis and Design of a Microstrip Patch Antenna with Circular Polarization
Ravindra Prakash Gupta, Yogesh Mehta, Surbhi Sharma and Virendra Kumar Sharma 66
TRACK II EMERGING TECHNOLOGY TRENDS
20. Impacts & Compensation of Distributed Generation using Smart Grid
Technology
Manoj Kumar Nigam and A. Krishna Nag 71
21. Precariousness in Technology Via Web Crime and Statically Crimes in the World
Ajay B. Gadicha 75
22. Performance Improvement of MOSFET with High-K Dielectric Materials
S.L. Tripathi, Priti Gupta and R.A. Mishra 79
23. A Review Paper on Single Electron Transistor and its Applications
Nitin Shera and Anil Kumar 82
24. Protection of Embedded Software from Side Channel Attacks using Virtual
Secure Circuit
H.K. Yasar Tharik and N. Neelima 85
25. On Capturing Exceptions in Workflow Models for Flexible Processes
Shivani Chauhan and Punit Agarwal 90
26. Analysis of Characteristics of Magnetic Resonant Coupling in Wireless Power
Transfer
Divya Vaishnav and Ritesh Diwan 96
27. Stepped Impedance Micro-strip Line Low Pass Filter for Microwave L-Band
Amit Kumar, Pradeep Rana, Subodh Kumar Tripathi and Manish Singh 100
28. A Simple Design of a Narrow Band TM-mode Filter using 1D Dielectric Photonic
Crystal
Deepti Jain, K.D. Jindal, Kh. S. Singh, Vipin Kumar and Sanjeev Sharma 103
29. Nanorobotics
K.B. Mohd. Umar Ansari and Goldy Sharma 106
30. Digital Image Watermarking
Ravindra Kumar 110
31. Wireless Sensor Network for Landslide Detection
Manish Kumar, Mayank Tripathi, Mohit Kumar and Anand Tiwari 113
32. A Tutorial Overview on the DGS to Design Microwave Devices
Vikash Kumar and Sanjay Gurjar 119
33. Study of Improved Technique of Bridging Fault Simulation
Diksha Verma 123
34. Survey on 4G Technology and its Applications
Khaleel Ahmad, Ankur Bhardwaj and Ashutosh Kumar 126
35. A Study of Compact Muon Solenoid
Avinash Kumar 130
36. Fabrication & Characterization of Graphite/ Epoxy Composites
Meenakshi Arya, Harish Kumar, M.G.H. Zaidi and Alkesh Chauhan 136
TRACK III SIGNAL PROCESSING AND PATTERN RECOGNITION
37. Signal Generation by Direct Digital Synthesis for Testing Fast Response System
for Eddy Current Flowmeter
Poornapushpakala S., Gomathy C., Sylvia J.I. and Babu B. 141

xviii ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Contents

38. Harbinger Irregularities into AdaBoost for Concentrated Realization on Noisy

Data
Arjun Arora, Suneet Kumar, Ankit Choudhary and Rashi Malhotra 146
39. A Video Indexing System
Meghendra Singh 149
40. VHDL Implementation of Data Compression Techniques based on Statistical
Code
Soumya Singh and Neeraj Jain 154
TRACK IV NETWORK AND COMMUNICATION
41. Prediction of Mobile User behavior using Clustering
Sandhya Avasthi and Avinash Dwivedi 161
42. A Study of Security Modes and Threats in Bluetooth Devices
Rani Kumari and Saurabh Singh 167
43. Study of Wireless Traffic Positioning System
Sanjeev Kumar and Akshansh Bhardwaj 172
44. Botnet Forensics: Survey and Research Challenges
Meenakshi Thapliyal, Neha Garg and Anchit Bijalwan 176
45. Study on TCP Congestion Control Mechanism in Wireless Network
Himanshu Chanyal, Hardwari Lal Mandoria and Pranavi Tayal 184
46. Detecting Network Intrusion using Apriori Algo based on Data Mining
Kanika Malik 188
47. AL-FEC Raptor Code Implementation Over 3GPP eMBMS Network
Avani Pandya and Sameer Trapasiya 191
48. A Routing Protocol MDVZRP for Mobile Ad-hoc Netwok
Sanjeev Kumar and Shantanu Chauhan 198
49. A Survey on Botnet Size Measurement
Shivani Pant, Akanksha Bisaria and Ramesh Rawat 203
50. Flooding Algorithm Based Resource Discovery on Virtual Organization
Shikha Goyal 210
51. Cluster based Routing Protocol to Prolong Network Lifetime in Heterogeneous
Wireless Sensor Network
Vandana Mishra, Rohinee Rai, Riddhi Gupta and Rudresh 214
52. Autonomic Communication—A New Wave
Navdeep Kaur 221
53. Test Data Generation and Adequacy Criteria
Raghav Mehra, Punit Agarwal and Rabins Porwal 225
54. Performance Comparison of Duobinary and Binary NRZ Modulation Formats
for 60 km Fiber Length
Navpreet Singh and M.L. Singh 231
55. A Survey on Botnet Detection
Divya Bhatt, Neha Garg and Ramesh Rawat 234
56. Intrusion Detection Scheme for Wireless Ad-hoc Networks: A Study
Sanjeev Kumar and Nitin Verma 240
57. Protocol Independent Multicast-Sparse and Dense Modes in Wireless Sensor
Network
Nikhil Ranjan and Garima Krishna 245

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ xix

Contents

58. Simulation in Wireless Sensor Network: A Review

Pranavi tayal, Hardwari Lal Mandoria and Himanshu Chanyal 249
59. A Study on Energy Efficient Data Collection Approaches in Wireless Sensor
Network
Pranavi Tayal, Hardwari Lal Mandoria and Renu Bahuguna 255
60. Centric Model Assessment for Collaborative Data Mining
Suneet Kumar, Arjunarora, Sanjiv Kumar and Shobhit Agarwal 260
61. Communication System and Network Security
K.B. Mohd, Umar Ansari and Goldy Sharma 265
62. Benefits of Hybrid Hosting over Conventional Hosting
Azeem Haider Amrohi and Ashwani Kumar 270
63. Tailoring RUP Use—Cases and Scope to Three Case Studies
Kirti Mathur, Harish Kumar and Ashwini Mathur 274
TRACK V ENERGY AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
64. Study of Power Control of Doubly Fed Induction Generator for Wind Power
Stations
Jayati Vaish and Ravneet Kaur 281
65. India and Smart Grid
Anil Kumar Pathak 286
66. Solar Mission in India (Scope and Challenges)
Saurabh Kumar Bajpai and Mohit Kumar Pandey 292
67. Future of Automobile Design and Materials
Ravindra Kumar Malviya and Dharmendra Dubey 295
68. Wind Energy Conversion System
Goldy Sharma, K.B. Mohd, Umar Ansari and Satyendra Vishwakarma 298
69. FACTS Devices in Distributed Generation
K.B. Mohd, Umar Ansari, Goldy Sharma and Satyendra Vishwakarma 302
70. Move on Clap on
Priti Verma, Kanika Goyal and Richa Gupta 307
71. Wireless Heart Beat Monitoring System
Priyanka Barthwal, Achhar Kanta and Richa Gupta 310
72. Reactive Power Control using Static-Compensator (STATCOM)
Amit Kumar, Jai Prakash, Kishan Kumar and Raghvendra Singh 313
73. Study of Retrieval Method based on Query by Image Content
Vibhor Kumar Bhardwaj, Amita Thakur, Abhijeet Kumar and Aanchal Agarwal 317
74. Study of Millimeter-wave Performance based on Gummel Blue Approach
Ankit Goel and Aanchal Goel 321
TRACK VI ABSTRACTS
75. Role of Dialog Technique in Philosophy for Children in India
Neetu Singh Dhidonia 327
76. Applying Genetic Algorithm to Analyze the Efficiency of Data Flow Testing
Rabins Porwal 328
AUTHOR INDEX 329

xx ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

TRACK I
ANTENNA DESIGN FOR COGNITIVE RADIO APPLICATIONS

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 3
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Design of Sierpinski Grid Patch Antenna

for Multiband Application and Sustainability
Analysis in its Manufacturing Process
Rajeev Kumar Kanth1, Pasi Liljeberg2, Hannu Tenhuen3, Qiang Chen4,
Axel Janstch5, Lirong Zheng6, Harish Kumar7, Leena Varshney8 and Vibha Rani9
1,2,3
Turku Centre for Computer Science, University of Turku, Joukahaisenkatu, 3-5 B, Turku Finland
4,5,6
School of Communication and Technology, Royal Institute of Technology, KTH Kista, Sweden
7
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, UP, India
8,9
Birla Institute of Technology, Ranchi, India
e-mail: rajkan@utu.fi, 2pakrli@utu.fi, 3hannu@kth.se, 4qiangch@kth.se, 5axel@kth.se,
1
6
lirong@kth.se, 7hc78@rediffmail.com, 8leena.bit@gmail.com

Abstract—The purpose of this paper is two-fold.
Firstly, we have attempted to design a planar Sierpinski
fractal antenna in stacked configuration for multiband
application. The stacked configuration of Sierpinski
fractal patch and Sierpinski grid areemployed to improve
the multiband characteristics. The operating frequencies
obtained are at 3.3 GHz, 5 GHz, 5.74 GHz and 5.9 GHz
which covers the bands useful for HIPERLAN2
frequencies and for implementation in futuristic WiFi
enabled devices and PCI Cards for mobile internet. The
Simulated results show that the operating frequencies
obtained are spread over a wide range of frequency band
compared to the simple Sierpinski fractal patch antenna.
Secondly this paper aims at evaluating the sustainability
and life cycle management of proposed antenna.
Keywords: Sierpinski fractal antenna, Sierpinski grid
patch, multiband antenna, stacked configuration,
Sustainability Analysis, Life Cycle Assessment
I. INTRODUCTION
The rapid progress in telecommunication
technology deals with a great variety of communication
systems like cellular, global positioning, and satellite
communication systems. Each of these systems
operates at several frequency bands employing a
number of small to large antennas depending upon the
choices of applications. Printed antenna offers an
excellent performance in a wide variety of wireless
communication applications. The recent trends
establish evidence that production of antennas for
different applications are growing rapidly. Moreover,
due to low weight, low profile and low cost production
of patch and fractal structures, these antennas are
becoming more popular in wireless and
telecommunication industries. Various multiband
designs employing parasitic patches or shorting pins
have been proposed to date [1-2]. However, these
techniques usually lead to an increase in antenna size or
manufacturing cost. This has
initiated antenna research in various directions, one of
which is by using fractal shaped antenna elements.
Fractal geometries have two common properties,
space-filling and self-similarity. The self-similarity
properties of certain fractals result in a multi-band
behavior [3-6], while the spacefilling properties of
fractals make possible to reduce antenna size [7].
Fractal objects have self-similar shapes, which mean
that some of their parts have the same shape as the
whole object but at a different scale. In this paper the
Sierpinski patch antenna has been considered for the
investigation.
The Sierpinski gasket is named after the Polish
mathematician Sierpinski who described some of the
main properties of this fractal shape in 1916 [8]. The
original gasket is constructed by subtracting a central
inverted triangle from a main triangle shape as shown
in Fig. 1. After the subtraction, three equal triangles
remain on the structure, each one being half of the size
of the original one. This is the first iteration of the
Sierpinski fractal generation. One can iterate the same
subtraction procedure on the remaining triangles and if
the iteration is carried out an infinite number of times,
the ideal fractal Sierpinski gasket is obtained. In such
an ideal structure, each one of its three main parts is
exactly equal to the whole object, but scaled by a factor
of two and so is each of the three gaskets that compose
any of those parts. Due to this particular similarity
property, shared with many other fractal shapes, it is
said that the Sierpinski gasket is a self-similar [9-10].
The following sections have been included in this
paper. The next two sections describe the antenna
design criteria and the results obtained respectively.
Section IV deals with sustainability model and explores
environmental impacts assessment. Section V would
give a conclusion of our work.

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 3
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
Original Triangle 1st Iteration 2nd Iteration
(Stage 1) (Stage 2) (Stage 3)
Fig. 1: Sierpinski Fractal Generation up to 2nd Iteration
Fig. 2: Sierpinski Grid Patch Antenna in Stacked Confitguration
(a) Top View and (b) 3-D View
II. ANTENNA DESIGN
In this paper, only up to the second stage of the
Sierpinski gasket is considered. For the first stage,
which is a simple triangular patch with the length of
each side 32mm is placed on a substrate of thickness
1.6 mm and permittivity 4.4 is considered. Location of
the coax feed placed on the patch is-3, 20.5 (xf, yf) from
the centre of the patch’s base (offset). Resonant
frequencies obtained were 5.07 and 5.72 GHz. The
second stage of the Sierpinski gasket (1st iteration) is
then obtained using the Sierpinski gasket design
method described above. With this configuration the
resonant frequencies obtained were at 5.51 and 5.62
GHz. But in this case too the operating frequencies
were only two with the slight frequency shift. In the
next step a grid with the width of 1.0 mm is formed,
whose dimensions are same as that of the second stage
of the Sierpinski gasket. This Grid is constructed on a
foam substrate of thickness 1.6 mm and permittivity
1.06 and is placed over the previous structure. This way
a stacked configuration is obtained in which the lower
structure is Sierpinski gasket on FR4 where as the
upper structure is grid on a foam of thickness 1.6 mm.
The lower patch is coaxially fed. This final
configuration of the antenna is shown in the Fig. 2.
With this configuration the operating frequency
obtained are 3.3 GHz, 5 GHz, 5.75 GHz and 5.9 GHz,
which are widely spreaded over the frequency band.
III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Return loss characteristics of three structures are
shown in the Fig. 3. It is evident from the figure that
4 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
within the range of 6 GHz. only two operating
frequencies were obtained with the simple triangular
patch and the Sierpinski fractal patch (1st iteration).
With the Sierpinski fractal patch (1st iteration) resonant
frequencies were at 5.51 and 5.62 GHz and give rise to
a wide band antenna whose return loss is less than-10
dB from 5.49 GHz to 5.67 GHz. The third
configuration in which Sierpinski fractal patch and
Sierpinski grid were considered in the stack
configuration, with Sierpinski fractal patch as probe fed
and Sierpinski grid as parasitic patch, the resonant
frequency obtained are four, which are at 3.3 GHz, 5
GHz, 5.75 GHz and 5.9 GHz. Characteristics related to
these frequencies are tabulated in the Table 1. The gain
of this novel antenna is within the desired frequency is
always more than 5.5 dBi. The simulated radiation
pattern in E and H plane at four frequencies 3.3 GHz, 5
GHz, 5.75 GHz and 5.9 GHz are shown in the Fig. 4
The radiation pattern characteristics at all the
frequencies are almost same. At frequency 5.9 GHz the
gain is slightly reduced but is still greater than 5 dBi.
Fig. 3: Comparison of Return Loss Characteristic of Three Structures
IV. SUSTAINABILITY ANALYSIS
This section provides an overview of sustainability
and environmental impacts assessment [11-15] in
production process of sierpinski structure based
microstrip printed antennas. The model for this antenna
has been made using Gabi 5.0 environmental
assessment tool. In this work, we have considered two
stages of printed antenna and they are: production stage
and end-of-life stage. The model in question has been
depicted in Fig. 5. The numerical analysis of
environmental emissions in these stages employed
several materials the printed antenna has been
composed of. Substrate, antenna trace material (may be
copper, silver ink, or aluminum) and the associated
energy have been taken into consideration as vital
components as they cause more environmental impacts.
The recent trends of using conductive inks for tracing
the antenna pattern are gradually turning toward low
cost available printing material such as copper though
this element has several limitations for example
 Design of Sierpinski Grid Patch Antenna for Multiband Application and Sustainability Analysis in its Manufacturing Process

poisoning the circuits, copper oxidation, and high

temperature annealing process. The higher demand of
silver conductive ink for tracing massive production of
UHF antennas and billions of RFID tags caused
shortage of silver nano and hence manufacturers are
thinking of using improved performance of copper
nano inks. In this work inkjet printing technology has
been employed to trace the required sierpinski fractal
pattern. Our previous work [16]-[20] presents the
environmental impacts in different antenna systems.
The mass of FR4( flame retardant epoxy material),
copper antenna trace and the manufacturing energy
have been estimated on the basis of antenna structure
and its sierpinski fractal layout. Using Gabi 5.0 tool,
the model has been developed that comprises of mass
of copper and epoxy are respectively 3nanogram and Fig. 4(c): E and H plane Radiation Pattern of Sierpinski Grid Patch
5gm. Antenna in Stacked Configuration at 5.75 GHz

Fig. 4(d): E and H plane Radiation Pattern of Sierpinski Grid Patch

Antenna in Stacked Configuration at 5.9 GHz
Fig. 4(a): E and H plane Radiation Pattern of Sierpinski Grid Patch TABLE I: RETURN LOSS, VSWR AND GAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF
Antenna in Stacked Configuration at 3.3 GHz SIERPINSKI GRID PATCH ANTENNA IN STACKED CONFIGURATION
S. Frequency Return Loss VSWR (2:1) Gain
No. (dB) Bandwidth (MHz) (dBi)
1 3.3 GHz -24.8 100 6.37
2 5 GHz -11.6 70 6.47
3 5.75 GHz -15.3 120 6.18
4 5.9 GHz -15.9 50 5.6

Fig. 5: Model and Mass of the Antenna Materials

The inkjet printing methodology consumes 90Joule

of energy for tracing one pattern. The equivalent
Fig. 4(b): E and H plane Radiation Pattern of Sierpinski Grid Patch environmental emissions during the manufacturing
Antenna in Stacked Configuration at 5 GHz process have been depicted in Figure 6. The relative

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 5

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
contribution shows that the impact on emissions to
fresh water is larger than emissions to air and sea
water.
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we have attempted to give an
overview of designing a fractal patch antenna in
stacked configuration as well as environmental impacts
during its manufacturing process. The proposed
antenna is designed in which a second stage of the
Sierpinski gasket (1st iteration) is used as a the lower
patch and fed with coaxial probe, where as the
Sierpinski grid has been used as the upper parasitic
patch. This antennas has four operating frequency 3.3
GHz, 5 GHz, 5.75 GHz and 5.9 GHz. The major
applications of these antennas fall within area of
HIPERLAN2, WiFi enabled devices and PCI Cards for
mobile internet. We have also explored the
environmental impacts in manufacturing process of this
sierpinski type multiband printed microstrip antenna.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge iPack Vinn Excellence
Centre, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) for
supporting the necessary tools and equipments to carry
out these investigations. We would like to thank Turku
Centre for Computer Science for assisting the financial
support.
Fig. 6: Environmental Emissions during Manufacturing
of Sierpinski Multiband Antenna
REFERENCES
[1] J.R. James and P. S. Hall, Handbook of Microstrip Antennas.
London, U.K.: Peter Peregrinus, vol. 1, 1989.
[2] Kumar H, Upadhayay MD, Rai VK, Varsheney Leena, Kanth RK,
“Multiband planar mircostrip antenna,” proceeding of the IEEE
International conference on antenna & propagation in wireless
communication, Sept. 16-20,2011, vol. 2, 978-1-4577-0048-
4/11//$26.00 ©2011 IEEE, pp 1360-1363
[3] S.R. Best, “On the Significance of Self-Similar Fractal Geometry in
Determining the Multiband Behavior of the Sierpinski Gasket
Antenna,” IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters, vol.1,
no. 1, pp.22-25, 2002.
[4] C. Puente, J. Ponmeu, R. Pous and A. Cardama, “On the behavior of
the Sierpinski Multiband Antenna,” IEEE Transactions on Antennas
and Propagation, vol. 46, no. 4, pp.517-524, April 1998.
[5] Junho Yeo and Raj Mittra, “Design of Conformal Multiband
Antennas Based on Fractal Concepts”, Microwave and Optical
Technology Letters, vol. 36, No. 5, 333-338, 2003.
6 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
[6] Tripti Luintel and Parveen F. Wahid, “Modified Sierpinski Fractal
Antenna”, IEEE/ACES International Conference on Wireless
Communications and Applied Computational Electromagnetics, 3-7
April 2005, 578-581
[7] B. N. Biswas, Rowdra Ghatak, Rabindra K. Mishra, and Dipak R.
Poddar, “Characterization of a Self-complementary Sierpinski
Gasket Microstrip Antenna”, PIERS ONLINE, vol. 2, no. 6, pp.
698-701, 2006.
[8] R. K. Kanth, W. Ahmad, S. Shakya, P, Liljeberg, L.-R. Zheng,
HTenhunen “Autonomous use of fractal in structure low cost,
multiband and compact navigation antenna in proceeding of MMS,
aug.2010, Cyprus pp 135-138
[9] H. Kumar, Rajeev Kumar Kanth, P. Liljeberg, and H
Tenhunen,“Metamaterial based slotted patch antenna,” in
Proceedings of the IEEE 10th International Conference on
Telecommunication in modern satellite Cable and Broadcasting
Services, vol. 2, pp. 536–539, 2011
[10] C. Puente, “Fractal antennas,” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. Signal
Theory Communicat., Universitat Polit´ecnica de Catalunya, June
1997.
[11] X. Wang, G. Gaustad, Golisano Institute of Sustainability, RIT,
Prioritizing Material Recovery for End-of-Life Printed Circuit
Boards,Proceedings of 2011 International Symposium on
Sustainable Systems and Technology (ISSST)2011
[12] Maruschke J., Rosemann B., Measuring environmental performance
in the early phase of product design using life cycle assessment,
Environmentally Conscious Design and Inverse Manufacturing,
2005. pp 248-249
[13] V. Pekkanen, M. Mntysalo and P. Mansikkamki, Design
considerations for inkjet printed electronic interconnections and
packaging, Proceedings of the Imaps 40th International Symposium
on Microelectronics. California (USA) (2007), pp. 1076-1083
[14] H. Griese, L. Stobbe, A. Middendorf and H. Reichl, Environmental
compatibility of electronics-a key towards local and global
sustainable development, Proceedings of 2004 international IEEE
conference on the Asian green electronics (2004), pp. 158-163.
[15] Chelsea Bailey, Callie babbitt, and Gabrielle Gaustad, Rochester
Institute of Technology, Tracking the Material, Energy, and value
flow for end-of-life lithium ion Batteries in the USProceedings of
2011 International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and
Technology (ISSST)2011
[16] Rajeev Kumar Kanth, Pasi Liljeberg, Hannu Tenhunen, Wan
Qiansu, Yasar Amin, Botao Shao, Qiang Chen, Lirong Zheng,
Harish Kumar, Evaluating Sustainability, Environmental
Assessment and Toxic Emissions during Manufacturing Process of
RFID Based Systems. In: Jinjun Chen (Ed.), 2011 IEEE Ninth
International Conference on Dependable, Autonomic and Secure
Computing (DASC),, 1066-1071, DOI: 10.1109/DASC.2011.175
IEEE Computer Society, 2012.
[17] Rajeev Kumar Kanth, Pasi Liljeberg, Yasar Amin, Qiang Chen,
Lirong Zheng, Hannu Tenhunen, Comparative End-of-Life Study of
Polymer and Paper Based Radio Frequency Devices. International
Journal of Environmental Protection 2(8), PP: 23–27, 2012. Online
ISSS: 2224-7777, Print ISSN:2226-6437
[18] Rajeev Kumar Kanth, Qiansu Wan, Harish Kuamr, Pasi Liljeberg,
Qiang Chen, Lirong Zheng, Hannu Tenhunen, Evaluating
Sustainability, Environment Assessment and Toxic Emissions in
Life Cycle Stages of Printed Antenna. Elsevier, Procedia
Engineering 30(1), PP: 508-513, 2012.
[19] Rajeev Kumar Kanth, Pasi Liljeberg, Hannu Tenhunen, Qiang
Chen, Lirong Zheng, Harish Kumar, Comparative Toxic Emission
Analysis in Production Process of Polymer and Paper Based RFID
Tags. In: M. Caciotta, Zbigniew Leonowicz (Eds.), 11th
International Conference on Environment and Electrical
Engineering, PP: 184–187, DOI: 10.1109/ EEEIC.2012.6221570
IEEE, 2012.
[20] Rajeev Kumar Kanth, Pasi Liljeberg, Hannu Tenhunen, Qiang
Chen, Lirong Zheng, Haris Kumar, Study on Glass Epoxy Based
Low Cost and Compact Tip-Truncated Triangular Printed Antenna .
International Journal of Antennas and Propagation 2012
(2012)(184537), PP: 1–8, 2012. Hindawi Publication,
DOI:10.1155/2012/184537.
 Procee
edings of Nation
nal Conference on Trends in Siignal Processing & Communica
ation (TSPC’13)), 12th–14th April 2013

B
Band R nfiguraable Antenn
Recon A na
Satish Guupta1, Mithileesh Kumar1 and Upadhayyay M.D.2
1
U, Kota, 2Delhii, India
RTU,

Abstract—This papeer present thee idea of a simple • Carrier grade soluutions for hot zone
frequency reconfigurabble antenna that operatees at deploymeents
multiband 5.01GHz, 7.2G
GHz and wide band from 4.33 GHz
to 7.1 GHHz in this papper. By switch hing the diodde for • Indoor annd outdoor environments
microstrip elements on n the antenn na, the operrating 4.5 GHz for Body Area Network as describe in
frequency will shift witth fixed radiaation patterns.. The IEEE
E 802.15 TG66.
simulated return loss and
a surface current
c resultts are 6.5 & 6.7 GHz
G for Low
w power wireeless sensor
nd shown for both
provided an b cases. netw
work.
nt; formatting; style; styling; insert
Keywords: componen
(key words) II. ANTEN
NNA STRUCTU
URE AND DESIG
GN

I. INTRODUCTION
N The antenna structure andd dimension parameters
are shown
s in Fig.. 1. A 0.3 mm m gap is placced between
Recenntly, reconfiguurable antennaa has gained a lot the element
e and U shape parasiitic element; 0.50 mmx0.5
of attention in the anteenna design for f multi-funcction- mm microstrip connecting
c eelements which can be
oriented wireless
w commmunication appplications succh as regarrded as ideal switches, are placed on the t gap for
Software Defined
D Radio (SDR), Muultiple-in-Mulltiple- ideall ‘ON’ state and
a absence oof strip is useed for Ideal
out (MIM MO) and RFID tag etc.. Frequuency OFF F state. The transmission line model, is used to
reconfiguraability is one of the reconffigurable funcctions desiggn the propossed antenna att 5 GHz for thist purpose
(polarizatioon, radiation pattern, and operation
o bannd) in radiaating element strips of widdth 3.06mm, length 24.5
the reconffigurable anteenna design. At present, some mm and 29 mm with separation transmisssion line of
frequency reconfigurablle antennas haave been discuussed lengtth 7.335 mm m are designedd on FR4 (Er = 4.4) of
in earlier literatures
l [2]--[4]. Multi baand antenna caan be 1.6mmm thickness substrate.
s Thee third elemen nt has length
used for multiple
m commmunications siimultaneouslyy, but of 155.5mm with separation
s linne 7.0375mm. CPW feed
drawback of channel interferencee [1]. Frequuency hosen for widee band application. CPW ground
is ch g is of
reconfiguraability can bee achieved by varying the leength 5 mm m width and 10.75mm lenggth, CPW gap p is 1.3 mm
of radiatinng element. Foor this purposse some switcching and width
w of feed line is 4.75mmm. When all strips come
elements are used likke diode, traansistor. Diodde is into picture propposed antennaa works for wide band
preferred over
o the transsistor because it is two termminal appliication. Whenn third strip is cut off, anten
nna supports
device andd easy to biias. In this paper, p the deesign, two bands.
b
simulation of a simple s multtiband frequuency
reconfiguraable antennaa with microostrip elemennts is
discussed. It is found thatt the antennna can operaate at
multiband from 5.01GH Hz, 7.2GHz annd wide band from
4.3 GHz too 7.1 GHz annd the operatinng frequency band
can be shhifted when the elementt is connectt and
disconnectt using switchh on antenna. This antennaa can
be used in various appliccations like
5.2GHHz Wireless infrastructure:
i : WLAN, HL LAN,
DBS, broaddband, cellulaar base stationns
• Wi-Fi
W and picocell network
• Puublic wirelesss hotspots (ee.g. sports veenues,
hootels, airports,, etc.)
• 8002.11 a, b, g, n platforms
Fig. 1(aa): The Schematicc of the Antenna
• MIMO,
M widebaand and multi--band antennaa

ISBN: 978-9
93-82880-20-2 7
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

III. SIMULATED AND MEASURED RESULT

The SII, surface current and radiation patterns are
depicted in Fig. 2, Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, respectively. Fig. 2
(a) shows the antenna works around 4.3 GHz to 7.1
GHz frequency band with return loss 17.9dB when
switch is ON. When the switch is OFF, multiple
resonant frequencies appear at 5.01 GHz and 7.2 GHz
at which return loss is 14.7 and 22 dB respectively. The
surface current is very weak in OFF state, hence
assuring that the third element does not participate in
radiation. With this property the antenna can work in a
wider frequency range. On the other hand, the radiation
patterns of the antenna remain the same at 5GHz and
6GHz in ON state. While some back lobe are present at
7.2 GHz in OFF state.

Fig. 2(b): Simulation Result when Diode is in Off State

Fig. 1(b): Physical Dimension of Proposed Antenna

and Fabricated Antenna

Fig. 3: Simulation Result of Surface Current when Diode

Fig. 2(a): Simulation Result when Diode is in on State is in on State and Off State Respectively

8 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Band Reconfigurable Antenna

Fig. 4(a): Simulation Radiation Patterns at 5GHz and 6GHz when Fig. 4(b): Simulation Radiation Patterns at 5GHz and 7.2GHz when
Diode is in ON State Diode is in OFF State

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 9

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

IV. CONCLUSION
The idea of a simple microstrip patch antenna with
multiple reconfigurable frequency band 5.01GHz,
7.2GHz and wide band from 4.3 GHz to 7.1 GHz is
proposed. By connecting and disconnecting the
radiating element, shift of operating frequency of
antenna can be achieved with fixed radiation patterns.
This method provides another approach for the
frequency-reconfigurable antenna design.
[2] Nikolaou et al., "Pattern and frequency reconfigurable annular
slot antenna using PIN diodes," IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag.,
vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 439, Dec. 2006.
[3] G.H. Huff, J. Feng, S. Zhang, and J.T. Bernhard, "A novel
radiation pattern and frequency reconfigurable single tum square
spiral microstrip antenna," IEEE Microwave and Wireless
Components Letters, vol. 13, no.2, pp.57-59, 2003R. Nicole,
“Title of paper with only first word capitalized,” J. Name Stand.
Abbrev., in press.
[4] J. Zhang, A. Wang, and P. Wang, "A Survey on reconfigurable
antennas," ICMMT, vol. 3, 21-24, pp.1156-1159, 2008.

REFERENCES
[1] Upadhayay M.D. & Harish Kumar, Vikas K Rai, Leena
Varshney and Rajeev K Kanth “Multiband Planner Microstrip
Antenna” in Topical Conference on Antennas and Propagation
in wireless Communications (IEEE APWC 2011), Torino, Italy
Sept 12-16, 2011, PP.1360-1363. IEEE accession 978-1-4577-
0048-4/11J. Clerk Maxwell, A Treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism, 3rd ed., vol. 2. Oxford: Clarendon, 1892, pp.68-73.

10 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
A Multi Band Switchable Circularly Polarized
Slotted Microstrip Patch Antenna
Ajit Yadav1, Shweta Gautam2 and Mithilesh Kumar3
Electronics Department, University College of Engineering,
Rajasthan Technical University, Kota
e-mail: 1ajity2@gmail.com, 2s.ecom.og@gmail.com, 3mith_kr@yahoo.com
Abstract—The design of multi band and switchable
circularly polarized Slotted Microstrip patch antenna is
presented. The antenna is excited by Microstrip feed line.
The proposed antenna has square patch with the ring slot
in the square patch, and the circular polarization
radiation can be generated by current perturbation due to
diodes connected across the ring slot to the circular patch.
The p-i-n diodes across the ring slot alter the direction of
current path. Three p-i-n diodes simply switched the
circular polarization direction between the left handed
and right handed. Linear polarization can also achieved if
both side ways diodes are OFF and centre diode is ON.
Key parameters have been analysed on Electromagnetic
simulation software. The operating frequencies are
1.55GHz, 3.8GHz and 4.77 GHz and results obtained are
satisfactory.
Keywords: Circular polarization (CP), microstrip sloted
patch antenna, polarization switching, left hand circular
polarization (LHCP), right hand circular polarization
(RHCP)
I. INTRODUCTION
Aim of antenna design is to transmit large amount
of information to the longer distance, so the research in
wireless communication is growing toward the
reduction of antenna size and get the higher
transmission bandwidth of antenna. Many applications
require integrated multifunctional terminals [1], [2].
The concept of frequency reconfigurable and
polarization reconfigurable is developed. The pursuit of
antenna banks with compact form factors has led to
research into reconfigurable antennas with variable
bandwidth [3], radiation characteristics [4], and
polarization [5]. And for achieving the multiple bands
cascaded antennas are designed. In the cascaded
antenna large number of antennas is connected to form
a single antenna and the switching is done to get the
required frequency band. Such mobile terminals must
operate while acting as antenna banks because each
service requires a different frequency band This
structure increases the information rate but one
problem is also there that is size of antenna, to
implement large size of antenna in small devices is not
possible, so the new research is done in reducing the
size of antenna . Polarization diversity with switchable
CP is also used in order to reduce fading in wireless
local area networks (WLANs) [6], as a modulation
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
scheme in radio frequency identification (RFID)
systems [7], and to increase the security complexity in
military wireless The dual band antenna is simply
obtained by connecting the square and circular patch.
But still there is a need of higher information
transmission, for this purpose polarization switching
concept is introduced. In polarization switching large
amount of information can be transmitted through a
single feed port without interference. This is achieved
by orthogonal polarization modes that are left hand
circular polarization (LHCP) and right hand circular
polarization (RHCP). A switchable CP slot antenna
with a p-i-n diode switch for different polarizations has
also been reported [8]. It is also possible to achieve
switchable CP microstrip antennas with shorting walls
that are switched to the ground plane via p-i-n diodes
[9], [10]. But by connecting the two patches at one
more position will generate a new band without
increasing the size of antenna.
In this paper a multi band polarization switchable
antenna has been proposed. The structure is single feed
simple and compact producing multi band, circular and
linear polarization. The orthogonal modes for circular
polarization are generated by p-i-n diodes connecting
rectangular and circular patch. The polarization
switching is obtained by switching the p-i-n diodes.
Different polarization has been discussed, which are
obtained by switching the diodes. In subsequent
sections antenna structure and results have been
discussed. Section IV provides conclusion and possible
application of proposed antenna.
II. ANTENNA STRUCTURE
Fig.1 shows the geometry of the proposed
multiband and dual switchable circular polarization
microstrip slotted patch antenna. Proposed antenna has
three layer structures, bottom layer is a ground plane of
thickness .01mm, on which there is a second layer of
dielectric substrate FR4 of thickness 2 mm and
dielectric constant is 4.9. Third layer is a patch which is
square shaped with a ring slot. The square patch length
is L mm. At the centre of the square patch there is a
ring slot of outer radius R2 and the inner radius R1.
Fig.1 shows the construction of the square patch with a
ring slot inside it. This ring slot separates the two
structures one is square patch and other circular patch
11
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
which is inside the square patch. The separation
between the square patch and circular patch which is
inside it is 2mm or the width of ring slot is 2mm. This
proposed antenna produces linear polarization as well
as circular polarization by introducing diode.
Fig.1 shows p-i-n diodes D1, D2 and D3. These p-
i-n diodes providing the connection between the square
patch and the circular patch. The diode D1 is connected
between square patch and inner circular patch in left
side, and diode D3 is connected between square patch
and inner circular patch in right side and diode D2 is at
down side. The polarization diversity is obtained by
switching different p-i-n diodes at different time.
Linear polarization is obtained when P-I-N diode D2 is
forward biased and D1 and D3 are reversed biased. To
get circular polarization two currents are fed at 900
generating orthogonal components. The LHCP is
obtained when left p-i-n diode i.e. D1 is forward biased
along with D2, because of current direction. Similarly
RHCP is obtained when the right p-i-n diode (D3) is
forward biased along with D2, reverse biasing the D1.
The antenna structure is three bands polarization
switching is obtained in only one band which is
generated by circular patch. It is seen that axial ratio
varied from 40 dB to 1 dB.
Fig. 1: Geometry of Multiband and Dual Switchable
Circular Polarization Microstrip Slotted Patch
Antenna Dimensions: 80*80 mm2
12 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
III. IPLIMENTATION AND RESULTS
The proposed antenna is designed for multibands
(1.55GHz, 3.8GHz and 4.77 GHz). The square patch
(L=40mm) on the top of the FR4 substrate with Ɛr= 4.4
and hight h=2mm. one ring slot in the square patch
with dimensions outer radius (R2=7 mm) and inner
radius (R1=5 mm), width of ring slot is 2mm, the three
p-i-n diodes are located across the slot in order to
control the current path. The λ/4 impedance
transformer is used for impedance matching between
patch and 50Ω feed line.
TABLE I shows the summary of the antenna
polarization. With the above said dimensions the
resonate frequencies for the linear polarization (when
diode D2 is forward biased and remaining two are
reversed biased) are 2.1
TABLE I: SUMMARY OF ANTENNA POLARIZATION
P-I-N diodes Biasing Polarization
D2 : ON
(Forward biased)
D1,D3: OFF Linear Polarization (LP)
(Reverse biased)
D2,D3: ON
(Forward Biased) Right Hand Circular
D1 : OFF Polarization (RHCP)
(Reverse Biased)
D1,D2: ON
(Forward Biased) Left Hand Circular
D3 : OFF Polarization (LHCP)
(Reverse biased)
GHz and 5.1 GHz. The band generated by the
circular patch can be switched to the circular
polarization by switching on either D1 or D3 we will
get three bands at this point. The bands generated by
circular patch can be RHCP or LHCP according to the
position of p-i-n diode forward biased.
Fig. 2 shows the simulated results of proposed
antenna when diode D1 and diode D3 are OFF and only
diode D2 is ON, in this case antenna radiate at two
frequency bands at 2.1GHz and at 5.1GHz. In this case
the proposed antenna is linearly polarized.
Fig. 2: Simulated s-parameter of the Proposed Antenna
when (D1=OFF, D2=ON, D3=OFF)
 A Multi Band Switch
hable Circularly Polarized Slottted Microstrip Pa
atch Antenna

Fig.3 shows the simulated

s ressults of propposed Fig. 5 shows the simulatedd farfield resullts at LHCP
antenna at right hand ciircular polarizzed mode andd left modde. At frequenncy 1.55GHz tthe main lobee magnitude
hand circuular polarized mode. In LHCP case diode D1 is 6.3dBi,
6 at frequency
fr 3.88 GHz the main lobe
and diode D2 are in ON N state and diiode D3 is in OFF maggnitude is 3.7 dBi and mainn lobe directioon is at 30.0
state, theree are three frequency
f bannds at whichh the deg.., at frequencyy 4.77 GHz the main lobe magnitude
m is
antenna raddiates d and main lobe directionn is at 5.0 deg
7.2 dBi g.
Fig.4 shows the simulated faarfield patternn of
proposed antenna.
a In RHCP
R three faarfield patternns are
observed ata three differrent frequenccies. At frequuency
1.55GHz the t main lobee magnitude is 6.2dBi andd the
main lobe direction is 0.0 deg. At frequency
f 3.88GHz
the main loobe magnitudde is 3.7 dBi anda the main lobe
direction is 30.0 deg. And
A at 4.77G GHz frequencyy the
main lobe magnitude is i 7.6 dBi annd the main lobe
direction iss 5.0 deg.

(a) (b)

Fig. 3: Simulated s-parameter of Proposed Antenna

w
when (D1=ON, D2=ON,
D D3=OFF F (LHCP))
andd when (D1=OFF F, D2=ON, D3=O ON (RHCP))

(c)
Fig.
F 5: Simulated Farfield Pattern oof LHCP at (a) f=
=1.55GHz,
(b) f=
f 3.8GHz and (c)) f= 4.77GHz.

IV. CONCLU
USION

In this letter, a simple miccrostrip squaree patch with

slottted ring inside the patch iss proposed forr dual band
lineaar polarizationn and triple bband circular polarization
p
(a) (b)
diveersity. The circular poolarization diversity is
conttrolled by sw witching the current path in n the patch
usinng p-i-n diodde configuratiions that is RHCP and
LHC CP. The experrimental resullts show that the antenna
is lin
nearly polarizzed at 2.1GHzz and 5.1 GHZ Z and CP at
three frequencies 1.54GHz,3.8GHz and 4.77 7 GHz. The
multti band switchhable antennaa will find application in
wireeless communnication in civvilian as well as defence
sector.

REFERENC
CES
[1] N. Jin, F. Yang,, and Y. Rahmat--Samii, “A novel patch antenna
with switchablee slot (PASS): D Dual frequency operation
o with
reversed circullar polarizationns,” IEEE Trans. Antennas
Propag., vol. 544, no. 3, pp. 1031––1034, Mar. 2006
6.
(c) [2] A. Calmon, G. G Pacheco, aand M. Teradaa, “A novel
reconfigurable UWB log-perioddic antenna,” in n Proc. IEEE
Fig. 4: Simulated Farfield Pattern of RHCPP at (a) f=1.55GH
Hz, Antennas Propag. Soc. Int. Symp., 2006, pp. 213– –216.
Hz and (c) f= 4.777GHz
(b) f= 3.8GH

Bhagwant Institute
e of Technologyy, Muzaffarnaga h, India ‹ 13
ar, Uttar Pradesh
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

[3] E. Erdil, K. Topalli, M. Unlu, O. A. Civi, and T. Akin,
“Frequency tunable microstrip patch antenna using RF MEMS
technology,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 55, no. 4, pp.
1193–1196, Apr. 2007.
[4] X.-S. Yang, B.-Z.Wang, and W.Wu, “Pattern reconfigurable
patch antenna with two orthogonal quasi-Yagi arrays,” in Proc.
IEEE Antennas Propag. Soc. Int. Symp., 2005, vol. 2B, pp.
617–620.
[5] Y.-F. Wu, C.-H. Wu, D.-Y. Sai, and F.-C. Chen, “A
reconfigurable quadri-polarization diversity aperture-coupled
patch antenna,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 55, no. 3,
pp. 1009–1012, Mar. 2007.
[6] S.-T. Fang, “A novel polarization diversity antenna for WLAN
application,” in Proc. IEEE Antennas Propag. Soc. Int. Symp.,
2000, pp. 282–285.
[7] M.-A. Kossel, R. Küng, H. Benedickter, and W. Bächtold, “An
active tagging system using circular-polarization modulation,”
IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech., vol. 47, no. 12, pp. 2242–
2248, Dec. 1999.
[8] M. K. Fries, M. Gräni, and R.Vahldieck, “A reconfigurable slot
antenn with switchable polarization,” IEEE Microw. Wireless
Compon. Lett., vol. 13, no. 11, pp. 490–492, Nov. 2003.
[9] A. Khaleghi and M. Kamyab, “Reconfigurable single port
antenna with circular polarization diversity,” IEEE Trans.
Antennas Propag., vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 555–559, Feb. 2009.
[10] W.-L. Liu, T.-R. Chen, S.-H. Chen, and J.-S. Row,
“Reconfigurable microstrip antenna with pattern and
polarisation diversities,” Electron. Lett., vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 77–
78, 2007.

14 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Probe Feed and Aperture Feed Microstrip

Antenna for WLAN Application
Bharat Rochani1, Prashant Singodiya2, Monika Agrawal3 and Abhimanyu Joshi4
1,2,3,4
Bhagwant University, Ajmer, India
e-mail: bharat.rochani@gmail.com, 2singodiya1prashant@gmail.com,
1
3
monika.agrawal1789@gmail.com, 4abhijoshi.ece@gmail.com

Abstract—Microstrip patch antennas have been

widely used in a various useful applications, due to their SUBSTRATE PATCH
low weight and low profile, conformability, easy and
cheap realization. A low profile patch antenna for WLAN
application is proposed in this paper. This proposed
antenna is made by using the probe feeding and aperture
coupled feeding methods. This antenna is designed in
order to improve the impedance bandwidth. The
impedance bandwidth will be increased by making slots
onto the patch. This unequal parallel slots patch antenna
is the modified structure of E patch antenna. This patch Ground
antenna provides a bandwidth of around 16.4% with 1.5 Plane
VSWR. The simulation process has been done through
high frequency structure simulator (HFSS). The
Fig. 1.1: Microstrip Antenna
properties of antenna such as bandwidth, S parameter,
VSWR have been investigated. This paper also aims at
comparing between different feeding methods. II. TYPES OF FEED
Keywords: Microstrip patch antenna, Probe feed, A. Coaxial Probe Feed
Aperture coupling, Return Loss, VSWR (Voltage Standing
Wave Ratio), HFSS Coaxial feed is the simplest feed for microstrip
antennas. In this, an inner conductor of coaxial line is
I. INTRODUCTION attached to the radiating patch while outer conductor is
connected to ground plane. The structure of coaxial
A microstrip antenna consists of a very thin probe feed is display in figure 2.1.
metallic patch placed on conducting ground plane,
separated by a dielectric substrate [1]. A microstrip
patch consists of a radiating patch of any planar
geometry (e.g. Circle, square, Ellipse, ring and
rectangle) on one side of a dielectric material substrate
and a ground plane on the other side. Microstrip
antennas have numerous advantages such as
lightweight, low profile, easy fabrication and simple
modeling. They can be designed to operate over a large
range of frequencies (1-40 GHz) and easily combine to
form linear or planar arrays. It can generate linear, dual,
and circular polarizations. The microstrip antenna has
Coaxial
different feeding techniques like probe fed, aperture GROUND PLANE Feed
coupled, proximity and insert feed. The substrate
dielectric constant used for microstrip antenna Fig. 2.1: Structure of Probe Feed Antennas
generally low (typically ~ 2.5) to reduced fringing field
but for less critical applications [2]. The proposed It has spurious radiation because the radiating and
antenna is designed for 2.45 GHz frequency with E feeding systems are disposed on two sides of ground
shaped patch[2]. The proposed antenna is made by plane and shielded from each other. The proposed
using probe fed and aperture coupled fed and simulated antenna is designed for 2.45 GHz frequency for WLAN
by HFSS’11. A typical patch antenna is shown in application. This antenna has patch size (L X W) mm
Figure 1.1. with εr = 2.2 dielectric substrate. The serious limitation

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 15
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

of microstrip antenna is narrow bandwidth, which is
usually few percent (<1%).
B. Aperture Coupled Feed
In this the radiating patch is etched on the top of
the antenna substrate and feed line is etched on the
bottom of substrate. The thickness and dielectric
constants of these two substrates may thus be chosen
independently to optimize the distinct electrical
functions of radiation and circuitry. The basic structure
of aperture coupled microstrip antenna is shown in
figure 2.2 [3].
This E shaped patch antenna provides a 7.8 %
(2.34-2.53 GHz) impedance bandwidth with 5.8 dB
gain. The figure 3.2 (a) and 3.3 (a) is shown the return
loss in dB and smith chat for equal size of slots in
patch. The E shaped patch antenna is designed here,
has-33 dB return loss. The gain curve is shown in
figure 3.4 (a).
When the slot SL1 gets shorter, it forms the unequal
slots E shaped patch antenna as shown in fig 3.1 [5].
This unequal E shaped patch antenna provides circular
polarization. This antenna provides 16.4 % (2.15 GHz-
2.53
GHz) impedance bandwidth at-10 dB return loss
and 6dB gain. The figures 3.2 (b) and 3.3 (b) are shown
the return loss in dB and smith chat for unequal length
of slots in patch. The E shaped patch antenna designed
here has near about (-32) dB return loss. The gain curve
is shown in figure 3.4 (b). Table 2 shows simulated
results.

Fig. 2.2: Structure of Aperture Coupled Antenna

III. ANTENNA GEOMETRY FOR PROBE FEED

In this paper, we used the patch shapes like E
shaped in rectangular patch with different dielectric
constants.
A. Shaped Rectangular Patch Antenna
In this paper, the well known technique of an E
shaped patch used for a wide band width. An E-shaped (a)
patch antenna is easily formed by cutting two slots
from a rectangular patch [4]. By cutting the slots from a
patch, gain and bandwidth of microstrip antenna can be
enhanced. For this proposed antenna, size of ground
plane is (L X W) 76 X 88 mm and thickness of
dielectric substrate is 6.7 mm with εr = 2.2.
The geometry of E shaped patch antenna is shown in
table 1.
TABLE 1: THE DIMENSIONS OF THE E SHAPED PATCH IN MM
W L WS SL1 SL2 p F h εr
48 36 6.3 16 30 11.4 9 6.7 2.2
L

(b)
SL1
Fig. 3.2: Simulated Return Loss S11 V/S Frequency
W Ws TABLE 2: SIMULATED RESULTS FOR PROBE FEED PATCH ANTENNA
F
P Patch Frequency Gain Return Bandwidth
Shape Loss
E Shaped 2.45GHz 5.6dB -33dB 7.8%
Patch
SL2 Unequal 2.43GHz 6dB -31.2dB 16.4%
arms E
Shaped
Fig. 3.1: Geometry of Unequal E Shaped Patch Antenna Patch

16 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Probe Feed and Aperture Feed Microstrip Antenna for WLAN Application

IV. ANTENNA GEOMETRY FOR APERTURE

COUPLED FEED
Aperture coupled feeding is more difficult from all
feeds to fabricate but it is somewhat easier to model
and it has narrow bandwidth (for simple structure).
To enhance the wide bandwidth, also use the
aperture coupled microstrip antenna with rectangular
radiating patch on substrate. In this proposed design,
two slots are loaded at non radiating sides of the patch
to make it wide band antenna without increasing the
(a) volume unlike stacking of patches. Also, the fabrication
process of the slots is compatible with antenna
fabrication technology [6]. A single band aperture
coupled rectangular patch microstrip antenna
(ACRPMA) is designed for the WLAN application
(2.22-2.48) GHz range with centre frequency at 2.4
GHz. This antenna has geometry (L x W) 40 x 60 mm
for ground plane with εr = 2.2.The height of aperture
substrate is 2.4 mm. The geometry of aperture coupled
microstrip antenna shown in table 5.
Apurture
Feed
Line

(b) L
Fig. 3.3: Smith Chart for E Shaped Patch Antenna SL1

Lf
Ls
SL
2
W
Patch

Ground Plane
Ws

Fig. 4.1: Geometry of Aperture Coupled Antenna

with E Shaped Patch
TABLE 3: THE DIMENSIONS OF E SHAPED PATCH APERTURE
COUPLED ANTENNA IN MM
(a) L W LS LF H SL1 SL2 LG WG
24 46 12.5 23.5 2.4 16 16 40 60

(b)
Fig. 4.2: Simulated Return Loss S11 V/S Frequency
Fig. 3.4: Simulated Gain Curve for E Shaped Patch

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 17

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
Fig. 4.3: Smith Chart for Aperture Coupled Antenna
The resonance frequency of proposed antenna
occurs at 2.23 GHz. By changing the length of slots,
can change the resonant frequency. The best result for
the-10dB bandwidth is obtain with SL1 = SL2 = 16 mm
and stub length Ls = 12.5 mm as shown in figure 4.2.
This aperture coupled antenna provides impedance
bandwidth near about 24 %( at-10 dB return loss
graph). The minimum return loss is-40 dB at 2.23 GHz
frequency. The figure 4.3 has shown smith chart for
aperture coupled antenna. Table 4 shows all simulated
results.
TABLE 4: SIMULATED RESULTS FOR APERTURE COUPLED
FEED PATCH ANTENNA
Patch Shape Frequency Return Loss Bandwidth
E Shaped 2.23GHz -40dB 24%
Patch
18 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
V. CONCLUSION
A small-size Microstrip antenna for WLAN
Application using probe feed and aperture feed is
proposed and successfully implemented. From the
comparative study of different configurations of
feeding techniques, it is concluded that unequal slot in
patch provides a bandwidth of 16.4 % with 6 dB gain
and an aperture coupled feed microstrip antenna
provides a bandwidth of around 24%.
This proposed microstrip antenna enhanced the
impedance bandwidth and provides good matching.
This antenna simulated by HFSS’11[7].
REFERENCES
[1] Antenna Theory, C.Balanis, Wiley, 2 nd edition (1997),
Chapter 14. ISBN 0-471-59268-4.
[2] D. M. Pozar, “Microstrip antenna aperture-coupled to a
microstripline,” Electron. Lett., vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 49-50, Jan.
1985.
[3] Michael Paul Civerolo, “Aperture Coupled Microstrip Antenna
Design and Analysis” Thesis, California Polytechnic State
University; June 2010
[4] Subodh Kumar Tripathi1, Vinay Kumar2, “E-Shaped Slotted
Microstrip Antenna with Enhanced Gain for Wireless
communication” Internation-al Journal of Engineering Trends
and Technology-July to Aug Issue 2011
[5] Ahmed Khidre, Kai Fang Lee, Fan Yang, and Ate' Eisherbeni
“Wide-band Circularly Polarized E-Shaped Patch Antenna for
Wireless Applications” IEEE Antennas and Propagation
Magazine, Vol. 52, No.5, October 2010.
[6] Qinjiang Rao, Tayeb A. Denidni, “A New Aperture Coupled
Micro-strip Slot Antenna” IEEE Transactions on Antennas and
Propagation, Vol. 53, No. 9, September 2005.
[7] Ansoft Designer, www.ansoft.com.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Broadband and High Gain Microstrip
Patch Antenna for WLAN
Arun Kumar1, Arjun Singh2 and Prabhat Sharma3
Shobhit University, Meerut
e-mail: 1arun.kumar027@gmail.com, 2prabhatsharma86@yahoo.com, 3singh.arjun994@gmail.com
Abstract—A stacked notched rectangular microstrip
patch antenna for WLAN and ISM band applications has
been presented in this paper. The desired band is
obtained by tuning the dimensions of notches and size of
the stacked driven and parasitic patches. The same aspect
ratio is maintained for both the patches and their
respective notches. The bandwidth and gain of this
antenna is 23% and 7.87dBi, respectively. Antenna
efficiency of 87% is achieved in the designed antenna. The
bandwidth, gain, size reduction and efficiency obtained in
the designed antenna makes it a potential radiator for
various applications.
Keywords: Microstrip patch antenna (MSA), Wireless
local area network (WLAN), ISM band, Wideband antenna,
Stacked notched rectangular microstrip patch antenna
I. INTRODUCTION
The demand for compact and multifunctional
wireless communication systems has spurred the
development of miniaturized broadband antennas with
high gain. Recent advancement in high speed WLAN
and similar applications need the antennas of broad
bandwidth, small size, high gain, and enhanced
efficiency and these antennas are also used in ISM
bands. Microstrip patch antennas are widely used in
these applications due to advantageous features like
compactness, light weight and high efficiency.
However, one of the major limitations of the microstrip
patch antenna is the narrow bandwidth1-4. There are
well-known established techniques to enhance the
bandwidth of these antennas2-10 such as increasing the
substrate thickness using low dielectric substrate;
incorporating various impedance-matching and feeding
elements using multi resonators, multi-slot hole-
coupling6 using planar parasitic elements7,
incorporating two thin substrates8, creating multi-
couple staggered slots9, stacking of substrates10, etc.
Shigeru Egashira and Eisuke Nishiyama reported a
stacked microstrip patch antenna with two parasitic
elements. The first parasitic enhances the bandwidth
and gain has been increased due to second parasitic
element. Nasimuddin et al. presented the circularly
polarized stacked microstrip antenna to improve the
axial ratio bandwidth. Notch loading in a microstrip
patch antennas is used to reduce the impedance
mismatch and to enhance the bandwidth. However, the
bandwidth, gain and size of an antenna are generally
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
mutually conflicting properties, that is, improvement of
one of the characteristics normally results in the
degradation of the other. It is complex to incorporate all
the features such as uniformly high gain, broad
bandwidth, efficiency, compact size, multi-resonant
characteristics along with the desired radiation pattern
into a single antenna design. In the present work, a high
gain, broad bandwidth, high efficiency (87%)
diagonally probe fed stacked notched microstrip patch
antenna has been proposed and discussed. Rectangular
notch has been incorporated along the non-radiating
edge of both the lower and upper parasitic patch, an air
gap has been provided in between two layers. Air gap
enhances gain11. This antenna has been designed for
WLAN applications at the IEEE 802.11a bands (5.15–
5.35 GHz and 5.725 –.825 GHz) and also for 5-6 GHz
ISM bands. The bandwidth of proposed is 4.85GHz and
6.07 GHz and also the resonating frequency of this
antenna is 6.07 GHz.
II. ANTENNA DESIGN
Figure 1 depicts the cross sectional view of the
stacked-notched rectangular microstrip patch antenna.
The proposed antenna comprises two patches: lower
rectangular patch and upper rectangular patch element
as a parasitic element which are stacked by separating
with an air gap. Figures 2(a) and 2(b), respectively
show the geometrical structures of the driven and
parasitic rectangular microstrip patches of the proposed
antenna.
The geometrical dimensions of the lower that is
driven rectangular microstrip patch are length Ll =
18.14 mm and width Wl = 14.4 mm. The rectangular
notch of dimensions: length a = 3.17 mm and width b =
2.5 mm, respectively has been created on the non-
radiating edge of the driven patch. The lower patch is
designed on RT Duriod substrate of thickness h1 =
1.575 mm, dielectric constant εr = 2.2 and loss tangent
= 0.0009. The length and width of upper rectangular
parasitic patch is Lu = 19.15 mm and Wu =15.2 mm,
respectively. The length and width of the notch on the
upper parasitic patch are: c = 2.52 mm and d = 2 mm,
respectively. In widths of both the patches, the
respective notch has been cut at an identical distance
from the length edges. The RT Duriod substrate of
thickness h2 = 0.787 mm, dielectric constant εr = 2.2,
19
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

and loss tangent = 0.0009 has been used for the upper
patch. Both the patches are separated by an air gap of g
= 1.4 mm. In the proposed design, the lower
rectangular patch is co-axially excited at the location x
= 4.65 mm and y =-5.86 mm with the feed radius of 0.4
mm. The method of moments based IE3D
electromagnetic simulator has been used to design and
simulate this antenna. Figure 3 shows the simulated
structure of stacked-notched rectangular microstrip
patch antenna.
developed in the RLC circuit of notched parasitic
element. These two RLC circuits get capacitively
coupled due to the air gap. This lowers the upper
resonant frequency of the dual band at good matched
condition and the broadband performance is achieved.
Thus, by optimizing the dimensions of both the
rectangular patches with the respective notches and by
adjusting the air gap between them, broadband
performance can be achieved over the frequency band
of interest.

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Figure 4 depicts the return loss (S11)
characteristics of the proposed antenna. This antenna
resonates at 6.07 GHz with the bandwidth (Ref-10 dB)
of 1.3 GHz which is 23% . The size of this antenna at
resonant frequency 6.07 GHz is 0.369 λ 0.292 λ . The
size of a conventiona l microstrip antenna at 5.75 GH λ Fig. 1: Cross Sectional View of the Stacked-notched Rectangular
0 / 2 eff for a λ/2 antenna is 20.71 mm Microstrip Patch Antenna
But in the proposed antenna, the length of antenna
is 19.15 mm. Hence, the size reduction which is with
respect to the resonant frequency has been obtained. In
the present work, substrates of different thickness have
been used in the design so as to increase the effective
thickness for the bandwidth enhancement. Further, in
between both the substrates air gap is introduced to
increase the effective thickness and to decrease
effective permittivity. The aspect ratio of the driven Fig. 2: Geometrical Structure of: (a) Driven; and (b) Parasitic
patch that is length (L1) to width (W1) has been fixed Rectangular Microstrip Patch
to 1.259 (~1.26). To achieve better electromagnetic
coupling between the driven and parasitic patch, it is
required to determine the relative size of the parasitic
patch. Hence, the aspect ratio of the parasitic patch has
been optimized to 1.259. The size of the parasitic patch
is larger than the dimensions of driven patch. Similarly,
the aspect ratio of the notch, i.e. the ratio of length (a)
to width (b) at the driven patch is fixed to 1.259
(~1.26). Likewise, the aspect ratio of the notch at
parasitic patch, i.e. the ratio of length (c) to width (d) is
fixed to 1.259 (~1.26) (Fig. 2). The same axial ratio is
maintained in the geometry of this antenna structure.
The rectangular notches are placed on the non-radiating
edges of excited patch to lengthen the excited surface
Fig. 3: Simulated Structure of the Stacked-notched Rectangular
current path. This enables the antenna to tune to a Microstrip Patch Antenna
lower resonant frequency. Due to notch, two currents
flow in the driven patch, the normal current flows into Figure 5 depicts the antenna and radiation
the patch and around the notch. Thus, cutting a notch is efficiency curves of the designed antenna. As seen
a reactive loading that helps in obtaining the dual bands from figure, the proposed antenna maintains good
due to interaction between the resonant frequencies of performance centered around the designed frequency.
patch and the notch. The cutting of notch introduces Thus, the antenna meets efficiency over the bandwidth
electric and magnetic field discontinuities resulting in characteristics efficiency. Figure 6 depicts variation of
inclusion of the series inductance and series antenna gain with the frequency. The proposed antenna
capacitance in the RLC (resistance, inductance and has a uniform gain of 7.87 dBi over the complete
capacitance) resonant circuit of the normal rectangular WLAN frequency band 5-6 GHz and also ISM Bands..
microstrip patch antenna. The driven patch is The gain is not insensitive but varies. As the antenna is
electromagnetically coupled with the parasitic element. an optimization of various enhancement techniques,
Hence, the series inductance and series capacitance get

20 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Broadband and High Gain Microstrip Patch Antenna for WLAN

minimal variation of gain could be achieved in the

required bandwidth.
The azimuth and elevation radiation patterns of the
discussed antenna are shown in Figs 7 and 8(a and b),
respectively. The radiation patterns are obtained at 4.85
and 6.07 GHz. A gain of 7.87 dBi with an antenna size
of 1.9 cm is a noticeable feature of the proposed
antenna. The radiation patterns are well within 3 dB
values for both the frequencies, i.e. 4.85and 6.07 GHz.
They are almost of same gain.
It can be stated that the implementation of notch in
the non-radiating edge and diagonal feed in the patch
leads to dual frequency. With adjustable frequency
ratio and use of upper parasitic patch along with
incorporation of suitable air gap in between top and
bottom patch is an effective means of obtaining high
gain and broadband microstrip patch antenna. Thus, the
designed antenna has not only broadband, but also
uniform high gain over whole bandwidth of interest
with good efficiency. The antenna discussed here is a
design out of the integration of the concept published Fig. 6: Gain vs Frequency Curve of the Stacked-notched Rectangular
Microstrip Patch Antenna
so far by various researchers.

Fig. 4: Return Loss (S11) Characteristics of the Stacked-notched

Fig. 7: Azimuth Pattern Gain Display of the Proposed Antenna at
Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna
Frequencies 4.85 and 6.07 GHz

Fig. 8(a): Elevation Pattern Gain Display of the Proposed Antenna at

Fig. 5: Antenna Efficiency and Radiation Efficiency Frequency 4.85 GHz
in the Observed Band

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 21

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
Fig. 8(b): Elevation Pattern Gain Display of the Proposed Antenna at
Frequency 6.07 GHz
The notch stack and air gap approach are used as
complementary tools to enhance bandwidth and gain
while maintaining size reduction.
IV. CONCLUSION
In the present work, a new stacked, notched
Rectangular microstrip patch antenna with air gap has
been designed for WLAN (IEEE 802.11a band
applications), i.e. 5 to 6 GHz bands between 5.15–5.35
GHz and 5.725–5.825 GHz and ISM Bands i.e. 5-6
GHz.
The presented antenna not only has excellent
broadband width characteristics (impedance bandwidth
23%) but also have considerably good gain of 7.85 dBi
over entire bandwidth of interest. An antenna efficiency
of 87% with a size of 1.9 cm is an interesting
observation in the designed antenna. The bandwidth,
gain, efficiency and size of the proposed Antenna make
it as a potential radiator for applications based on
WLAN and ISM Bands.
REFERENCES
[1] Balanis C A, Antenna theory analysis and design (Wiley India,
New Delhi), 1997.
22 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
[2] Garg R, Bhartia P, Bahl I & Apisak I, Microstrip antenna
design handbook (Artech House, Boston, London), 2001.
[3] Wong Kin-Lu, Compact and broadband microstrip antennas
(John Wiey Inc, New York), 2002.
[4] Kumar G & Ray K P, Broadband microstrip antennas (Artech
House Inc, New York), 2003.
[5] Lin S J & Row J S, Mono polar patch antenna with dual-band
and wideband operations, IEEE Trans Antennas Propag (USA),
56 (2008) 900.
[6] Neog D K, Pattnaik S S, Panda D C, Devi S, Khuntia B & Dutta
M, Design of a wide band microstrip antenna and use of
artificial neural networks in the parameter calculation, IEEE
Antennas Propag Mag (USA), 47 (2005) 60.
[7] Wi H S, Lee S Y & Yook J G, Wideband miorostrip patch
antenna with U-shaped parasitic elements, IEEE Trans
Antennas Propag (USA), 5 (2007) 1196.
[8] Patra P K, Pattnaik S S, Devi S, Vidyasagar C, Sastry G V R S
& Bakward K M, New bandwidth enhancement and multi
resonance technique for micorstrip patch antenna, Microw Opt
Technol Lett (USA), 50 (2008) 1162.
[9] Xiao S, Shao H, Wang B Z, Zhou M T & Fujise M, Design of
low-profile microstrip antenna with enhanced bandwidth and
reduced size, IEEE Trans Antennas Propag (USA), 54(2006)
1594.
[10] Matin M A, Sharif B S & Tsimenidis C C, Dual layer stacked
rectangular microstrip patch antenna for ultra wideband
applications, IET Microw Antennas Propag (UK), 1 (2007)
1192.
[11] Vildirim B & Bedri A C, Enhanced gain patch antenna with a
rectangular loop shaped parasitic radiator, IEEE Antennas
Wireless Propag Lett (USA), 7(2008) 229.
[12] Legay H & Shafa L, New stacked microstrip antenna with large
bandwidth and high gain, IEE Proc MicrowAntennas Propag
(UK), 141 (1994) 199.
[13] Nasimuddin, Esselle Karu P & Verma A K, Wideband
circularly polarized stacked microstrip antennas, IEEE
Antennas Wireless Propag Lett (USA), 6 (2007) 21.
[14] Egashira Shigeru & Nishiyama Eisuke, Stacked microstrip
antenna with wide bandwidth and high gain, IEEE Trans
Antennas Propag (USA), 44 (1996) 1533.
[15] Shivnarayan & Vishwakarma Babau R, Analysis of notch-
loaded patch for dual band operation, Indian J Radio Space
Phys, 35 (2006) 435.
[16] Nasimuddin, Design of wideband circularly polarized stacked
microstrip antennas with dielectric cover using single coaxial
feed, Microw Opt Technol Lett (USA), 49 (2007) 3027.
[17] Nishiyama E, Aikawa M & Egashira S, Stacked microstrip
antenna for wideband and high gain, IEE Proc Microw
Antennas Propag (UK), 151 (2004) 143.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

A Compact Microstrip Patch Antenna

for UWB Applications
Abhijeet Dasgupta
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,
Amity School of Engineering & Technology,
Amity University, Noida, India
e-mail: abhijeetdasgupta271088@gmail.com

Abstract—The design of a ultra wide band microstrip centre strip d are 0.8mm and 2.4mm respectively. The
antenna is reported here. The antenna is providing three length of the patch Lp is 37.5mm. The fringing length
UWB compatible bands in the frequency range of 7.24- ΔL=0.7mm. This antenna designed on Rogers3010 (tm)
7.55GHz and 8.27-8.87GHz and 9.27-9.93GHz with the substrate with dielectric constant 10.2, loss tangent
bandwidth of 310MHz, 500MHz & 660MHz respectively
and their corresponding return loss of 29.53dB, 32.6dB
0.0035 and height 1.5mm. The feeding is applied
and 29.7dB. The simulation is performed using HFSS through a 50Ω strip by inset feeding technique.
software. Antenna is designed using Rogers3010 (tm)
substrate and with the substrate dimensions of
37.5x24mm. Antenna can be used for UWB
communication in the frequency range of 7GHz–10GHz.
Keywords: Microstrip patch, inset feed, multiband
antenna, UWB.

I. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, microstrip patch antennas are
becoming attractive for use in wireless communication
systems [1] [7] including ultra wideband (UWB)
systems due to their attractive merits of simple
structure and low profile. Ultra-wideband
communications is fundamentally different from all
other communication techniques because it employs
extremely narrow RF pulses to communicate between
transmitters and receivers. Planar monopole antennas
are able to radiate bi-directional radiation patterns with
larger bandwidths. Patch can take various
configurations such as rectangle, circular, diamond etc.
Inset feeding is supposed to be better candidates
because of their simple configuration, manufacturing Fig. 1: Geometry of Antenna
advantages, repeatability and low cost. Inset-fed
antennas have been studied extensively [2-6]. In III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
microwave and wireless communication, there is
requirement of components having light weight, high The designed antenna is radiating in three bands
performance, easier fabrication, more reliable and which are lying in ultra wide band frequency range of
smaller size, although reduction in size of an antenna 3.1-10.6GHz. The radiating bands are 7.24-7.55GHz,
depends on antenna constraints which cannot be 8.27-8.87GHz and 9.27-9.93GHz and their
changed easily so we have to make a tradeoff between corresponding return loss are-29.63dB,-32.6dB,-
them. The antenna is designed considering these 29.7dB. The antenna is designed to resonate at 7.5
tradeoffs. GHz. The return loss plot of antenna at this resonant
frequency is shown in figure 2. Figure 3 is showing the
II. DESIGN PARAMETERS AND STRUCTURE ANALYSIS VSWR plot of the antenna. The theta and phi radiation
plot of the antenna with respect angle is shown in
The antenna geometry is shown in figure.1. The figure 5 & 6 respectively. The 3D rectangular and polar
total length of the antenna L is 38.9mm and the width field pattern with respect to phi and theta at 7.5GHz is
of antenna W is 24mm. The gap c and the width of the shown in figure 8 & 9 respectively. For the resonance

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 23
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

frequencies, the antenna is radiating at the efficiency

which is greater than 95% as shown in figure 7. The
bandwidth efficiency of the designed antenna is 49%.
Axial ratio plot of the antenna for angle 0 and 90
degree is shown in figure 4.

TABLE 1: SIMULATION RESULTS OF ANTENNA

Solution
Frequency Bandwidth Return
Frequency
Range(GHZ) (MHz) Loss (dB)
(GHz)
7.24-7.55 310 MHz -29.53 dB
7.5 GHz 8.27-8.87 500 MHz -32.6 dB
9.27-9.93 660 MHz -29.7 dB

Fig. 5: Theta Pattern of Antenna 7.5GHz

Fig. 2: Return Loss Plot of Antenna

Fig. 6: Phi Pattern of Antenna at 7.5 GHz

Fig. 3: VSWR Plot of Antenna

Fig. 7: Simulated Antenna Efficiency

Fig. 4: Axial Ratio Pattern of Antenna

24 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India


Fig. 8: 3D Rectangular Radiation Pattern of Antenna
IV. CONCLUSION
A microstrip antenna is designed for ultra wide
band applications, which is providing excellent
radiation efficiency of greater than 95% and the
bandwidth efficiency of 49%. The antenna is providing
three bands having the bandwidth of 310 MHz,
500MHz and 660 MHz with their corresponding return
loss are-29.63dB,-32.6dB,-29.7dB. This is satisfying
the bandwidth requirement of Ultra wideband
communication.
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 25
A Compact Microstrip Patch Antenna for UWB Applications
Fig. 9: 3D Radiation Pattern of Antenna
REFERENCES
[1] J.R. James and P.S. Hall, Handbook of Microstrip Antennas,
vol. 1, Peter Peregrinus Ltd., London, 1989.
[2] R Garg, P. Bhartia, I. J. Bahl and A. Ittipiboon, Microstrip
Antenna Design Handbook, Artech House, 2001.
[3] D. M. Pozar, “Microstrip antennas”, IEEE Transaction on
Antenna and Propagation, Vol. 80, pp. 79–91, Jan. 1992..
[4] R. Waterhouse, “Small microstrip patch antenna,” Electron.
Lett., Vol.31, pp. 604–605, 1995.
[5] Constantine A. Balanis, Antenna theory-Analysis and design,
2nd edition, John Wiley & sons, Inc., pp. 727–735, 1997.
[6] Anders G. Derneryd, “A Theoretical Investigation of the
Rectangular Microstrip Antenna Element.” IEEE Transcation
on Antennas and Propagation, Vol. AP-26, No. 4, pp. 532–535,
July 1978.
[7] Thomas A. Milligan, Modern Antenna Design, 2nd Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., chapter 5&6, 2005.
[8] Ansoft HFSS 14, Ansoft Corporation.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Design and Development of Band

Pass Filter at 94 GHz
Sanjeev Kumar Shah1, Vinay Negi2, Sandeep Singh3 and Saurabh Tomar4
1
Research Scholar, Shri Venkateshwar University,
Gajraula, Uttar Pradesh, India
2,3,4
Uttaranchal Institute of Technology,
Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

Abstract—This paper describes the design and
development of band pass filter (BPF) at 94 GHz. This
design uses capacitively coupled series resonators in
suspended stripline configuration. This design is modeled
and optimized using CST (Computer Simulation
Technology) microwave studio. The 94 GHz band pass
filter exhibits an insertion loss of 1 dB with 3 dB relative
bandwidth at a center frequency of 94 GHz and the
return loss is better than-18 dB at a center frequency. The
designed and fabricated 94 GHz band pass filter shows
the good performance for planar integrated millimeter-
wave circuits.
Keywords: BPF, End coupled, Suspended stripline,
Transition
I. INTRODUCTION
Low cost compact filters are important aspect of
millimeter wave system. Almost all receiver systems
require input filter for channelization of input signal.
The basic objectives in any filter design is that of
achieving low insertion loss and VSWR within the
required bandwidth while attaining the required out of
band signal rejection [1]. Due to very less channel
space available at 94 GHz, filter has been designed
using capacitively coupled series resonators in
suspended stripline configuration as shown in fig.1.
approximately half wavelength at the center frequency
[1]. Now Fig.1 (b) is redrawn with negative length
transmission line sections on either side of series
capacitors, which forms the equivalent circuit of an
admittance inverter as shown in Fig.1 (c). The length
‘φ’ is λ/2 at fo. Electrical length θi of the ith section is
given by;
ɸ ɸ
θº= π+ + for i=1, 2…….N (1)
The capacitive gap coupled filter can be modeled
as shown in Fig.1 (d). Procedure to get electrical length
of resonating section length has been carried out in an
innovative way which is very accurate at 94 GHz
frequency. We need to derive [ABCD] and [S] matrix
for J and K inverters which is used to calculate filter
parameters.
The end coupled suspended stripline band pass
filters are most promising due to its compact size,
lightweight, low cost and ease of fabrication. In E plane
circuit supporting dielectric (e.g. Fin line) causes
additional losses. It may therefore often be
advantageous to restrict the design for high Q
millimeter wave circuit to pure metal inserts placed in
the E-plane of rectangular waveguide without any
substrate. The design specification for the above filter
is given below.
1. Center frequency: 94 GHz
2. Bandwidth: 6 GHz
3. Attenuation at ±5 GHz from center: 30 dB
4. Insertion loss: < 2 dB
5. Return loss: > 15dB
6. Ripple: 0.1 dB
7. Prototype: Tchebyscheff

II. SSLIN FILTER DESIGN MEHTODOLOGY

Design of band pass filters on RT Duroid substrate
is presented in this section. End coupled lines shown in
Fig.2, have been used to design the filter.
θ1 θ2 θn-1 θn
Fig. 1: Equivalent Circuit of End Coupled Resonator YO YO YO YO YO YO
J01 J12 Jn-1,n Jn,n+1
An Nth order filter of this form uses N resonant
series sections of transmission lines with N+1 Fig. 2: End Coupled Resonator
capacitive gap in between them. The resonators are

26 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
 Design and Development of Band Pass Filter at 94 GHz

End coupled lines can be modeled with a series of J ,

=[ ]1/2 (10)
J-inverters and transmission lines [1]. Conventional J,
text book formulae are used to determine the J-inverter ( ) j=1……n-1 = *[ ]1/2 (11)
values from element values of the filter [2] & [3].
2. Calculate S21 for each J inverter values from
Equivalent circuit of the J-inveter is shown in Fig.3
[S] matrix of J inverter derived earlier in (4).
.The S21 was calculated for each J-inverter value from
3. Now gap values (G) were calculated such that
[S] matrix of J inverter as derived in (2), (3) & (4).
S21 obtained from CST microwave studio is
equal to that of obtained from J inverter
J Yo=J values. The simulation for the S-Parameters
± 90° YL
calculation should be done at highest possible
l=λ/4
accuracy. Lengths of resonating sections have
Yin = K2/ZL been calculated by angle of S11 (from CST
Fig. 3: J-Inverter and its Equivalent Circuit generated data for end coupled lines) with the
help of following equations.
ABCD matrix of J-inverter can be written as
⎡ cos(β l), jZ o sin(β l) ⎤
L10 = ∗ 1800- − (12)
(2)
[ ABCD ] = ⎢ ⎥ , β l = π / 2 & Yo = J Where θ1 =|angle| of S11 corresponding to G1.
⎣ jYo sin(β l), cos(β l) ⎦
θ2 = |angle| of S11 corresponding to G2.
⎡ j ⎤
= ⎢ 0 , J ⎥ (3) L20 = ∗ 1800- − (13)
⎢ ⎥ L(E )
⎣ jJ ,0 ⎦ L(Physical)= [ ]* (14)
Converting [ABCD] to [S] gives 4. J inverter values and equivalent gap values
⎡ Y o 2 -J 2 -2 j(J /Y o ) ⎤ (calculated from CST) for 5 section filter
⎢ , ⎥ which give same S21 as of J-inverter, is
⎢ Y o 2 + J 2 1 + (J /Y o ) 2 ⎥
[S ] = ⎢ ⎥
(4) provided in Table 1.
-2 j(J /Y o ) Y o 2 -J 2 TABLE 1: 5 SECTION RESONATOR FILTER
⎢ 2
, 2 2 ⎥
⎣⎢ 1 + (J /Y o ) Y o + J o ⎦⎥ J-Inverter Calculated Gap S 21 (mag) S11(ang)
S-Parameter (mm)
J5,6/y0 =J0,1/y0 S0,1/y0 0.07 0.54548736 -41.344
III. DESIGN STEPS =0.2956 =0.5436924
J4,5/y0=J1,2/y0 S1,2/y0 0.30 0.1591 -32.86
1. Get J inverter values for the given =0.079915 =0.158815
specification. Steps to calculate J inverter J3,4/y0=J2,3/y0 S2,3/y0 0.39 0.1002942 -32.958
values are given below. =0.05074 =0.1012114
Steps to calculate J inverter values: 5. Once the gap values have been found, lengths
a. Determine the order of low pass prototype of resonating sections have to be calculated.
from following equation. From (12), (13) & (14) L1 (Physical) = 1.1620
L (db) = 10 log10 [1+ (ω’) 2n] (5) mm = L5 and L2 (Physical) = 1.1981 mm =
Where L is required attenuation in dB L4. Similarly, L3 (Physical) = 1.1998 mm
( ) 6. The equivalent gap values (calculated from
ω ’= ∗ (6)
( ) CST) for 5 section filter and optimized lengths
ω= 2 ∗ (7) of resonating sections provided in Table 2.
( )
( )
ω0 = (8) TABLE 2: OPTIM IZED PARAMETER TABLE
( )
Calculate ω’ from (6) at frequencies where S. N. Gap (mm) Length(mm)
attenuation data is given. Take smaller value 1 G1 = 0.07 L1 = 1.143
2 G1 = 0.30 L2 = 1.178
(magnitude) of ω’ and determine n (no. of sections)
3 G1 = 0.39 L3 = 1.0180
from (5) such that L(dB) is greater than the required
Width of 50 Ohm line = λg/4 = 0.7325 mm
attenuation at desired frequency. Note that (6) is
β (propagation constant) = 2145.14697 rad/m
frequency transformation from band pass to low pass
Cutoff frequency for 50 ohm line ≈ 103 GHz
prototype.
b. Get element values (g0, g1, g2,……… gn,) for
IV. SIMULATED RESULTS
Tchebyscheff prototype for calculated ‘n’ and
given ripple from text book [2]. The filter is then modeled in CST microwave
c. J inverter values for end coupled transmission studio. The CST model and simulation results of filter
line are given by following equations [2]. are shown in Fig.4 and Fig.5 respectively.
J
=[ *( )]1/2 (9)
∗

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 27

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

V. CONCLUSION
The present filter was tested from 83 GHz to 105
GHz. Suspended stripline filter has 1.5-2.5 dB insertion
loss over a bandwidth of 6 GHz excluding transition
loss. The deviation observed was mainly attributed to
the mechanical housing, whose precision is a very
important aspect at 94 GHz.

REFERENCES
[1] David M. Pozar, “Microwave Engineering”, Third Edition,
Fig. 4: CST Model of 5 Section Band Pass Filter John Wiley & Sons, Inc., USA, 2005.
[2] G.Matthaei, L. Young & E.M.T.Jones, “Microwave Filters,
Impedance Matching Networks, and Coupling Structures”,
Artech House.
[3] Richard M. Dougherly “MM-Wave filter design with suspended
stripline.”Microwave Journal July1986. pp 75-84
[4] L.Q.BUI, D BALL “Broad-Band Millimeter –wave E-plane
Band pass filters” IEEE MTT-32 Dec 1984 pp 1655-1658.
[5] Y. Konishi and K. Venekada “The design of a band pass filter
with inductive strip planner circuit mounted in waveguide”
IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech, Vol MTT-22 pp 1209-
1216 1974.

Fig. 5: Simulated S-Parameter Results

28 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

A Compact Microstrip Slot Patch Antenna

for Ku-band Applications
Aijaz Ahmed
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,
Amity School of Engineering & Technology,
Amity University, Noida, India
e-mail: Aijaz1152@gmail.com

Abstract—A novel compact reconfigurable multiband diode, the connectivity is made open between two
antenna is proposed. The antenna is designed with the diode points. The designed antenna operates in four
40mm x 40mm substrate with the dielectric constant of bands which are tunable in the range of 8 to19GHz.
10.2 and the thickness of 1.27mm. The substrate used is
Roger RT/Duroid 6010. By achieving the switching
multiband functionality, this antenna is almost covering
the complete range of Ku-band with the radiation
efficiency >85 % for all the switching combinations. The
operating frequencies bands are Band 1 (13.7-14.1GHz),
Band 2 (14.15-14.55GHz), Band 3 (14.4-14.6GHz), Band 4
(18.1-18.9 GHz).
Keywords: Reconfiguration antenna; Slot antenna;
Probe feed antenna

I. INTRODUCTION
Reconfigurable antenna reveals various beneficial
aspects as compared to the conventional antenna at the
same class. It achieved multi function for a similar
antenna. In current scenario of antenna development,
the need of small size multifunctional antenna is on the
rise. However the size reduction causes the poor
antenna performance such as low gain and efficiency
[8], [9]. The advantage of reconfigurable antenna is that
the antenna volume can be reused by reconfiguring the
antenna to operate in different or multiband; thus
reducing the overall size. A reconfigurable antenna can
be used for various surveillance and military
communication by dynamically selection of bands via
RF switches such as PIN or Varactor diode. For
simulation, PIN diode can be modeled using RLC sheet
[1]. When diode is in forward or ON state, it behaves Fig. 1: Proposed Structure of Antenna Dimensions: L=W=40mm,
like a resistor and in OFF state, work as a capacitor. In Wp = Lp = 38 mm, s=11.7mm, g=14mm, r=3mm,
a next generation wireless system, wide band antenna is width of the slot is 1.5mm
required to transmit multiple data, an example of such
application is an MB-OFDM ultra wide band system II. ANTENNA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
consists of 14 channels with a bandwidth of 528 MHz This paper presents a novel small size antenna with
[12]. A reconfigurable antenna has more advantages in reconfigurable multi-bands. The presented antenna is
terms of increasing antenna capabilities by tuning its designed on Roger RT/Duroid 6010 substrate with the
performances [2-7]. The dynamic properties of dielectric of 2.2 and the thickness of 1.27mm and the
reconfigurable antenna can be achieved by changing tangent loss of 0.0023. Antenna consists of 8 switches.
the state of to either ON or OFF of the RF switches For all the switch combinations, the return loss S11 is <
such as PIN diodes. This will eliminate the need to -10dB as specified in Table1. Antenna is designed for
increase the dimensions or coverage area. To achieve the center frequency of 14.1GHz and antenna is having
switching, in forward mode, the strip of equivalent good characteristics for 13.5 to 15 GHz range.
resistance of diode is used. For negative cycle of the

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 29
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

Dimension wise, the proposed 40 x 40mm antenna Switch Position Frequency Bandwidth Return
is small as compared to the traditional ones. Fig. 1 Range (GHz) (MHz) Loss (dB)
All switches are
shows the schematic of antenna. This antenna is excited ON (fig.2 a)
18.1-18.9 800 MHz -20.1 dB
by probe feed at the center of the modified patch. the All switches OFF 14.4-14.6 200 MHz -28.3 dB
switching configuration of the antenna is shown in (fig.2 b) 13.7-14.1 400 MHz -19.2 dB
figure 2. The maximum return loss of the antenna is - Switches 1,2,5 &
6 are OFF (fig.2 14.15-14.55 400 MHz -32 dB
32dB in the frequency band of 14.15-14.55GHz as c)
shown in figure 5. The widest bandwidth of the antenna
is 800MHz with a return loss of -20.1dB in the
frequency range of 18.1-18.9GHz when all the switches
are ON (ref fig 2(a)). When all the switches are OFF,
antenna is operating in two bands 14.4-14.6GHz and
13.7-14.1GHz with the corresponding return loss of -
28.3dB and -19.2dB as shown in figure 5. The radiation
patterns of the antenna for the different switching
combinations are shown in fig. 6-8. The 3D rectangular
radiation pattern of antenna is shown in figure 9. For all
the switching combinations, the efficiency ranges from
0.85 to 0.90. figure 10 shows the simulated antenna Fig. 3: Return Loss Plot of Antenna (for Figure 2a)
radiation efficiency graph.

Fig. 4: Return Loss Plot of Antenna (for Figure 2 b)

Fig. 5: Return Loss Plot of Antenna (for Figure 2 c)

Fig. 2: Antenna Structure with Different Switching

Fig. 6: Theta Radiation Pattern of Antenna (Figure 2a)
TABLE 1: SIMULATION RESULTS OF ANTENNA

30 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 A Compact Microstrip Slot Patch Antenna for Ku-band Applications

Fig. 7: Theta Radiation Pattern of Antenna (Figure 2 b)

Fig. 10: Simulated Antenna Efficiency

III. CONCLUSION
A novel small size reconfigurable multiband
antenna is designed and simulated using HFSS
software [13]. The presented antenna is having the
radiating range of Ku-Band (12-18GHz). The operating
frequency ranges are providing the acceptable
reflection coefficient, s11< -10dB, the VSWR ranging
from 1.21-1.93(VSWR< 2) in the operating bands and
the efficiency > 85 % for all the switching
combinations. However, the need of this structure is to
optimize and removal of the notch-bands to expand the
radiating band. Our future work is to optimize the
antenna performance with fewer switches and to
remove the undesired notch-bands of the antenna.

Fig. 8: Theta Radiation Pattern of Antenna (Figure 2 c)

REFERENCES
[1] Hattan F. Abutarboush, “Fixed and reconfigurable Multiband
Amtennas,” A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy, July 2011.
[2] M.R. Hamid, P. Gardner, P.S. Hall, F. Ghanem, “Switchable
Wideband-Narrowband Tapered Slot Antenna,” Loughborough
Antennas & Propagation Conference, pp. 241–244, 2009.
[3] Qiang Chen, Makoto Kurahashi and Kunio Sawaya, “Dual-
mode Patch Antenna Switched by PIN Diode,” IEEE Topical
Conference on Wireless Communication Technology. 148–149,
2003.
[4] S. V. Shynu, G. Augustin, C. K. Aanandan, P. Mohanan, and K.
Vasudevan, “Design of Compact Reconfigurable Dual
Frequencies Microstrip Antennas Using Varactor Diodes,”
Progress in Electromagnetic Research, PIER 60, 197–205,
2006.
[5] F. Ghanem, J.R. Kelly, and P.S. Hall, “Switched UWB to
Narrowband Planar Monopole Antenna,” European Conference
on Antennas and Propagation 2010, 12–16 April 2010,
Barcelona.
[6] M. T. Ali, T. A. Rahman, M.R. Kamarudin and M. N. Md Tan,
“Reconfigurable Linear Array Antenna with Beam Shaping at
Fig. 9: 3D Rectangular Radiation Pattern of Antenna 5.8GHz,” Microwave Conference, 2008. APMC 2008.

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 31

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

[7] M. Jusoh, M. R. Kamarudin, M. F. Jamlos, M. F. Malek, “A
Novel Compact Reconfigurable Multi-Band Antenna,” IEEE
international RF and Microwave Conference (RFM 2011),
Seremban, Malaysia 2011.
[8] A. Skrivervik, J.-F. Zurcher, S. O, and J. Mosig, “Pcs antenna
design: the challenge of miniaturization,” IEEE Antennas
Propagat. Mag., vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 12–27, 2001.
[9] R. Azadegan and K. Sarabandi. “A novel approach for
miniaturization of slot antennas,” IEEE Antennas
Propagat.Mag., vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 421–429, 2003.
[10] Constantine A. Balanis, Antenna theory- Analysis and design,
2nd edition, John Wiley & sons, Inc., pp. 727–735, 1997.
[11] Thomas A. Milligan, Modern Antenna Design, Second Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., chapter 5&6, 2005.
[12] Lee, W., Kim, H., and Yoon, Y.J.: “Reconfigurable slot antenna
with wide bandwidth‟. IEEE Antenna and Propagation Society
Int. Symp., July 2006, Vol. 4, pp. 3063–3431.
[13] Ansoft HFSS 14, Ansoft Corporation.

32 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
A Reconfigurable Multiband
Square Patch Antenna
Shweta Gautam1, AjitYadav2 and Mithilesh Kumar3
1,2,3
Electronics Department, University College of Engineering,
Rajasthan Technical University, Kota
e-mail: 1s.ecom.og@gmail.com, 2ajity2@gmail.com, 3mith_kr@yahoo.com
Abstract—The design of simple reconfigurable
multiband square patchantenna is proposed, the antenna
is excited by Microstrip feed line. The proposed antenna
has square patch that is shorted to the ground plane
through six shorting walls with six diodes. Three stubs
with three diodes in each side of the square patch are
present. The p-i-n diodes provide the opening and
shorting of ground with the patch by taking the different
combination of shorting diodes. Designed antenna radiate
at a number of frequency bands, it shows single band,
dual band and multi band operation. Key parameters
have been analysed on Electromagnetic simulation
software. The proposed antenna shows different dual
band operations and multi band operation. Dual band
occurs satisfactorily at 3.57GHz and 6.2GHz. Another
dual band occurs satisfactory at 1.76GHz and 6.2GHz,
and a multi bands occur at 3.06, 4.4 and 6.65 GHz.
Keywords: shorting wall, shorting p-i-n,
multibandsquare patch, frequency reconfigurable antenna,
dual band.
I. INTRODUCTION
In wireless communication patch antenna radiates
for narrow bandwidth which limits its application [1].
So today’s requirement is small size simple multiband
or wide band antennas which are convenient to
integrate in communication system. Wide band
operation of antenna can be achieved by doing
modification in structure of antenna.Some techniques
are shorting wall [2], folded shorting wall [3], u-slot
array [4], slots form [5],y-v slot [6], stacked patch [7],
pair of slits on the patch (with total size of the antenna
2
150* 150 mm ) [8], E-shaped patch on thick substrates
with ground plane size of 140 *210 mm [9] and using
circular arc shaped slot on thick substrate[10].
This paper presents the frequency reconfigurable
dual band and multi band operation of proposed
antenna. This proposed antenna is multi tasking
antenna with different frequency of operation. For
achieving multi band operation patch structure is
modified. The proposed antenna has square patch with
microstrip feed line. This patch structure is modified by
introducing the shorting wall in vertical sides of the
patch which provide shorting between the patch and the
ground. This shorting is achieved with help of p-i-n
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
diodes, which provide different configuration and
different shorting ways between the patch and the
ground. This antenna works satisfactory for single
band, dual band and triple bands.
II. ANTENNA STRUCTURE
Fig.1 shows the geometry of the proposed
reconfigurable multiband square patch antenna.
Proposed antenna has three layer structure, bottom
layer is a ground plane of thickness .01mm, on which
there is a second layer of dielectric substrate FR4 of
thickness 3 mm and dielectric constant is 4.9. The
length of the ground plane of 70mm and the width is
also 70mm. FR4 substrate too has 70 mm length and 70
mm width. The third layer is a square patch of length L.
The square patch with the shorting walls is shown
in Fig1 (b) and fig1(c).There are six shorting walls 3 on
each vertical sides of the square patch. These shorting
walls are not directly shorting the ground plane to the
patch, diodes are connected to provide desirable
shorting between ground plane and the square patch.
Fig.1 (b) shows the left view of the proposed
antenna.There are three shorting walls in left side of the
patch Shorting wall 1, shorting wall2 and shorting wall
3.and three p-i-n diodes D1, D2 and D3 are also shown
in Fig.1 (b). Bottom of the shorting wall 1 is connected
to the ground plane but top is not connected directly to
the patch, top of shorting wall 1 is connected to the
positive of the p-i-n diode D1 and negative of the p-i-n
diode is connected to the patch. In such a way top of
the shorting wall 2 is connected to the patch and its
bottom is not connected directly to the ground plane,
there is a p-i-n diode D2 between the bottom of the
shorting wall 2 and the ground plane. Similarly
shorting wall 3 is also shown in Fig.1 (b). Top of the
shorting wall 3 is connected to the patch via p-i-n diode
D3.
The same structure is replicated in the right view
of the proposed antenna shown in Fig.1(c) shorting
wall 4 andshorting wall 6 are connected to the patch via
diodes D4 and D6 respectively. And shorting wall 5 is
connected to the ground plane via p-i-n diode D5.
33
Proceedingss of National Co
onference on Tre
ends in Signal Processing
P & Co
ommunication (TSPC’13) 12th–
–14th April 2013
3

III. EFFECT OF DIODES IN ANTTENNA PERFORMANCE

Table I shows the anntenna perforrmance for
diffeerent biasing. When p-i-n ddiodes D1 andd D3 are ON
and D2, D4, D55 and D6 aree OFF, in th his case the
shorrtingwall-1 annd shortingw wall-3 shorts the ground
plan
ne and the pattch, other shoorting walls are
a open. In
this case the proposed
p anntenna radiatees at two
freq
quencies i.e. 3.57 and 6.2 G GHz, Antennaa worked as
duall band antenna. Other case when diodes D2 and D5
are ON and all otther diodes (D D1, D3, D4, and
a D6) are
OFF F shortingwaall-2 and shortingwall-5 shorts the
grouund plane andd the patch andd other shortin
ng walls are
openn. In this casee the proposedd antenna radiates at two
diffeerent frequenccies 1.76 and 3.32 GHz and still work
as a dual band anttenna.
TABLEE I: EFFECT OF DIO
ODE SWITCHING

Diode State Radiating

R
Freequencies
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 F1 = 3.57 GHz
ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF F2 = 6.2 GHz
OFFF ON OFF OFF ON OFF F1 = 1.76 GHz
F2 = 3.32 GHz
ON OFF ON ON OFF ON F1 = 2.68 GHz
F2 = 4.32 GHz
F3 = 6.2 GHz
OFF
F OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF F1 = 3.13 GHz
ON ON ON ON ON ON F1 = 3.06 GHz
F2 = 4.4 GHz
F3 = 6.65 GHz
But when dioodes D1,D3,D D4,D6 are ON N and other
(d2 and d5 aree OFF), shortingwall-1,sh hortingwall-
3,sh
hortingwall-4 and shortingw wall-6 shorts the ground
planne with the patch
p and in this case thhe proposed
anteenna radiate att three frequeency bands 2.6
68,4.32 and
6.2GGHz and anteenna work ass a triple ban nd antenna.
Propposed antennaa also work aas single band d antenna if
all diodes
d are inn OFF state iin this case there is no
shorrting between ground planee and patch an nd proposed
anteenna radiate ata 3.13 GHz. But when alll the diodes
are in
i OFF state this
t antenna aggain shows reesponse as a
triplle band antennna.

Fig. 1: Geeometry of Reconnfigurable and Sw witchable Dual Baand

and Multibband Square Patcch Antenna Dimensions: 70*70 mm m2
(a) Top View
V of the Anteenna (b) Left Sidee View of Antennna
(c) Right Side
S view of Anteenna

Squaree patch is feedd by the Microostrip feed linne. In

Fig.1 (a) the
t λ/4 impeedance transfoormer is usedd for
impedancee matching beetween the paatch and the 50Ω Fig. 2: Simulatted S-parameter oof the Proposed Antenna
A
feed line. when Case-1(D11=ON, D5=ON) C Case-2(D2=ON, D5=ON)

34 ‹ Bhagw
want Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar
U Pradesh, In
ndia
 A Reconfigurable Multiband Square Pa
atch Antenna

IV
V. IPLIMENTA
ATION AND RESULTS casee antenna woork as single band antennaa shown in
Fig.4 and radiate at frequency 33.13GHz.
Propossed antenna has square patch of leength
Case-5, wheen all diodes are ON agaain antenna
L=20mm, FR4 substratte of εr=4.9, and thicknesss of
radiate triple bannd shown in 33.06GHz, 4.4 GHz, 6.65
3mm, lenggth of 50Ω microstrip
m line is 10mm andd λ/4
GHzz. Some otherr cases are alsoo possible.
quarter waave transformeer length is 155mm to matchh the
feed line too the patch. Shhorting walls length
l is 2mmm and
width is 1.5mm. The patch and the ground have
thickness of
o .01mm.
The proposed antennna work as single band, dual
band and multi
m band anntenna by shoorting the diffferent
shorting walls
w via p-i-n diodes .A feww cases are stuudied
and shownn in this paper..
Case-11, when dioddes D1, D5 are a ON and other o
diodes are OFF in this case
c antenna work
w as dual band
antenna annd radiate at frequencies
f 3
3.57 and 6.2 GHz.
G
Fig.2 showws the s-param meter verses frequency
f curvve of
Case-1.Casse-2, when dioded D2 andd D5 are ON N and
other diodes are OFF, proposed
p anteenna still worrk as
dual band antenna but two frequenncies are diffferent
from case-1 that is 1.76 and 3.32 GHzz.

Fig. 5: Simulateed Far Field Patteern of Case-1, at 3.57GHz

3
and 6.2GH Hz
Fig. 3: Siimulated S-param
meter of the Propoosed Antenna wheen
Case-3 (D1=ON, D3-ON N, D4=ON, D6=O ON), Triple Bandd TABLE II: MULTI BAND OPERRATIION BY A SINGLE ANTENNA
CA
ASES Shoorting/ Opening Mulltiband
off Diodes
Casee-1 D1,D5 ON Dual band antenna
D2,D4,,D5,D6 OFF
Casee-2 D2,D5 ON Dual band antenna
D1,D3,,D4,D6 OFF
Casee-3 D1,D3,,D4,D6 ON Triple band
d antenna
D2,D5 OFF
Casee-4 All diodes are OFF Single band
d antenna
Casee-5 All diodes are ON Triple band
d antenna

Fig. 4:: Simulated S-parrameter of the Prooposed Antenna

when Caase-4 (All Diodess are OFF, Singlee Band Operationn)

Case-33, when D1, D3,

D D4, D6 arre in ON statee and
D2 and D5D are OFF antenna
a ws the triple band
show
operation shown
s in Fig.33. Three bandds are at 2.68 GHz,
G
4.32 GHz and
a 6.2 GHz.
Case-44, when all diiodes are in OFF
O state, theere is
no shortingg between grround plane and a patch. Inn this

Bhagwant Institute
e of Technologyy, Muzaffarnaga h, India ‹ 35
ar, Uttar Pradesh
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
Fig. 6: Simulated Far Field Pattern of Case-2, at 1.76GHz
and 3.32GHz
The Fig.5 shows the far field pattern of case-1
shown in Table-II. Far field pattern are studied at
3.57GHz and 6.2GHz, at frequency 3.57GHz the main
lobe magnitude is 6.8dBi and main lobe direction is 5.0
degree .At frequency6.2GHz the main lobe magnitude
is 5.8 dBi and main lobe direction is 40.0 degree. Fig .6
shows the far field pattern of case-2 shown in Table-II.
Due to dual band operation far field pattern are studied
at 1.76GHz and 3.32 GHz. At 1.76GHz the main lobe
magnitude is 4.4dBi and the main lobe direction is at
20.0 degree .and at 3.32GHz the main lobe magnitude
is 6.8dBi and the main lobe direction is 0.0 degree.
V. CONCLUSION
In this letter, a simple reconfigurable multiband
square patch antenna is proposed. The dual band and
multi band operation of antenna is taken by shorting the
ground plane and the patch through shorting walls and
p-i-n diodes. By making the diodes ON and OFF
different configurations are taken and due to these
36 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
different configuration dual band and triple bands are
observed. So by doing proper biasing the diodes, dual
band reconfigurable multiband are achieved. The
experimental results shows that one dual band occur at
frequency 3.57 GHz and 6.2 GHz. Second dual band
occur at 1.76 GHz and 6.2 GHz. And the triple band
occurs at 3.06, 4.4 and 6.65 GHz successfully by
electromagnetic simulation software.
REFERENCES
[1] G. Kumar and K. P. Ray, Broadband MicrostripAntennas.
Boston, MA: Artech House, 2003, pp. 18–23.
[2] C. Mak, R. Chair, K. Lee, K. Luk, and A. Kishk, “Half U-slot
patch antenna with shorting wall,” Elect. Lett., vol. 39, pp.
1779–1780, 2003.
[3] Y. Li, R. Chair, K.M. Luk, and K. F. Lee, “Broadband
triangular patch antenna with a folded shorting wall,”
[4] IEEE Antennas Wireless Propag. Lett., vol. 3, no. 1, pp.189–
192, Dec. 2004.
[5] H. Wang, X. B. Huang, and D. G. Fang, “A single layer
wideband U-slot microstrip patch antenna array,” IEEE
Antennas Wireless Propag. Lett., vol. 7, pp. 9–12, 2008.
[6] Y. Lee and J. Sun, “A new printed antenna for multiband
wireless applications,” IEEE AntennasWirelessPropag.Lett.,
vol. 8, pp. 402–405, 2009.
[7] S. Qu and Q. Xue, “A Y-shaped stub proximity coupled V-slot
Microstrip patch antenna,” IEEE AntennasWireless Propag.
Lett., vol. 6, pp. 40–42, 2007.
[8] J. Anguera, C. Puente, C. Borja, and J. Soler, “Dual-frequency
broadband-stacked microstrip antenna using a reactive loading
and a fractalshaped radiating edge,” IEEE Antennas Wireless
Propag. Lett., vol. 6, pp. 309–312, 2007.
[9] K.-L. Wong and W.-H. Hsu, “A broad-band rectangular patch
antenna with a pair of wide slits,” IEEE Trans.Antennas
Propag., vol. 49, no. 9, pp. 1345–1347, Sep.2001.
[10] F.Yang, X. Zhang, X.Ye, and Y. Rahmat-Samii, “Wide-band E-
shaped patch antennas for wireless communications,” IEEE
Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 49, no. 7, pp. 1094–1100, Jul.
2001.
[11] R. Bhalla and L. Shafai, “Broadband patch antenna with a
circular arc shaped slot,” in Proc. IEEE AntennasPropag. Soc.
Int. Symp., 2002, vol. 1, pp. 394–397.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
UWB Antenna with Dual Stop Band Notch
for Wireless Communication
Moh. Atif Sarif1*, Harish Kumar1#, Meenakshi Arya2 and Amita Thakur2
1
(M.Tech Scholar), ECE Department, Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, India
2
M.Tech Scholar, NIT Kurukshetra, Haryana, India
e-mail: 1moh.atif123@gmail.com, 2hkmw04ieta@gmail.com
Abstract—In this paper the UWB technology-
(Operating in broad frequency range of 3.1–10.6 GHz)
based dual notch WLAN notch has shown great
achievement for high-speed wireless communications. To
satisfy the UWB system requirements, a band pass filter
with a broad pass band width, low insertion loss, and high
stop-band suppression are needed .UWB filter with
wireless local area network (WLAN) notch at 5.6 GHz a
compact UWB antenna with coplanar-waveguide (CPW)
feed line was developed with integral notch at 5.0 to 6.0
GHz to eliminate interference from WLAN signals. The
compact antenna consists of a 28 x 30 mm patch with a C-
shaped slot in the radiating element to achieve the notch
which was measured 28 x 30 mm printed on FR-4
substrate. The circuit-board material has 1.6-mm
thickness, relative permittivity of 4.4, and loss tangent tan
δ of 0.02
I. INTRODUCTION
Federal Communications Commission’s (FCC’s)
approved ultra wideband (UWB) frequency range from
3.1 to 10.6 GHz Antennas with multiple band stop
characteristics can be useful for multiple-network
applications. by inserting C-shaped slots in various
antenna configurations, it has proven possible to create
a desired frequency stop band[1] Such antennas have
value for selected bands within the Antennas are
critical components in UWB systems that must be
carefully designed for stable radiation patterns and
polarization as well as good matching and low
dispersion. The current researchers discovered that by
etching a C-shaped slot in the radiating element, a
compact UWB antenna can be fabricated with strong
band-notched characteristic from 5.0 to 6.0 GHz.
In recent antenna developments, planar printed
antennas fed with microstrip or coplanar-waveguide
(CPW) transmission lines have received a great deal of
attention for their high radiation efficiencies in compact
sizes, as well as their ease of integration with other
circuits. CPW-fed antennas are appealing because their
feed lines and slots are on one side of the substrate[2]
For wideband coverage, different patch geometries
have been developed including X-shaped[3] fork-
shaped, square-shaped, elliptical-shaped spade-shaped,
and circular-shaped patches[4-5] Because the 5.150-to-
5.825-GHz band is limited by IEEE 802.11a for
wireless-local-area-network (WLAN) applications, any
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
UWB system must use a band-notch filter to prevent
interference with WLAN systems.
Of course, adding a filter increases UWB system
complexity ideally, the notch can be included in the
antenna. Various methods can achieve an antenna with
band-notched characteristics. Conventional approaches
including cutting a slot (such as a U-C-or V-shaped
slot) into the antenna patch[9-11]. While this
technique typically achieves a notch for one band, it
doesn’t prevent interference on other narrow bands.
more recently, antennas with two notched bands have
been proposed[12-15]. But most of these notched
antennas are large in size and not suitable for compact
wireless designs. As an alternative to these larger
antenna designs, a compact UWB antenna was
developed that measures just 28 x 30 mm. By etching a
C-shaped slot in the radiating element, a single band-
notched characteristic from 5 to 6 GHz was obtained.
And by etching two nested C-shaped slots in the
radiating patch, dual band-notched characteristics can
be achieved for the compact UWB antenna [14].
Rectangular patch antennas are typically known to
provide narrowband characteristics. To improve the
operating bandwidth, the authors shaped the bottom of
the antenna patch into an arc. In practical applications,
the size of ground plane is finite and the direction of
maximum radiation tilts somewhat upward from the
horizontal plane. To reduce this beam tilting, the
ground plane of the proposed antenna was designed for
a rounded rather than a rectangular shape. The arc-
shaped patch and tapered ground plane make good
broadband impedance matching of the antenna
possible. To further expand the impedance bandwidth,
several forms were etched from the patch: a right-angle
triangle on the upper corners of the patch and a small
fan angle on each side of the ground plane near the
feed line. These improvements are highlighted in Fig.
1, Figure 2 shown a comparison of the simulated
reflection coefficient (S11) for an antenna with full
rectangular radiating patch with an antenna modified on
the bottom with cuts on the upper corners and the small
angle on each side of the ground plane when all the
dimensions are the same. The first line demonstrates
the rectangular patch antenna has a narrowband
characteristic. The second line shows the impedance
bandwidth is broadened when the bottom of the patch
37
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
is shaped into an arc. On the basis of this, the third
line about the upper corners modification indicates that
the bandwidth has been further expanded compared
with the second line the main advantages that this
modification is reducing the lowest frequency The
fourth line demonstrates the small angle on each side of
the ground plane near the feed line will affect the
characteristic impedance of the CPW line and also
contribute to the modified antenna’s very wide
impedance bandwidth[12].
Fig. 1: Show the Process of Improving a Patch Antenna
with Built-in Notches
Fig. 2: Curves Compare the Simulated VSWRs of Antennas A and B
II. MESUREMENT & SIMULATION
Figure 3 shown the final geometry of the proposed
antenna (referred to as antenna A) which was measured
28 x 30 mm printed on material FR-4 substrate. The
circuit-board material has 1.6-mm thickness, relative
permittivity of 4.4, and loss tangent (tan δ) of 0.02.
The antenna is formed in the x-y plane with normal
direction parallel to the z-axis. The center strip and gap
of the CPW line are 3.6 and 0.3 mm, respectively, to
achieve a 50-Ω characteristic port impedance. The
improvement steps mentioned earlier contribute to
good impedance matching across a wide bandwidth
The antenna’s geometric parameters were optimized for
S11 ≤ −10 dB across the full frequency range using
ANSYS HFSS 11.0 electromagnetic (EM) simulation
software from Ansys. The final antenna geometry
parameters were obtained as L1 = 28 mm, L2 = 30
mm, L3 = 13.5 mm, L4 = 5 mm, L5 = 1.5 mm, L6 =
38 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
10.7 mm, L7 = 5.4 mm, L8 = 12.9 mm, R = 15 mm, g
=0.7 mm, f = 3.6 mm, c = 0.3 mm, t = 0.3 mm, and H =
1.5mm. By selecting optimal parameters, the proposed
antenna can be tuned to operate across the UWB band.
Since UWB radios share part of the spectrum with
HIPERLAN/2 applications (5.15 to 5.35 GHz and
5.470 to 5.725 GHz) and WLAN applications using
the IEEE 802.1la protocol (5.15 to 5.35
GHz and 5.725 to 5.825 GHz), an UWB antenna
with reconfigurable band-rejection characteristic at
WLAN frequencies is highly desirable. Several designs
of UWB antennas with band-rejection characteristics
have been investigated and successfully implemented
in the past. The simple and commonly used approach
is to incorporate slots into the antennas main radiator.
Figure 4 shows a schematic diagram of the UWB
planar antenna (referred to as antenna B) with
filtering property operating in the 5-to-6-GHz band.
Figure 5 shows the current distribution around the slot
of antenna B at the 5.5-GHz notch frequency. At 5.5
GHz, the current flows mainly around the C-shaped
slot. The impedance is nearly zero at the top of the slot
and the impedance is very high near the antenna
feed line. In this case, the high impedance at the feed
point leads to the desired impedance mismatch near the
5.5-GHz notch frequency. In addition to WLAN
systems, WiMAX (3.3 to 3.6 GHz) and C-band
communications systems (3.7 to 4.2 GHz) may
interfere with UWB communications systems,
prompting the need for antennas with multiple notched
bands. Antennas with dual notched bands can be
realized by using two nested C-shaped slots in the
radiating patch (antenna A), which can yield band-
notched characteristics centered at 3.4 and 5.5 GHz,
respectively[14]. Figure 6 shows the geometry of the
UWB antenna (referred to as antenna C) with dual
notched-band characteristics. Since mutual coupling
exists between the exterior and interior C-shaped slots,
the HFSS simulated values did not match the
predicted values. The optimized design parameters
are R1 =4.5 mm, R2 = 4.2 mm, R3 = 4.0 mm, and R4
= 3.7 mm.
Fig. 3: Diagram Shows the Configuration of Proposed Antenna A
 UWB Antenna with Dual Stop Band Notch for Wireless Communication
Fig. 4: Curves Compare the Simulated VSWRs of Antennas A and B
Fig. 5: Compare the Simulated VSWRs of Antennas A, B, and C
Fig. 6: H-and E-plane Radiation Patterns were Made at (a) 3 GHz,
(b) 6 GHz, (c) 9 GHz, and (d) 12 GHz
III. CONCLUTION
Patch antennas successfully achieve sharp notches
where needed across the frequency ranges of UWB
antennas inserting two nested C-shaped slots in the
radiating patch, notches of 3.3 to 3.6 GHz and 5.0 to
6.0 GHz representing WiMAX and WLAN
frequencies, respectively can be obtained. Owing to the
simple structure and ease of impedance matching, the
proposed antennas should be profitable for multiband
applications
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 39
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[2] Kumar H, Upadhayay MD, Rai VK, Varsheney Leena, Kanth
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[8] Kanth, RK, W. Ahmad, S. Shakya, P, Liljeberg, L.-R. Zheng, H
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[9] Kanth R.K., Qiansu Wan, Kumar,Harish, Pasi Liljeberg, Lirong
Zheng, Hannu Tenhunen,, Life Cycle Assessment of Printed
Antenna: Comparative Analysis and Environmental Impacts
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[10] Kanth R.K., Harish Kumar Qiansu Wan, Pasi Liljeberg, Lirong
Zheng, Hannu Tenhunen,, Insight into Quantitative
Environmental Emission Analysis, of Printed Circuit Board,
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[11] Kanth, R.K.; Liljeberg, P.; Tenhunen, H.; Qiansu Wan; Amin,
Y.; Botao Shao; Qiang Chen; Lirong Zheng; Kumar, H.
Evaluating Sustainability, Environmental Assessment and
Toxic Emissions during Manufacturing Process of RFID Based
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[12] Kanth R.K.; Liljeberg, Pasi; Tenhunen, Hannu; Chen, Qiang;
Zheng, Lirong; Kumar, Harish, Comparative Toxic Emission
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RFID Tags, Proceedings of International Conference on
Environment and Electrical Engineering (EEEIC) 2012,
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[13] Harish Kumar, Upadhyay M.D, ― Design UWB filter with
notched band for WLAN,‖ International journal of Antenna
& Propagation, ISSN: 1687-5869, E-ISSN: 1687-5877 Vol.
2012 article ID 971097, DOI 10.1155/2012/971097, page’s 1-4
[14] Harish Kumar, Vibhor K Bhardwaj, Upadhayay MD, Analysis
of Ultra wide band –band pass filter with WLAN notch,‖
ACEEE International journal on Communication (2012) DOI:
01IJCOM.3.1.503, Vol 03 Issue 01 July 2012 page(s) 45-47
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Microstrip Low Pass Filter using Double

Dumbell Shaped Defected Ground Structure
Abhiruchi Nagpal1 and P.K. Singhal2
1
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,
Shri Jagdish Prasad Jhabarmal Tibrewala University, Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan
2
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,
Madhav Institute of Technology & Science, Gwalior

Abstract—In this paper we propose a novel compact adopted in conventional LPF, are not required in the
size microstrip filter using double dumbbell shaped funnel proposed DGS-LPF. The proposed DGS-LPF has only
type Defected Ground Structure (DGS). Here, we have
studied the response of Funnel Shaped dumbbell. It is largely broadened microstrip lines and DGS patterns on
observed that proposed DGS has a bandwidth of 5.23 the ground plane. It is expected that the broadened
GHz with large stopband as well as sharp transition width of microstrip line would provide an improved
between-3 dB to-35 dB. The quality factor is also very high power-handling capability.
good. The occupying area of the proposed DGS is less as
compared to others.
II. DESIGN & SIMULATION
Keywords: Low pass filter, DGS filter, funnel shaped
DGS For designing of sharp cut off transition, band stop
resonator[2], We take a microstrip line on FR4 epoxy
I. INTRODUCTION substrate of permittivity 4.4 and dielectric thickness of
h=0.8 mm and metal thickness t=0.035mm and width
A wireless communication system demands a large
of strip 1.2mm with a gap width of 0.5mm is calculated
number of base-station filters with not only an excellent
by closed form of expression . This design is simulated
in-band performance (i.e., low losses), but also a good
on High frequency 3-D simulator.
out-of-band spurious performance. Dielectric-resonator
filters are preferable for wireless base stations due to
their superior characteristics of a high quality factor
and miniaturization. However, cost reduction remains a
key limiting factor for the widespread use of dielectric-
resonator filters in base-station applications. There are
increased demands for low-loss dielectric-resonator
filters that are compact and capable of being
manufactured in a large quantity at a reasonable low
cost. A new seven-pole LPF design method using the
DGS has been proposed. The proposed DGS-LPF
neither has open stubs, nor high-impedance lines
because a very wide microstrip line has been adopted to Fig. 1: Funnel Shaped Dumbbell DGS Top view
realize the shunt capacitors. The method to calculate
the cutoff frequency of the LPF has been developed
based on the modeled equivalent inductance and
capacitance, which depends on the dimension of the
DGS pattern. In addition, the method to determine the
size of the DGS pattern, which exactly realizes the
required transformed inductance, has been proposed by
curve fitting with excellent accuracy. Furthermore, the
equivalent inductance and capacitance of the microstrip
line have been considered to adjust the size of the DGS
pattern to get an exact dimension of the DGS. Open
stubs, junction elements, very high-impedance lines,
Fig. 2: Funnel Shaped Dumbbell DGS Bottom view
and abrupt step junctions, which have always been

40 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
 Microstrip Low
L Pass Filterr using Double Dumbell
D Shaped
d Defected Grou
und Structure

the DGS has nott been used too improve thee stop band
charracteristics ofo the LPF. The researcchers have
commmented that for the equall area of slott head, any
shap pe of slot can be used. How wever, an equaal area only
ensu ures equal equivalent
e innductance an
nd not the
idenntical responsse of the DG GS circuit elements. A
particular shape of o the slot in a ground planee could also
be more
m appropriate to design a complete ciircuit on the
samme substrate. The T shape, siize, and orien ntation of a
slot can have an influence on performance of the filter
and other neighbooring circuits.
Here we repport a new D DGS based band
b accept
conffiguration in a microstriip line, by which we
Fig. 3: Freequency Responsse of Funnel Shapped Dumbbell DG
GS commbined the band b reject aand band acccept DGS
conffiguration witth microstripp to develop a compact
III. RESULTT & OBSERVATTION seveen pole low pass p Recently DGS have been
filter. R
We obbserve sharp cut
c off transittion [3]. Whenn we gainning interest for their plaanar form an nd ease of
vary the dimension
d of various param meter of defeected fabrrication. They are very usefful in the desiign of LPF,
ground strructure for opptimization, we
w realize thaat the BSF F and BPF, since a few DG GS can providde a cut-off
resonance frequency f 0 of funnel shaped Dumbbbell freqquencies and an a attenuationn pole withouut a need of
cell dependds on the physsical dimensioons of the celll. For periodic array ass compared w with EBG stru ucture. The
example, f 0 can be reduced
r by using
u smallerr gap latteer needs manyy units to build a filter. Onee advantage
of employing
e DG GS is that thee fabrication cost
c can be
between strip, larger area a of cell or
o larger disttance
between thhe two cells.. Since gap between stripps is redu uced with a siimultaneous im mprovement of the filter
generally limited by PCB fabriccation techniqques, perfformance. Annother advantaage is that th hey can be
increasing the size of thhe cell is the practical
p apprroach easily modeled usingu simple RLC circuits, especially
of reducinng the resonnance frequenncy. If theree are for microstrip
m linne structures. Because of thhe excellent
floating paatches inside thhe dumbbell-sshaped cell, itt will stopp-band and sloow-wave charaacteristics, thee DGS have
exhibit a shift
s toward lower values. To measuree the been n applied wiidely to micrrostrip circuiits such as
compactneess of the structures,
s w simulated the
we filters, amplifierss and antennaas. DGSs are realized by
transmissioon coefficientt of microstriip lines on toop of etchhing defects inn the backsidde metallic grround plane
these structures. The sim mulations are performed using a undeer a microstriip line. A basic and widely y used DGS
full-wave EM simulatoor. The substrate used inn the cell is composedd of two widde defected areas a and a
simulation has the samee parameters as a the FR4 withw a narrrow connectinng slot. A DGS-slot combin nation has a
board thickkness of 0.8 mm,m a dielectrric constant of ε r - simp ple structure and can be m modeled as a parallel LC
=4.4, and a loss tangentt of 0.0009. In I the simulattions, resoonator. Such a structure bloocks the signaal around its
the width of
o the center metal
m traces inn all the strucctures resoonant frequency and may be used to introduce i a
is kept at a fixed value and is the sam me as the widdth of widee stopband foor low-pass, bband-pass and d band stop
the microsttrip lines. filters. Such filters have sharpp transitions between
b the
The coompactness off the proposedd resonant celll can passsband and thee stopband, loow insertion loss in the
be understood based onn the parameteers extracted from passsband, wide stopband
s and high attenuaation in the
the equivaalent-circuit model
m proposeed by Woo et e al. stoppband.
We can compare thee extracted equivalent-ciircuit A new technnique is propoosed to reducee the size of
parameterss of the DGS S cell with coonventional seven
s the LPF. Using thhe resonant characteristics of the new
pole low pass
p filter. It is
i observed thhat the capacittance prop posed DGS, the t equivalentt circuit of th he proposed
of the prroposed cell is greater than t that off the DGS S unit sectionn is derived by using fieeld analysis
conventionnal low passs filter, while there is little meth hod. The new w DGS consiists of two Fu unnel areas
difference in the inducttances. Thus, we can concclude (equ uivalent to innductor), whicch are conneccted with a
that the extended
e gapp length resuults in increeased large slotted gapp (equivalentt to capacitorr), thus an
capacitancee, and the inccreased capaccitance leads to fo imprrovement in the t transition characteristicss of filter is
reduction and
a size reducction. achiieved. The following
fo obsservations aree measured
The quuasi-lumped element
e basedd on the photoonic- fromm the waveform m.
band gap (PBG) groundd plane and thee defected groound- f CU =8.34GH Hz
plane struuctures (DGS Ss) have beeen proposedd to f CL =5.23GHHz
improve reejection in the stop band of o LPF. How wever, Stop BW =3..1 GHz.

Bhagwant Institute
e of Technologyy, Muzaffarnaga h, India ‹ 41
ar, Uttar Pradesh
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

IV. DGS PATTERN AND MODELING FOR THE V. CONCLUSION

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Here we successfully designed a very compact size
5 fc of Low Pass filter with a pass band of 5.23 GHz and
C= pF
π [ f02 − fc 2 ] Stop Bandwidth of 3.11GHz, its sharpness factor is
250
very high. The circuit has high Q value 2.72 as
L= nH compared to conventional filter whose Q is very low.
C (πf 0 ) 2
By using calculated value of the inductor and capacitor
f0 a filter is designed which is almost equal to the
Q=
f CU − f CL proposed DGS filter both having almost same-3dB cut
By using the above formula we can calculate the off frequency.
value of L,
L=0.915 nH REFERENCES
C=0.559 pF [1] J.S. Lim, C.S. Kim, Y.T. Lee, D. Ahn and S. Nam, “Design of
Q=2.72. Low Pass filters Using Defected Ground Structure and
Using these calculated parameters we simulate on Compensated Microstrip Line, ” IEE Electronics Letters, Vol.
38, No. 22, 24 October 2002, pp. 1357–1358
ADS and got good agreement with circuit simulated [2] Anand K. Verma, Adel B. Abdel-Rahman, Ahmed Boutejdar,
result. & A.S.Omar “Control of Bandstop Response of Hi-Lo
Microstrip Low Pass Filter Using slot in Ground Plane”IEEE,
Transactions on MTT, Vol.52, No3, March 2004.
[3] Kumar, P.; Kishor, J.; Shrivastav, A.K.; “Formulation of size
reduction technique in microstrip circuits using DGS and DMS”
Recent Advances in Microwave Theory and Applications,
2008.MICROWAVE 2008. International Conference on 21-24
Nov. 2008 Page(s):861-864 Digital Object Identifier
1109/AMTA.2008.4763173
[4] Kumar, P.; Jagadeesh, C.; Baral, R.N.; Singhal, P.K.; “Design
and fabrication of six pole microstrip elliptical low pass filter”
Recent Advances in Microwave Theory and Applications,
2008. MICROWAVE 2008. International Conference on 21-24
Nov. 2008 Page(s):116-118 Digital Object Identifier
0.1109/AMTA.2008.4763111
Fig. 4: Equivalent Circuit from Calculated Value of L and C [5] Microwave Engineering (Third Edition) by David M. Pozar
[6] Microwave Engineering Passive circuits by Peter A. Rizzi
0
[7] Microstrip Filters for RF/Microwave Applications by JIA-
Sheng Hong M.J. Lancaster
-20
dB(S(1,1))
dB(S(2,1))

-40

-60

-80
0 2 4 6 8 10

freq, GHz

Fig. 5: Frequency Response Curve of Equivalent Circuit

42 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Broadband E-H Shaped Microstrip Patch

Antenna for Wireless System
Khushboo Naruka1 and Ritika Tiwari2
1
Assistant Professor in Electronics & Communication Department,
Ajmer Institute of Technology, Ajmer (Rajasthan)
2
Assistant Professor in Electronics & Communication Department,
Ajmer Institute of Technology, Ajmer (Rajasthan)
e-mail: 1naruka.khushboo@gmail.com, 2ritika.tiwari65@gmail.com

Abstract—A Broadband inverted E-H shaped
microstrip patch anteena is proposed and experimentally
investigated .The anteena employs E-H shaped patch with
L-probe feed techniques. The designed anteena has a
dimension of 80mm by 50mm.With the use of L-prob feed
and E-H microstrip patch.The antenna has achieved 30%
impedance bandwidth from 1.76GHz to 2.38GHz and a
maximum gain of 9.37dBi. Stable radiation pattern across
the operating bandwidth are observed. In addition, a
parametric study is conducted to facilitate the design &
optimization process.
probe technique with a thick air-filled substrate
provides the bandwidth enhancement,while the
application of superstrate with inverted radiating patch
offers a gain enhancement,and the use of parallel (E
shaped) And series slot (H-shaped) reduce the size of
the patch.The H-ped slots also help to reduce the cross-
polarization level .e other hand world also provide the
necessary protection for the patch from the
environmental

I. INTRODUCTION
Because of booming demand in wireless
communication system application,microstrip patch
antenna have attracted much interst due to their low
profil, ranging from narrow bandwidth and low
gain.However, light weight, ease of fabrication and
compatibility with printed circuits.However, they also
have some drawback, ranging from narrow bandwidth
to low gain[1].However, bandwidth enhancement and
size reducation are becoming major design
consideration for practical application of microstrip (a)
antennas due to the improvement of one of the
characteristics,which normally result in degradation of
the other.
This paper a new E-H shaped patch anteena for
enhancing the impedence bandwidth and gain.This
design employs contemporary techniques namely,the
L-probe feeding, inverted patch,& E-H shaped patch
techniques to meet the design requirement.By
extending the edge of E-shaped slot,a wider impedence (b)
bandwidth of 30% compared to the design reported Fig. 1: Configuration of the Proposed Patch Antenna
in[2-3] and gain of 9.37dbi compared to the design (a) Top View (b) Side view
reported in[4-5]
Effect.By incorporating amended E-shaped slot in
II. ANTENNA CONFIGURATION radiating edges, the bandwidth has been improved.In
addition, the antenna has wider impedence bandwidth
The configuration of the proposed inverted E-H in comparison with the antenna described in[2-3].The
patch antenna illustrated in figure 1.The proposed patch proposal radiating patch encompasses slots
with dimension of 80mm×50mm integrates both the E symmetrically adjacent to the excitation probe and
and H shaped slots on the same radiating element. The defining a capacitive load for compensating an
E-and H–shaped slots on the patch are shown in Figure inductance of the excitation probe antenna so as to
1(a).Table 1 shows the optimized design parameters obtain wideband operating frequency. Again single
obtained for the proposed patch antenna.The use of L-

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 43
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

layer slotted antenna is investigated for enhancement of

bandwidth up to 27.62%[6].Another L-probe feed high
gain antenna is examined in [7].However,the
bandwidth of that antenna drops to 21.15%.
TABLE 1: THE PROPOSED PATCH ANTENNA DESIGN PARAMETERS
Parameter Value[mm] parameter Value[mm]
W 80 l3 7
L 50 h0 16
w1 10 h1 1.5748
L1 1 hp 14
w2 6 lp 24
l2 40 fp 8
w3 6

III. RESULT & DISCUSSION

To achieve unlimited near–field sampling using a
probe array, the spherical scanning system was utilized (a)
for this near-field antenna measurement system.Using
standard spherical wave expansion techniques,the
antenna radiation can be fully defined by a set of model
coefficients.These model coefficients are fed to a
software employing a ray propagation technique. Probe
array technologies are now accepted as an efficient and
accurate tool for antenna measurements.Figure 2 shows
the simulated & measured return loss result of the
proposed patch antenna. There is good agreement
between the measured & simulated result. The two
closely excited resonant frequency at 1.91GHz and
2.21GHz as shown in figure give the measure of wide
band characteristic of the patch antenna.

(b)
Fig. 3: Measured Radiation Pattern of the Antenna (a) Azimuth (b)
Elevation

The measured peak gain with frequency is shown

Fig. 2: Measured and Simulated Return Loss of the Proposed Patch
The radiation patterns are measured at resonant
frequencies of 1.91GHz and 2.21GHz and at centre
frequency 2.07GHz. The design antenna displays good
broadband radiation pattern in the azimuth and
elevation which can be clearly seen in the figure 3.It is
notable that the radiation characteristics of the
proposed patch antenna because good cross–
polarisation level of-30dB at xz-plane is achieved over
the impedance bandwidth
in figure 4. As shown in the figure,the maximum
measured gain is 9.37dBi at 2.18GHz and the gain
variation is 1.81dBi between the frequency range
1.76GHz to 2.38GHz.The total efficiency of the
proposed patch antenna at various frequencies where
the total efficiency of the antenna is measured in 3D
space. The figure indicate high antenna efficiency over
the operational frequency,and it is around an average of
80% while the maximum measured efficiency is 89% at
2.24GHz.The comparison of the proposed antenna with
our previously published antennas is tabulated in Table
2.From the table it can be concluded antenna that the
proposed antenna has better bandwidth at-10Db return
loss and 3-Db beamwidth at xz-plane compared to our
previously published papers.

44 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Broadband E-H Shaped Microstrip Patch Antenna for Wireless System
Fig. 4 (a): Measured Gain of the Antenna
Fig. 4 (b): Measured Efficiency of the Antenna
IV. CONCLUSION
A.broadband microstrip antenna for gain and
bandwidth enhancement is successfully developed.
With the use of L-prob fed and E-H microstrip patch,
the antenna has achieved 30% impedance bandwidth
from 1.76GHz to2.38GHz and maximum gain of
9.37dBi. Techniques for microstrip broadbanding, size
reduction, high gain and stable radiation pattern are
carried out and experimentally verified in this design.
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 45
Furthermore, the parametric studies have addressed the
effect of the width and length of a slot of the patch and
height of the air gap on the performance of the antenna.
The information derived from the studied will be
helpful for the antenna engineers to design and
optimize the antennas for indoor wireless applications.
REFERENCES
[1] Ramadan,A.,K.Y. Kabalan, A.EL-Hajj,S. Khoury, and M.AL-
Husseini “ A reconfigurable U-koch microstrip antenna for
wireless application,” Progress In Electromagnetic Research,
PIER 93,355–367,2009
[2] Wu, G-L., W.Mu, G.Zhao, and Y.-C. Jiao, “A noval design of
dual circulary polarized antenna feed by L-strip,” Progress In
Electromagnetic Research, PIER 79, 39–46, 2008.
[3] Sun, J. S. and S. Y. Huang,” A small 3-d multi-band antenna of
F shape for portable phones applications,” progress in
Electromagnetic Research Letters, VOL.9, 183–192, 2009.
[4] Abdulla, P. & A chakrabarty, “Rectangular waveguide feed
hemisphericai dielectric resonator antenna,” progress in
electromagnetic recharge PIER83, 225–244, 2008.
[5] Albooyeh, M., N. Kamjani, & M.Shobeyri, “A novel cross –slot
geometry to improve the impedance bandwidth of microstrip
antennas,” progress in Electromagnetic Research Letters,
VOL.4, 63–72, 2008.
[6] Islam, M. T., Shakib, and N. Misran, “Multi-slotted microstrip
patch antenna for wireless communication,” progress in
Electromagnetic Research Letters,VOL.10,11–18,2009
[7] Islam, M. T., Shakib, and N. Misran, “Design analysis of high
gain wideband L-prob feed microstrip patch antenna,” Progress
In Electromagnetic Research, PIER 95, 397–407, 2009.
[8] Foged, L.J. and A. Giacomini, “Wideband dual polarized
probes for near and farfield measurement systems,” IEEE
Antennas and propagation society international Symposium
2008, 5-11, 2008.
[9] Ren, W., J.Y. Deng, and K.S Chen, “Compact PCB monopole
antenna for UWB application,”Journal of Elestromagnetic
Wave and application, Vol. 21, No. 10, 1411–1420, 2007.
[10] Denidni, D.A., N. Hassaine, and Q.Rao,” Broadband high-gain
E-shaped microstrip antenna for high-speed wireless networks,”
Progress In Electromagnetic Research C, Vol. 1,105–111,
2008.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Gain Enhancement in Microstrip Patch Antenna
using Edge Modification of Patch and Partial
Substrate Removal
Rajeev Kumar1, Devaki Nandan Yadav2 and Lakhivinder Singh Solanki3
1,2,3
Sant Longowal College of Engineering & Technology, Longowal, Sangrur
e-mail: 200rajeev@gmail.com, 2deavv6@gmail.com, 3lakhvinder_singh_solanki@yahoo.co.uk
1
Abstract—This paper presents microstrip patch
antenna using aperture coupled fed. Various designs are
proposed by using partial substrate removal. The gain
and radiation pattern of proposed antenna has been
investigated by using Ansoft HFSS simulator. The
antenna is designed for operating frequency 2.4 GHz. As
compare with conventional patch antenna, partial
substrate is helpful to improve gain. In this paper three
different structure is proposed and the designs is
confirmed through proper simulation results.
Keywords: Microstrip patch antenna, Aperture
coupling, return loss, radiation pattern.
I. INTRODUCTION
Microstrip antennas have a variety of applications
in widespread wireless communication system. In
microwave and even millimeter-wave frequency ranges
microstrip antenna has become an attractive tool,
because of the advantages like; it is very compact size,
light and low cost [1]. It can be interconnected with
other RF components neatly and require less space in a
component configuration. It is also easy to be
fabricated on the planar type substrate as antenna
component and also it is convenient to change the
shape of patch antenna for the purpose in limited space
case by case.
Microstrip aperture coupled antenna is easy and
cheap to manufacture, lightweight and planar. In this
scheme, a microstrip line on a back substrate excites a
slot in the ground plane, which then excites the patch
cavity. This scheme has the advantage of isolating the
feeding network from the radiating patch element. It
also overcomes the limitation on substrate thickness
imposed by the feed inductance of a coaxial probe, so
that thicker substrates and hence higher bandwidths can
be obtained
Fig. 1.1: Aperture Coupled Fed Microstrip Antenna.
46
However, microstrip patch antennas suffer from a
number of disadvantages as compared to conventional
non printed antennas. Some of their major drawbacks
are the narrow bandwidth, low gain, and surface wave
excitation that reduce radiation efficiency. However,
three types of losses i.e. conductor loss, dielectric loss
and surface wave loss results in lower gain of a patch
antenna. The conductor loss and the dielectric loss
depend on the quality of the materials being used such
as copper or gold, and the substrate, respectively. The
dielectric loss is dependent on the loss tangent of
materials and substrate thickness while the surface
wave loss depends on the permittivity of materials and
the substrate thickness [2]. Multiple techniques have
been proposed, The simplest one is to use a thick
substrate that potentially could enhance the Appropriate
quality of conductor and substrate can reduce the
conductor and dielectric losses in Microstrip antenna,
the gain of the patch antenna can further be enhanced
by suppressing surface waves [3][4]. Another easy
method is to replace the substrate of patch antennas
with air. But it becomes bulky, so another method is to
form cavity in substrate by partially removing the
substrate. Which replace substrate with lower
dielectric.
In this paper we propose new technique to enhance
gain by partial substrate removal. All Microstrip
antennas are simulated on Ansoft “High frequency
structure simulator (HFSS) “software.
II. DESIGN OF APERTURE COUPLED
MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA
We are using conventional aperture coupled
microstrip patch antennas that will resonance at 2.4
GHz. Two substrate with dielectric constant Ɛr= 6.15
and loss tangent is of 0.002 of thickness h1=7.629mm
& h2=1.279 mm is stacked together. Ground plane is
formed between two substrates. The ground plane is of
125mm x 125mm. the centre of patch is about 70.1mm
from the substrate sides. Length & width of patch is
about L-16.8mm, W=25 mm respectively. A slot cut at
the center of patch and along the ground plane is taken
as Ls=19 mm & Ws=0.8 mm. the feed line is having
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
 Gain Enhancement in Microstrip Patch Antenna using Edge Modification of Patch and Partial Substrate Removal
Width Wf==1.85 mm. fig2.1 shows the 3d view of
aperture coupled patch antenna and Fig 2.2 shows the
Top and side view of Aperture coupled microstrip
patch antenna
Fig. 2.1: 3D View of Aperture Coupled Microstrip Patch Antenna
with Two Substrate Layer
The S11 gain obtained for this antenna is-20.98 db
at 2.45 GHz. Bandwidth at-10dB is (2.33 GHz-
2.68GHz).
Fig. 2.2: Aperture Coupled Microstrip Patch Antenna
The S11 plot & radiation pattern at 2.45 GHz is
shown in fig 2.3(a) & (b)
Fig. 2.3: (a) S11 Plot of Aperture Coupled Microstrip Antenna
(b) Radiation Pattern of Aperture Coupled Microstrip Antenna
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 47
III. DESIGN OF APERTURE COUPLED MICROSTRIP PATCH
ANTENNA WITH PARTIAL SUBSTRATE REMOVAL
The substrate S11 is partially removed around the
patch surface. This removal of substrate results in
reducing surface wave loss. This proposed substrate
removed antenna is going to achieve 10% gain
improvement as compare to conventional aperture
coupled microstrip antenna.
Design structure is shown in fig 3.1
Fig. 3.1: Modified Aperture Coupled Microstrip Patch Antenna
by Partially Substrate Removal
The 3D view of HFSS design is shown in fig 3.2
Fig. 3.2: Proposed Model Modified Aperture Coupled Microstrip
Patch Antenna by Partially Substrate Removal in 3D view
(Simulated in Ansoft HFSS)
Fig. 3.3: (a) S11 Plot of Modified Aperture Coupled Microstrip
Patch Antenna by Partially Substrate Removal (b) Radiation
Pattern Modified Aperture Coupled Microstrip Patch Antenna
by Partially Substrate Removal
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

The first substrate is modified by removing

substrate material around the patch[3] . The length and
width both of modified patch is equal to 60 mm. other
parameters are unchanged. This modification gives
enhanced gain of 2dB. Simulated result of return loss &
radiation pattern is shown in fig 3.3 (a) & Fig 3.3 (b)

IV. DESIGN OF APERTURE COUPLED MICROSTRIP PATCH

ANTENNA BY EDGE MODIFIED PATCH
In this Approach the antenna from section III is
modified again. This time the side of patch is removed
from all the edges. Removed area is having same length
& width with triangular in shape. The removed size is
of 2mm. This modification gives huge decrement in
return loss. And will able to achieve S11=-33.47dB.
Gain is also improve from 3.74 to 4.15. the combined Fig. 4.2: (a) S11 Plot of Modified Aperture Coupled Microstrip
Modified Patch Antenna by Partially Substrate Removal
radiation loss and radiation parameter is shown in (b) Radiation Pattern Modified Aperture Coupled Microstrip
fig4.2 Modified Patch Antenna by Partially Substrate Removal

V. CONCLUSION
The design and construction of Modified Substrate
& patch microstrip patch antenna using Aperture
coupled fed can be beneficial in term of advancement
in antenna’s technology that has very feasible value of
return loss. The combination of two substrate with
different surface area will be beneficial.

REFERENCES
[1] R. Garg, I. Bhartia, I. Bahl, and A. Ittipiboon, Microstrip
Antenna Design Handbook, Artech House, Boston, Mass, USA,
2001.
[2] R. Gonzalo, P. de Maagt, and M. Sorolla, “Enhanced patch-
antenna performance by suppressing surface waves using
photonic-bandgap substrates,” IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory
Tech., vol. 47, no. 11, pp. 2131–2138, Nov. 1999.
[3] Siew Bee Yeap, Zhi Ning Chen, “Microstrip Patch Antennas
With Enhanced Gain by Partial Substrate Removal,” IEEE
Trans. Microw. Theory Tech., vol. 58, no. 09, pp. 2811-2817,
Sep 2010.
[4] Siew Bee Yeap, Zhi Ning Chen, “Gain-Enhanced 60-GHz
LTCC Antenna Array With Open Air Cavities, IEEE Trans.
Microw. Theory Tech., vol. 59, no. 09, pp. 3470–3473, Sep
2011.
[5] H. Boutayeb and T. A. Denidni, “Gain enhancement of a
microstrip patch antenna using a cylindrical electromagnetic
crystal substrate,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 55, no.
11, pp. 3140–3145, Nov. 2007.
[6] Manidipa Nath, “Wideband Micromachined Patch Antenna,”
International Journal of Scientific Research Engineering
&Technology (IJSRET) Volume 1, Issue2, pp 016-017, May.
2012.
[7] Awida, M.H., Suleiman, S.F., Fathy, A.E.: ‘Substrate-integrated
cavity backed patch arrays: a low-cost approach for bandwidth
enhancement’, IEEE Transactions on antennas and propagation,
2011, 59, pp. 1155–1163.
[8] D.M. Pozar, “Microstrip antennas,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 80, pp.
79–91, Jan. 1992.
Fig. 4.1: (a) Top View of Proposed Design with Modified Patch
(b) Aperture Coupled Microstrip with Modified Patch Antenna by
Partially Substrate Removal in 3D view (Simulated in Ansoft HFSS)
(c) Top View of Simulated Antenna in HFSS

48 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Dual Band Circle with Rectangular Segment

Fractal Antenna
Vimlesh Verma1 and P.K. Singhal2
1
Shri Jagdish Prasad Jhabarmal TibrewalaI UniversityVidyanagari, Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan
2
Professor, Dept. of Electronics, MITS, Gwalior, India
e-mail: 1vimleshsingh2008@gmail.com

Abstract—This paper presents a dual band 3GHz

frequency range fractal antenna, choosing an appropriate
size and the feed location. Fractals have very unique
property of self similarity which differentiates itself from
other kind of antennas. This property provides multiple
usages in the Multi-band and broad-band antennas’
design and application. However this uniqueness of
Fractals is determined and governed by its geometrical
design. Simulation is performed via IE3D software.
Results of simulation show that suggested antenna is dual
band because it is operational in 1-3GHz frequency range.
Fig. 1.1: Generator
Keywords: Bandwidth-fractals-fractal antennas dual
band.

I. INTRODUCTION
Modern communication systems require antennas
with more bandwidth and smaller dimensions
compared to conventional antennas. Fractal geometry is
a very good solution to fabricate these antennas.
Fractals are created from self-similar elements which
are iterated in various directions and increasing
iterations does not change their entire form because Fig. 1.2: First Iteration
their small sections are reduced-size copy of the whole.
Self-similarity of fractals causes multi-band and broad-
band properties of antennas [1-4].
Fractals are highly convoluted and jagged shapes
in which these discontinuities increase bandwidth and
effective radiation of antennas. Fractal antennas can
place long electrical length into small volume using
their ability of space-filling [5-7]. In this paper another
shape of fractal is presented.
Dimensions of this fractal antenna are 45mm circle
as generator and its bandwidth is 3GHz Fig. 1.3: Second Iteration

II. ANTENNA SPECIFICATION

The proposed generator is a 45mm circle as in
figure1.1. This fractal antenna is an iterative model of
circle with rectangular segment antenna for first,
second and third iterations as shown in figures 1.2, 1.3
and 1.4.The fractal antenna were assumed to have
dielectric substrate of 1.6mm height and relative
permittivity as4.4.
Fig. 1.4: Third Iteration

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III. SIMULATION RESULTS

The MOM (method of moment) is used for
simulating this antenna with IE3D software. Feed
location is varying for each iteration. The figure 2.1,
2.2 and 2.3 shows the return loss for different iteration.
In first iteration resonance occur at 2.36GHz for feed
location of (-28,19).In second iteration resonance occur
at 2.708GHz & 2.86GHz for feed location of (-
23.5,4.7).In third iteration resonance occur at 2.90GHz
&2.96GHz for feed location of(-14,5).

Fig. 3.1: 2.36GHz

Fig. 2.1: First Iteration

Fig. 3.2 (a): 2.708GHz

Fig. 2.2: Second Iteration

Fig. 3.2 (b): 2.86GHz

Fig. 2.3: Third Iteration

Radiation pattern for different iterations are shown

in figure 3.1, 3.2a. 3.2b. 3.3a & 3.3b.
Fig. 3.3 (a): 2.90GHz

50 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Dual Band Circle with Rectangular Segment Fractal Antenna

Smith chart for the proposed antenna shown in the

figure5.1, 5.2 &5.3

Fig. 3.3 (b): 2.96GHz

VSWR for the ideal antenna should be less than 2

for good transmission and reception. VSWR for the
proposed antenna is shown in the figure4.1, 4.2 &4.3. Fig. 5.1: Smith Chart for First Iteration

Fig. 4.1: VSWR for first iteration

Fig. 5.2: Smith Chart for Second Iteration

Fig. 4.2: VSWR for Second Iteration

Fig. 5.3: Smith Chart for Third Iteration

IV. CONCLUSION
The concepts of fractals is applied to analyze
proposed antenna as per the result proposed design is
most suited for dual band operation. The self similar
nature of the geometry of the fractal antenna results in
very similar antenna characteristics across many band
as defined by the geometry.
Fig. 4.3: VSWR for Third Iteration

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 51

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REFERENCES [5] J. Gouyet, ‘Physics and Fractal Structures’ New York:

Springer, 1996.
[1] J.P. Gianvittorio, “Fractal, MEMS, and FSS Electromagnetic [6] D. H. Werner, and Raj Mittra, ‘Frontiers in Electromagnetics’,
Devices Miniaturization and Multiple Resonances” New York: IEEE Press 2000
Dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles 2003 [7] C. Puente, J. Romeu, R. Pous, J. Ramis and A. Hijazo, ”Small
[2] N. Cohen, “Fractal Antenna Application in Wireless but Long Koch Fractal Monopole” Electronics Letters,1998
Telecommunications” Proceedings of Electronics Industries [8] A. Azari, and J. Rowhani, ”Ultra Wideband Fractal Microstrip
Forum of New England, 1997, pp. 43-49 Antenna Design” Progress In Eectromagnetics Research C,
[3] K. J. Vinoy, “Fractal Shaped Antenna Elements for Wide and Vol. 2,7-12,2008.
Multi–Band Wireless Applications” Thesis, Pennsylvania, Aug.
2002.
[4] J. P. Gianvittorio and Yahya Rahmat Samii, ”Fractal Antennas:
A Novel antenna Miniaturization Technique and Applications”
IEEE Antenna and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 44 No.1, Feb
2002.

52 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Study of Wideband Semi Circular

Micro Strip Patch Antenna
Sunita Virmani
Department of Electronics and Communication,
FET, Faridabad

Abstract—A new antenna structure comprising a performance has been validated by the measured return
semicircular micro strip patch alongside a small loss and radiation patterns.
rectangular shape ground proximity fed by a micro strip
line is studied. On a thin substrate this antenna achieves
in the range of 5.8–12.9 GHz an impedance bandwidth of
almost 75%. Details of the antenna design, simulation and
measured results on the return loss and the E and H-
plane radiation pattern of the studied antenna are
presented.

I. INTRODUCTION
The low profile, light weight and low cost of
manufacturing of micro strip patch antennas have made
them attractive for many applications. The modern
trends in communication systems require wide
bandwidth and small size, low profile antennas. Micro
strip patch antennas on a thin dielectric substrate
inherently have the disadvantage of narrow impedance Fig. 1: Geometry of the Antenna
bandwidth. To increase the bandwidth of a single layer
micro strip patch antenna several configurations have II. ANTENNA GEOMETRY
been proposed by researchers such as placing parasitic
patches on the same layer with the main patch [1], chip The geometry of the antenna is shown in Fig. 1,
resistor loading [2], E-shaped patch [3], placing a U- where a semicircular patch with radius r = 6 mm is
slot on the patch [4], planer micro strip fed tap placed co-planar to a finite ground plane that has a
monopole antenna [5], rectangular slot antenna with rectangular shape with size of G W = 30 mm ×
patch stub [6], Vivaldi antenna [7] and square ring GL = 10 mm. The dielectric substrate used is FR4
patch with shorting posts [8]. Majority of these works of dimension 30 × 30 mm2 with thickness h = 1.6
carried out are based on relatively thick substrates. mm. The separation distance between the patch
Indeed, there are many different methods proposed in and the ground is d = 2 mm. The patch is
the literature to tackle the narrow-band width problem, proximity fed by a 50C micro strip line with line length
[9–11] none of which uses thin substrate to achieve and width FL = 10 mm and FW = 3 mm,
wide bandwidth performance. respectively.
In this paper, a low profile micro strip patch
antenna is studied. Unlike the usual method of
placing the patch antenna on top of a ground plane,
the patch is placed alongside a small rectangular
ground co planar to it. The thickness of the
substrate used is approximately 0.02 λ (1.6mm).
The size of the ground and the radius of the patch
and their relative position are optimized to achieve a
wide bandwidth. The optimized antenna structure
achieves in the frequency range of 5.86–12.86
GHz an impedance bandwidth of almost 75%. E
and H-plane radiation patterns shows slight tilt in
the main beam position but the patterns are almost
unchanged in the operating band. The achieved Fig. 2: Top and Bottom Views of the Antenna

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The effect of ground plane length is shown in Fig. 6.

The studied antenna is sensitive to GL and in fact
broadband performance is obtained for GL = 10 mm. It
is known that in proximity fed patch antennas the
position of the feed line under patch is important. Fig.
7, shows the effect of the feed line length, F L . For
F L = 10 mm the highest bandwidth with good return
loss is noticeable.

Fig. 3: Return Loss of the Antenna with Changes in Patch Radius, r

To obtain a good impedance match the end of the

feed line has to extend beyond the centre of the patch.
Initially, several different simple shapes for the
patch antenna was used but in order to minimize
the size of the patch and at the same time
maximize the bandwidth it was found that a
semicircular patch and an optimized geometry of
the whole structure (the ground plane dimension,
separation between the patch and the ground and
feed line position) gives the best possible
impedance bandwidth.
Fig. 5: Return Loss of the Antenna with Changes in Ground Plane
width, GW

Fig. 4: Return Loss of the Antenna with Changes in Separation

between Patch and Ground Plane, d Fig. 6: Return Loss of the Antenna with Changes in Ground Plane
Length, GL
III. SIMULATION AND MEASUREMENT RESULTS Fig. 8 shows both the simulated as well as the
The antenna performance was investigated both by measured return loss where close agreement between
simulation via a commercially available finite element the two is in evidence. From this figure, the simulated
program, HFSS, and through measurement. In order to result shows around 75% of bandwidth while the
provide design criteria for the proposed antenna, the measured result shows 73%. As a comparison, the same
effects of each geometrical parameter are analyzed. The semicircular patch as that of Fig. 1 with r = 6 mm if
antenna dimensions r, d, GW, GL, and F L are initially placed on top of a grounded dielectric shows a
set at 6, 2, 30, 10 and 10 mm, respectively, and then resonance frequency of 12.44 GHz with 6.5%
one parameter is changed at a time while the others impedance bandwidth.
are kept constant. Fig. 3 shows the simulated return
loss of the antenna with various patch radiuses, r. It
can be seen that with increase in patch size, the
frequency of operation decreases. Fig. 4 shows the
simulated return loss with various patch to ground
plane separation, d. By increasing d, the coupling
between the patch and the ground reduces and the
antenna shows a wider bandwidth and a better return
loss magnitude. The simulated return loss with various
ground plane width, GW are shown in Fig. 5 where it
can be seen that the higher width gives a broader Fig. 7: Return Loss of the Proposed Antenna with Changes in Feed
bandwidth as well as a lower return loss magnitude. Line Length, FL

54 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Study of Wideband Semi Circular Micro Strip Patch Antenna

Fig. 8: Simulated and Measured Return Loss of the Proposed

Antenna with: r = 6 mm, d = 2 mm, GW = 30 mm, GL = 10 mm, FL
=10 mm, h = 1.6 mm.

Figures 9 to 11 shows the measured radiation

patterns for the E and H-plane pattern including both
Co-and Cross-polarization of the co planar patch
antenna at three different frequencies 6.0, 9.0 and
11.5 GHz in the pass-band. Fig. 10 shows the
simulated and measured radiation patterns at 9 GHz
for E-plane and H-plane pattern.

Fig. 10: Measured and Simulated E-and H-plane Radiation

Pattern at 9GH

Fig. 9: Measured E-and H-plane Radiation Pattern at 6 GHz

The simulated and the measured patterns agree

well at all frequencies. The patterns are bi-
directional and are almost stable across the
impedance bandwidth. The cross polarization level is
quite low. The distorted radiation pattern in the higher
frequency is caused by the unequal phase distribution
on the antenna aperture and increased magnitudes
of higher order modes [12]. Fig. 11: Measured E-and H-plane Radiation Pattern at 11.5 GHz

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 55

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
IV. CONCLUSION
In this paper a co-planar micro strip patch antenna
with wide bandwidth behavior has been studied.
Simulated as well as measured results are presented
for a semicircular shape patch antenna. Compared
with other micro strip patch antennas of high
bandwidths this structure has the attractive features of
low profile, smaller patch size and being simple to
design. Optimization of the structure gives 73%
impedance bandwidth with reasonable bidirectional
patterns suitable for many applications.
REFERENCES
[1] Kumar, G. and K. C. Gupta, “Directly coupled multiple
resonator wide-band micro strip antenna,” IEEE Transactions
on Antennas and Propagation, Vol. 33, 588–593, June 1985.
[2] Wong, K. L. and Y. F. Lin, “Small broadband rectangular micro
strip antenna with chip-resistor loading,” Electron. Lett., Vol.
33, 1593–1594, 1997.
[3] Yang, F., X.-X. Zhang, X. Ye, and Y. Rahmat-Samii, “Wide-
band E-shaped patch antennas for wireless communications,”
IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, Vol. 49, No.
7, 1094–1100, July 2001.
[4] Weigand, S., G. H. Huff, K. H. Pan, and J. T. Bernard,
“Analysis and design of broadband single layer U-slot micro
strip patch.antennas,” IEEE Transactions on Antennas and
Propagation, Vol. 51, No. 3, 457–468, March 2003.
56 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
[5] Eldek, A. A., “Numerical analysis of a small ultra wideband
micro strip-fed tap monopole antenna,” Progress In
Electromagnetics Research, PIER 65, 59–69, 2006.
[6] Eldek, A. A., A. Z. Elsherbeni, and C. E. Smith, “Rectangular
slot antenna with patch stub for ultra wideband applications and
phased array systems,” Progress In Electromagnetics Research,
PIER 53, 227–237, 2005.
[7] Mehdipour, A., K. Mohammadpour-Aghdam, and R. Faraji-
Dana, “Complete dispersion analysis of vivaldi antenna for
ultra wideband applications,” Progress In Electromagnetics
Research, PIER 77, 85–96, 2007.
[8] Row, J. S. and S. H. Chen, “Wideband monopolar square ring
patch antenna,” IEEE Transactions on Antennas and
Propagation, Vol. 54, No. 4, 1335–1339, April 2006.
[9] Joardar, S. and A. B. Bhattacharya, “Two new ultra wideband
dual polarized antenna-feeds using planar log periodic antenna
and innovative frequency independent reflectors,” Journal of
Electromagnetic Waves and Applications, Vol. 20, No. 11,
1465– 1479, 2006.
[10] Chen, X. and K. Huang, “Wideband properties of fractal bowtie
dipoles,” Journal of Electromagnetic Waves and Applications,
Vol. 20, No. 11, 1511–1518, 2006.
[11] Chair, R., A. A. Kishk, K. F. Lee, C. E. Smith, and D. Kajfez,
“Micro strip line and CPW FED ultra wideband slot
antennas with U-shaped tuning stub and reflector,”
Progress In Electromagnetics Research, PIER 56, 163–182,
2006.
[12] Sze, J.-Y. and K.-L. Wong, “Bandwidth enhancement of a
micro strip line fed printed wide-slot antenna,” IEEE
Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, Vol. 49, 1020–
1024, July 2001
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Multi Band Fractal Antenna

for Wireless Application
Vimlesh Verma1 and P.K. Singhal2
1
JJTU, Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan, India
2
Professor, Dept. of Electronics, MITS, Gwalior, India
e-mail: 1vimleshsingh2008@gmail.com

Abstract—This paper presents the design of a octagon incorporation of fractal technology in micro strip
shape fractal antenna. This octagon shape fractal antenna antennas. This paper presents the novel antenna design
has been designed on substrate with dielectric constant 4.4 based on self-similarity of fractal geometry to achieve
and substrate thickness 1.6 mm. The antenna has been the multiband, wideband as well as size reduction of
simulated using IE3D software which work on principle of
MOM. The simulated result shows the resonance at
the antenna.
1.24GHz, 1.87GHz, 1.8GHz, 2.13GHz, 2.5GHZ and
2.9GHz for different iteration. The measured pattern of II. DESIGN APPROACH
antenna displays good mono-polar mode radiation and the
The octagon shaped fractal antenna has been
gain is found to be stable in most of the transmission band.
This antenna is very suitable for Wideband (WB) stacked on square shape of 32x32mm2 dimension.
application. Substrate for the design has dielectric constant 4.4 and
thickness 1.6mm. Octagon shape antenna of radius
Keywords: Antenna, Resonant Frequency, Fractal 40mm is stacked on square shape micro strip line as
Geometry, Multi-band
shown in Fig 1a. From this conventional structure
octagon shaped geometry is generated to achieve first
I. INTRODUCTION iteration as in Fig 1b.Similarly for other two iterations
There has been an ever-growing demand, in as in fig1c and fig1d.
military as well as the commercial applications for
antenna design that possess the small size, ease of
fabrication, conformal, low cost and multiband
capabilities. Micro strip antenna [I] is one of them to
fulfill these requirements. The limitations of the micro
strip antenna are its narrow bandwidth, efficiency, and
size. The micro strip antenna is efficient radiator around
half wavelength. There are various approaches to
reduce the size of the antenna without much affecting
the antenna performance. The application of the fractal
geometry is one of the techniques to reduce the size of
the antenna as well as to provide multiband and
wideband properties. An excellent overview of various
Fig. 1(a): Base Shape
useful techniques for designing compact (i.e.,
miniature) antennas may be found in [1-3]. Moreover, a
number of approaches for designing multi-band
antennas have been summarized in [4].Recently, the
possibility of developing antenna designs that exploit in
some way the properties of fractals to achieve these
goals, at least in part, has attracted a lot of attention.
The term fractal which means broken or irregular
fragments was originally coined by Mandelbrot to
describe a family of complex shapes that possesses
inherent self-similarity or self-affinity in their
geometrical structure [3-5]. The recent developments in
the wireless [5] technology functional at multiple
frequency demands multiband [6] or multifunctional
antennas with broader bandwidth. It could be possible
Fig. 1(b): First Iteration
to achieve these objectives with the help of

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Fig. 1(c): Second Iteration

Fig. 2(b): Variation in Return Loss for Second Iteration

Fig. 1(d): Third Iteration

III. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

The octagon shaped fractal antenna has been
designed and simulated using IE3D software which is
based on method of moment technique. For each
iteration it reduces by its numerically simulated. The
simulated result such as return loss and Radiation
Pattern are shown in fig.2, and fig.3. This simulated
result clearly indicates the presence of multiband for
different iteration. This indicate as number of iteration Fig. 2(c): Variation in Return Loss for Third Iteration
increased fractal antenna show its multiband
characteristics.

Fig. 2(a): Variation in Return Loss for First Iteration Fig. 3(a): First Iteration

58 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India


Fig. 3(b): Second Iteration
Fig. 3(c): Third Iteration
For the designed antenna Fig.4.a, Fig.4.b and
Fig.4.c shows the smith chart for different iteration.
Fig. 4(a): First Iteration
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 59
Multi Band Fractal Antenna for Wireless Application
Fig. 4(b): Second Iteration
Fig. 4(c): Third Iteration
IV. CONCLUSION
The octagon multiband fractal antenna resonating
at multiple frequencies has been designed, It is
concluded that incorporation of fractal geometry in
conventional antenna reduces the size of antenna by
shifting the resonant frequency.
REFERENCES
[1] [K. Fnjimoto, A. Henderson, K. Hirasawa, and J.R. James,
Small Antennas. New York, John Wiley & Sons, Research
Studies Press, 1987.
[2] A.K. Skrivervik, J.F. Zurcher, o. Staub, and J.R. Mosig, "PCS
Antenna Design: The Challenge of Miniaturization," IEEE
Antennas and Propagation Magazine, 43,4, August 2001,
pp. 12–26.
[3] Jaggard, D.L.,"On Fractal Electrodynamics," Recent Advances
in Electromagnetic Theory, H. N. Kritikos and D. L. Jaggard
(eds.), I 83-224,Spring- Verlag, Yew York, 1990.
[4] Werner, D. H. and Ganguly S., "An Overview of Fractal
Antenna Engineering Research", IEEE, Antenna and
Propagation Magazine, Vol. 45, No.1, 38–57, 2003.
[5] N. Cohen, "Fractal Antenna Applications in Wireless
Telecomm." in Proc. Professional Program Elect. Industry
Forum 1997, pp. 43–49.
[6] Peunte, C., Romeu 1. Pous R., and Cardama A.,"On the
Behaviour of the Sierpinski Multiband Antenna ", IEEE Trans
on AP-46, No.4, 517–524, 1998.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Novel Design of Improved Bandwidth

Fractal Antenna
Vimlesh Verma1, Priyanka Bansal2, Ruchi Modi3 and P.K. Singhal4
1
Shri Jagdish Prasad Jhabarmal TibrewalaI University, Vidyanagari, Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan
2
Manav Rachana International University, Faridabad
3
ABESEC, Ghaziabad
4
Professor, Dept. of Electronics, MITS, Gwalior, India
e-mail: 1vimleshsingh2008@gmail.com, 3ruchi.gupta9480@ gmail.com

Abstract—Fractal geometry involves a recursive smaller physical area. The increased electrical length
generating methodology that results in contours with leads to a lower resonant frequency, which effectively
intricate fine structures. This geometry, has been used to miniaturizes the antenna. The second benefit is that the
model complex objects found in nature such as clouds and increased electrical length can raise the input resistance
coastlines, has property of space-filling that can be utilized
of the antenna when it is used in a frequency range as a
to miniaturize antenna. These contours are able to add
more electrical length in less volume. Due to self-similarity small antenna.
property antenna executes high directivity ,improved
bandwidth and multiband behavior. This paper present a II. ANTENNA SPECIFICATION
novel conformal multi band antenna design, based on
fractal concepts, for application in 1-6GHz band. This
This fractal antenna is designed from normal
paper is based on square-circle shape island fractal type square patch of size 35mm x 35mm. The generator of
configuration, printed on a dielectric substrate backed by the shape is shown in figure 1.a. Circle of radius 35mm
a ground plane, and propose novel approach to enhance created inside the square geometry.
its multiband performance in terms of impedance
matching characteristics as well as radiation pattern at
different operating frequencies. The method of moments is
used to analyze the antenna structure.
Keywords: Fractal, micro strip antennas, method of
moments

I. INTRODUCTION
Fractals represent a class of geometry with very
unique properties that can be enticing for antenna
designers. Fractals are space-filling contours, meaning
electrically large features can be efficiently packed into
small areas. Since the electrical lengths play such an
important role in antenna design, this efficient packing
can be used as a viable miniaturization technique [1-3].
In this article, we will summarize some of the unique
features of fractal geometries, and draw conclusions Fig. 1(a): Proposed Generator
about the utilization of these complicated intricate
structures in manufacturability of antenna. It will be Figure 1.b. shows First iteration in which the shape
shown how to quantify the space-filling ability of is generated within the generator structure. By again
fractal geometries, and how this correlates with repeating the concept we get the second iteration shown
miniaturization. Fractal elements can be utilized in in figure1.c.
arrays to tightly pack elements and to reduce mutual Results show that the location of feeding has many
coupling, resulting in improved, wider scan angles. The effects on antenna parameters and by changing it,
space-filling abilities of fractals can exhibit two benefits antenna parameters such as bandwidth and gain
over the conventional antenna. The first benefit is that changes.
the increased space-filling ability of the fractal antennas
means that more electrical length can be fitted into a

60 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
 Novel Design of Improved Bandwidth Fractal Antenna

Fig. 2(a): Variation in Return Loss for First Iteration

Fig. 1(b): First Iteration

Fig. 2(b): Variation in Return Loss for Second Iteration

Fig. 1(c): Second Iteration

III. SIMULATION RESULTS

The MOM (method of moment) is used for
simulating this antenna with IE3D software. First define
the fractal geometry for software, and specify the
location of feeding. Voltage source is 1 volt and
frequency range is from 1 GHz to 6 GHz.
The resonance occurs at 4.89 GHz for First
iteration and 1.1GHz for second iteration .In second
iteration bandwidth improved to 18% Figures 2, 3and 4
depict the S11 Parameter (return loss), VSWR (voltage
standing wave ratio), Radiation pattern and antenna Fig. 3(a): Variation in VSWR for First Iteration
efficiency of simulated geometry.

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 61

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Fig. 3(b): Variation in VSWR for Second Iteration

Fig. 4(c): Antenna Efficiency for First Iteration

Fig. 4(a): Radiation Pattern at 4.89GHz

Fig. 4(d): Antenna Efficiency for Second Iteration

IV. CONCLUSION
The concepts of fractals can be applied to improve
the bandwidth of smaller size antennas. Also, the
proposed structure has small dimensions of 35×35 mm².
Due to the simulation results, it is conclude that it is a
improved antenna for 1-6 GHz range.

REFERENCES
[1] J.P. Gianvittorio, “Fractal, MEMS, and FSS Electromagnetic
Devices Miniaturization and Multiple Resonances” Dissertation,
University of California, Los Angeles 2003.
[2] N. Cohen, “Fractal Antenna Application in Wireless
Telecommunications” Proceedings of Electronics Industries
Forum of New England, 1997, pp. 43–49.
[3] K.J. Vinoy, “Fractal Shaped Antenna Elements for Wide and
Multi–Band Wireless Applications” Thesis, Pennsylvania, Aug.
Fig. 4(b): Radiation Pattern at 1.1 GHz 2002.

62 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Novel Design of Improved Bandwidth Fractal Antenna

[4] J.P. Gianvittorio and Yahya Rahmat Samii,”Fractal Antennas: A [7] C. Puente, J. Romeu, R. Pous, J. Ramis and A. Hijazo, ”Small
Novel antenna Miniaturization Technique and Applications” but Long Koch Fractal Monopole” Electronics Letters,1998.
IEEE Antenna and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 44 No.1, [8] John P. Gianvittorio and Yahya Rahmat-Samii “A Novel
Feb 2002. Antenna Miniaturization Technique, and applications” IEEE
[5] J. Gouyet,”Physics and Fractal Structures” New York: Antenna & Propagation Magazine Vol.44, Feburary 2002.
Springer, 1996.
[6] D.H. Werner, and Raj Mittra, “Frontiers in Electromagnetic”,
New York: IEEE Press 2000.

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 63

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Design of Multiband and Wideband

Sierpinski Fractal Antenna
Abhishek Saini1, Vibhor Bhardwaj2, Hanny Kumar3 and Abhijeet Kumar4
1
Shobhit University, Meerut
2
Deptt.of E&C Engg., BIT, Muzaffarnagar
3
NIT Modipuram, Meerut
e-mail: abhi1989.ec@gmail.com

Abstract—In this paper a multiband and wideband
Fractal antenna is proposed. The antenna geometry is
based on a perturbed planar Sierpinski fractal shape. This
antenna exhibit a good impedence matching and very high
efficiency at three frequency band 1.08 GHz, 3.45 GHz
and 5.226 GHz. In simulation of this antenna a software
that works on the principle of Method of Moments is used.
I. INTRODUCTION
With the advance of wireless communication
systems and increasing importance of other wireless
applications, wideband and low profile antennas are in
great demand for both commercial and military
applications. Multi-band and wideband antennas are
desirable in personal communication systems, small
satellite communication terminals, and other wireless
applications. Wideband antennas also find applications
in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), Counter
Camouflage, Concealment and Deception (CC&D),
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), and Ground Moving
Target Indicators (GMTI). Some of these applications
also require that an antenna be embedded into the
airframe structure. Traditionally a wideband antenna in
the low frequency wireless bands can only be achieved
with heavily loaded wire antennas, which usually means
different antennas are needed for different frequency
bands. Recent progress in the study of fractal
antennas[1]-[7] suggests some attractive solutions for
using a single small antenna operating in several
frequency bands.
There are three resonant frequencies f1,f2,f3.
Where f1=1.08 GHz
f2=3.45GHz
f3=5.22GHz
The upper thresholds of the antenna length and
width have been set to a ≤80 mm and b≤80 mm.
Starting from these project specifications, the
synthesized values of the antenna descriptors are
reported in Table I. This parametrization has been
determined by exploiting the PSO-based optimization
approach proposed in [21]
The antenna satisfies the geometrical constraints
having a maximum dimension of 76 mm corresponding
to an electrical dimension of 0.19λ1close to that of a
quarter-wave resonant monopole printed on the same
dielectric substrate (i.e 0.19λ1., ) [22], while providing a
dual-band behavior instead of the classical single band
enabled by the standard monopole.
Finally, it is worth pointing out that, dealing with a
monopole antenna, the optimized antenna has to be
mounted over a perpendicular ground plane in order to
analyze its performances from both the numerical and
the experimental point of view. For the integration into
communication devices, a possible solution, similarly to
[23], exploits the fractal patch to excite a slot antenna
with ground plane coplanar to the patch itself.

II. ANTENNA DESIGN

This antenna geometry is given as:
A metallic layer is printed on Arlon material (tan
δ=0.0025, εr=3.38) with dimension denoted by b×a .The
radiating part of this antenna is sierpinski shaped
fractal[8] antenna whose dimension is also given as
c,h,d,e .For the feeding portion its dimension is given as
f×g. Accordingly, a good impedance matching in both
the operating ranges is needed. Such a requirement has
been conveniently expressed in terms of scattering
parameters by imposing a suitable threshold on the
magnitude values of the scattering index.
S11≤- 10 dB for all resonating frequencies. Fig. 1

64 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
 Design of Multiband and Wideband Sierpinski Fractal Antenna

TABLE 1
Geometry in mm
a b c d e F g h
76 33 16.5 17.989 20.89 5 0.5 38.625

A. Experimental Results
All the simulated data have been obtained by
means of an electromagnetic simulator based on the
method of moments (MoM) [24].
Dimension of ground plane is 33 ×76 mm2.It is
clear that from the simulated graph that it has S11
parameter is ≤ - 10 dB for three frequency band
III. SIMULATED RESULT
S11 Parameter
Fig. 4
IV. CONCLUSION
In this letter a multiband and wideband antenna is
proposed. It has three frequency band 1080 MHz, 3450
MHz, and 5226 MHz. Due to advancement in cellular
technology and LTE of cellular technology this can be
very useful ,depend on application

REFERENCES
[1] R. Azaro, E. Zeni, P. Rocca, and A. Massa, “Synthesis of a
Galileo and Wi-Max three band fractal-eroded patch antenna,”
IEEE AntennasWireless Propag. Lett., vol. 6, pp. 510–514,
2007.
[2] E. Zeni, R.Azaro, P. Rocca, andA.Massa, “Aquad-band patch
antenna for GalileoandWi-Max services,” Electron. Lett., vol.
43, pp. 960–962, 2007.
[3] R. Azaro, F. Viani, L. Lizzi, E. Zeni, and A. Massa, “A
monopolar quad-band antenna based on a Hilbert self-affine pre-
fractal geometry,” IEEE Antennas Wireless Propag.Lett., vol. 8,
pp. 177–180, 2008.
Fig. 2 [4] R. Azaro, E. Zeni, P. Rocca, and A. Massa, “Innovative design
of a planar fractal-shaped GPS/GSM/Wi-Fi antenna,” Microw.
Opt.Technol. Lett., vol. 50, pp. 825–829, 2008.
[5] L. Lizzi and G. Oliveri, “Hybrid design of a fractal-shaped
GSM/UMTS antenna,” J. Electromagn.Waves Appl., vol. 24, pp.
707–719, 2010.
[6] J. Anguera, C. Puente, C. Borja, and J. Soler, “Fractal-shaped
antennas: A review,” in Encyclopedia of RF and Microwave
Engineering, K. Chang, Ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2005, vol. 2,
pp. 1620–1635.
[7] C. T. P. Song, P. S. Hall, H. Ghafouri-Shiraz, and D.Wake,
“Sierpinski monopole antenna with controlled band spacing and
input impedance,” Electron. Lett., vol. 35, pp. 1036–1037, 1999.
Fig. 3 [8] Dual-Band Printed Fractal Monopole Antennafor LTE
Applications, Leonardo Lizzi, Student Member, IEEE, and
Radiation Pattern-Antenna and Radiation Andrea Massa, Member, IEEE IEEE Antennas and Wireless
Efficiency. Propagation Letters, Vol. 10, 2011.

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 65

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Analysis and Design of a Microstrip Patch
Antenna with Circular Polarization
Ravindra Prakash Gupta1, Yogesh Mehta1, Surbhi Sharma2 and Virendra Kumar Sharma3
1
Jaipur National University, Jaipur
2
BIT Mesra Ranchi
3
Bhagwant University, Ajmer
Abstract—The design of active GPS antennas involves
essentially three components: a patch element, filter, and
low noise amplifier (LNA). Each of these components
forms an important part of the overall antenna assembly
and is critical to performance. Microstrip patch
technology is often used to create the antenna element for
automotive GPS applications. In this paper, the effect of
shorting wall length on the circular polarization of shorted
microstrip patch antenna is examined. The theoretical
analysis is based on the High Frequency Software
Simulator (HFSS). A designed antenna for the GPS
application at the civilian GPS frequency (1227.60 MHz)
has been fabricated and measured. The measured data for
the fabricated antenna is taken by 8719 ES vector network
analyzer. Results of the designed antenna show good
circularly polarized with a reduction in its size by 25 %
from the conventional rectangular microstrip patch
antenna
Keywords: Circular Polarization Antenna, Shorted
Microstrip Patch Antenna, Global Positioning System
Antenna.
I. INTRODUCTION
In the last few years the Global Positioning
System (GPS) has been used in a variety of
applications for which new and more restrictive
requirements in the design of the receiving antenna
have been introduced. In particular, for high- precision
GPS applications, such as differential GPS, GPS- based
spacecraft attitude determination or geodetic surveying,
a receiving antenna with superior rejection to multipath
signals is required.
Many applications in communications and radars
require circular or dual linear polarization, and the
flexibility afforded by microstrip antenna technology
has led to a wide variety of designs and techniques to
fill this need [1]. In recent years, the demand for
compact mobile telephone handsets has grown.
Handsets with size of a pocket have begun appearing in
the market and, as the demand for increased electronic
mobility grow. A small antenna size is required as one
of the important factors in portable mobile
communication systems. The Microstrip Patch
Antennas is widely being used because of its low
66
volume and thin profile characteristics. The size of
patch antenna is basically determined by its resonance
length and width. The reduction of the patch size can
be achieved by using patch substrate material w ith
very high permittivity and small substrate height
[2]. But, in this case, the low radiation efficiency will
reduce the antenna gain. Various techniques have
been explored to develop small size antenna. One of
these techniques is achieved by using shorting wall [3].
For a rectangular MPA, its resonance frequency is on
the order of half-wave length. The length of the antenna
is reduced by a factor of two if the half wave patch is
short-circuited to the ground at the zero potential
planes. The result is a resonance rectangular patch with
length of order λ/4, called a quarter-wave patch or
Shorted Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna. The
objective of this paper is to study the effect of shorting
wall length on the polarization of the SRMPA and to
design a compact circularly polarized patchantnna
operates at the civilian resonance frequency (1.227
GHz) for the Global Positioning System (GPS).
II. ANTENNA CONFIGURATION AND
SIMULATED RESULTS
The geometry of the antenna is shown in Figure
1.The feed point is centered on the x-axis and the
shorting wall is at the patch edge. The antenna is
circularly polarized (CP) by the single feed technique
with a truncated segment setting to the edge of the
patch with equal side length ∆L and area of δS/2.
The SRMPA has a side length L/2 and width W
[4]. The input impedance and resonance frequency of
the SRMPA can be controlled by changing the length
of the shorting wall [5]. To study the effects of shorting
wall length on the SRMPA parameters, a proposed
antenna is specified as in Table 1 and simulated with
HFSS software with different shorting wall lengths.
HFSS is an interactive software package, developed by
Agilent technologies. It is a full-wave field solution for
any arbitrarily 3-D passive structures.
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
 An
nalysis and Desiign of a Microsttrip Patch Anten
nna with Circular Polarization

the variation
v of thhe shorting waall length (SW
W) with the
trunccated length (∆L)
( for optim
mum axial ratiio.

Fig. 1: Connfiguration of Singgle Feed Circularrly Polarized SRM

MPA
TABL
LE 1: SPECIFICATION OF THE PROPPOSED ANTENNA
fr εr h W L/2 ∆
∆L
1.22GHz 2.2 0.1588ccm 9.6cm 4.2cm 3.4m
mm
Fig
g. 3: Variation of SW
S Length with ∆L for Optimum
m Axial Ratio
TABLE 2: VARIATION
A OF SW LENGTH WITH RESONANCE
E FREQU
UENCY

New SW Length
L New Frequency New ∆L (mm) for III. COMPA
ACT CIRCULARRLY POLARIZE
ED
(mmm) (GHz) Best AR PARTIALLY S
SRMPA
96.322 1.227 4.2
95.322 1.222 4 o the previouus study, the design of a
As a result of
94.211 1.221 3.6 rightt hand circularly polariized (RHCP P) partially
93.600 1.218 3.2 SRMMPA operatingg at the civilian resonancee frequency
80.322 1.215 2.9
of th
he Global Poositioning Sysstem is consiidered. The
75.411 1.211 2.6
68.377 1.175 2.4 antennna configuraation is shownn in Figure 1 and
a antenna
64.322 1.155 2.2 parameters calculaated from HFS SS are given in
i Table 3.
TABLE 3: SPEECIFICATIONS OF TTHE RHCP PARTIIALLY
SMPA FOR TH HE GPS

fr εr h W L/2 ∆L
1.2
227GHz 2.2 1.58mm 6..2cm 3.2cm 2.2.0mm
TABLE
A 4: SIMULATEED RESULTS OF TH
HE RHCP PARTIA
ALLY SMPA
FOR THE G
GPS
Parameeters Partially SRMP
Beam m width 72 0
Direectivity 7.4 dB
Axiaal ratio 1.00
Retuurn loss -27.12

Fig. 2:: Variation of SW

W Length with Pattch Size to Keep
the fr =1.227 GH

The siimulated resullts show that when the shoorting

wall lengtth is reducedd the resonaance frequenccy is
decreased. To have the same resonannce frequencyy, the
patch lengths (L/2, W) have to be reeduced resultiing in
patch size reduction. Duue to the reduuction in the patch
size, the patch
p axial raatio (AR) willl be degradedd. To
improve thhe AR, the perturbation
p segment lengtth ∆L
must be readjusted.
r T
Table 2 illusttrates the rellation
between shorting
s wall length (SW W), new resonnance Fig.. 4: Comparison between
b Simulateed and Measured Return Loss
frequency, new truncateed length ∆ L to have thee best
AR at boree-sight (angle θ = 0). The propossed antenna is fabricaated using
phottolithography technique. Sccattering paraameters and
Figuree 2 shows thee variation off the shortingg wall
inpuut impedancee are measuured u s i n g 8719 E S
length (SW W) with pattch size to have the deesired
resonance frequency fr = 1.227, whiile Figure 3 shows
s n e t w o r k a n a l y z e r . Simulatted results off the RHCP
partiially SMPA for f the GPS aare given in Table T 4. The

Bhagwant Institute
e of Technologyy, Muzaffarnaga h, India ‹ 67
ar, Uttar Pradesh
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
simulated results are given by HFSS. Fig. 4 shows the
comparison between the simulated and measured return
loss for the proposed GPS antenna. However, there is a
little small deviation between the measured and
theoretical results. This deviation may be due to
fabrication tolerance. In addition, the tangent loss and
bonding of the coaxial feeding are not considered in the
simulator software calculation.
Fig. 5: Simulated Radiation Pattern Results of the RHCP
Partially SRMPA
Fig. 6: Simulated Axial Ratio Results of the RHCP Partially SRMPA
68 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
The simulated radiation pattern of the RHCP
partially SRMPA at 1.227 GHz is shown in Fig. 5. The
simulated axial ratio results of the RHCP partially
SRMPA is shown in Fig. 6. The measured and
simulated results are accepted and satisfy the
requirements for a GPS.
IV. CONCLUSION
The effect of short wall length on the antenna
polarization is examined. Simulations and
measurements on the partially shorted rectangular
microstrip patch antenna have provided a useful design
for a compact circularly polarized antenna operating at
the frequency of 1.227 GHz for the GPS applications. A
reduction in antenna size by 24.6 % from the
conventional antenna is achieved.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to express their cordial
thanks to Jaipur National University, Jaipur, and BIT
Mesra for providing the facility of Research in their
University. Thanks to Mr. T.P. Mehta and late Mrs.
Shanti Devi Mehta for their cooperation and
encouragement.
RFFERENCES
[1] Kin-Lu Wong, Compact and Broadband Microstrip Antennas,
John Wiley & Sons, nc.2002
[2] J.R. James, P. S. Hall, and C. Wood, Microstrip Antenna Theory
and Design, Peter Perigrinus, London, 1981
[3] Sanad, M. "A Small Size Microstrip Antenna Having a Partial
Short Circuit" IEEE International Conference on Antenna and
Propagation, vol. 1, pp. 465-471, April1995
[4] J.R. James and P. S. Hall, Handbook of Microstrip Antennas,
Peter Perigrinus Ltd., London, 1989
[5] T. Taga and K, Tsuna Kawa “Performance Analysis of a
Built-Planar Inverted-F Antenna for 800 MHz Band Portable
Radio Units” IEEE Journal on selected areas in communication,
Vol.5, NO.5, PP.921- 929, June 1987
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

TRACK II
EMERGING TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 3
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Impacts & Compensation of Distributed
Generation using Smart Grid Technology
Manoj Kumar Nigam1 and A. Krishna Nag2
1
Reader, Electrical Engineering Dept., Raipur Institute of Technology, Raipur (CG)
2
ME Student, Power Electronics, Raipur Institute of Technology, Raipur (CG)
e-mail: 1nigam74_123@yahoo.com, 2nag.krishna01@gmail.com
Abstract—The evolution of current centralized
generation in the form of distributed generation and
Smart Grids provides a great opportunity to eradicate
several issues associated with energy efficiency, energy
security, power quality and the drawback of aging power
system infrastructures. In order to meet the rising
electrical power demand and increase service quality as
well as reduce pollution, the existing power grid
infrastructure should be developed into a Smart Grid that
has the flexibility to allow interconnection with the
distributed generation.
However, integrating distributed generation to power
systems causes several technical issues, especially system
stability. Therefore, to fully address the issue, current
existing power systems should be up-graded to Smart
Grid. To make the power grid become 'smarter',
particularly in terms of stability and flexibility, Flexible
AC Transmission System (FACTS) devices, especially
Static Var Compensators (SVC) are used.
This paper discusses the need and impacts of
distributed generation in Smart Grid technology, in
particular it identifies and determines whether the system
remains stable or not after installing distributed
generation into Smart Grid systems. The further scope of
this work lies in trying to show that the SVC makes the
grid become smarter. This is achieved because SVC has
the ability to improve the system stability through voltage
enhancement, either by injecting or absorbing reactive
power during integration of distributed generation.
Keywords: power quality issues, distributed generation,
smart grid, FACTS, SVC
I. INTRODUCTION
Currently, the main source of electrical power
generation is fossil fuel producing carbon dioxide
(CO2) emission and other gases, which leads to global
warming. Due to environmental issues in reducing
greenhouse gases (GHG), the utilization of renewable
energy sources (RES) is now growing rapidly and is
being widely accepted as an alternative power supply.
An important phenomenon in this regard for further
future electric power generation is distributed
generation, which is also known as embedded
generation, dispersed generation or decentralized
generation.
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
Distributed generation in simple term can be
defined as a small-scale generation. It is active power
generating unit that is connected at distribution level.
The development of Smart Grid Systems is
another effort to address the issue of global warming.
The Smart Grid will be able to rapidly detect, analyze
and respond to various perturbations by integrating
intelligent devices, advance control methods and
digital telecommunications on electrical networks.
This concept is the outcome of advanced technology
and regulation from various stakeholders who are
concerned with demand-side management, energy
storage and increased usage of RES. Smart Grid
development is underway and is expected to be
dynamic, reliable, flexible, diverse and fully
controllable. This new scenario will enable power
operators to maximize energy efficiency, such as in
loss management, demand reduction and data
communication.
In order to meet the rising electrical power
demand and increasing service quality demands, as
well as reduce pollution, the existing power grid
infrastructure should be developed into a Smart Grid
that is flexible for interconnectivity with distributed
generation, such as wind turbines and solar power.
However, integrating this concept of distributed
generation into Smart Grid systems will increase many
complex issues on real time operation, such as on
power flow direction, protection, voltage profile,
power quality and stability.
II. IMPACTS OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
The following presents a simplified model of
power flow diagram in a transmission system. In this,
two power generators with voltages E1 and E2 are
integrated by a transmission line, which may be
interconnecting points or may have load. It is assumed
that the transmission line is lossless and represented by
the reactance X. The corresponding phasor diagram is
also shown below.
71
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

Reactor (TCR), Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC),

Switched Capacitor, Inductor, and Filter Circuit etc.; is
as shown below

As per the earlier work carried out on Distributed

Generation and Power Quality, Some of the Various
Issues involved with distributed generation are as
follows:
Voltage Regulation, DG Grounding Issue,
Harmonic Distortion, Flicker, Islanding, Protection
System, False tripping of feeders, Fuse coordination
problems, Unwanted tripping of production units,
Blinding of protection, Increased or decreased fault
levels, Unwanted islanding, Prohibition of automatic
reclosingetc.;
Some of the solutions suggested in various works
carried out are mentioned as follows:
1. Requiring customer load to disconnect with
the DG which may not be practical for
widespread residential and small commercial
loads.
2. Installing more voltage regulators, each with a
better ability to tap change depending on the It has been already discussed that large-or small-
requirement. scale integration of distributed generation may have
3. Allow DG to reconnect more quickly than the significant impact on power system stability with
standard disconnection time. This would be respect to the rotor angle, voltage and frequency
done more safely by using direct stability. Reactive power compensation and voltage
communications between the DG and utility control is fundamental to making the grid become
system control. smarter. Without this control, the presence of
4. Limit the amount of DG on the feeder. distributed generation may potentially cause system
5. Newer PWM inverters have lower current collapse. Therefore, a dynamic shunt reactive power
distortion. compensator is required to mitigate these issues.
6. Use non-resonant switching frequencies. Keeping in view the various issues occurring at
7. Use reactors in the neutral, or generators with the time of PCC (Point of common coupling), the
a fractional coil winding pitch. concept of smart grid technology uses the
compensation system which involves the FACTS
III. POWER QUALITY ISSUES controller devices such as an SVC. The main objective
Moreover, the major issue that would have an of SVC (Static Var Compensation) system is to
immediate effect on the performance of the electrical maintain the system stability, which would be
system in terms of the power system stability can be vulnerable during interconnection of distributed
put in to the following categories: generation in to the smart grid or during the occurrence
of fault by supplying or absorbing reactive power into
• Rotor Angle Stability
the network. To be precise, it is a shunt-connected
• Frequency Stability
static VAR generator or absorber whose output is
• Voltage Stability adjusted to exchange capacitive or inductive current so
as to maintain or control specific parameters of the
IV. COMPENSATION USING SMART GRID TECHNOLOGY electrical power system (typically bus voltage). SVC is
A simple Line diagram of a Static Var based on thyristor-controlled and switched shunt
Compensator consisting of various elements of reactive components without gate turn-off capability. It is a
power compensation devices like Thyristor Controlled variable impedance device using back-to-back

72 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Impacts & Compensation of Distributed Generation using Smart Grid Technology

connected thyristor valves to control the current flow

through the reactor. SVC as a control device offers fast
response time, much faster than traditional
mechanically switched reactors or capacitors. The
configuration of SVC as shown consists of two main
components and their combination:
• Thyristor-controlled and thyristor-switched
reactor (TCR and TSR)
• Thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC).
TCR and TSR constitutes of a shunt-connected
reactor controlled using paired parallel back-to-back The above graph shows characteristics of
connected thyristor. Using phase angle control, TCR receiving voltage end at various power factors,
generates an equivalent and constant variable inductive ranging from 0, 9 lag to 0, 9 lead. The max point at
reactive power from zero to maximum. Conversely, each dashed line curve represents the voltage
TSR is controlled without phase angle control, which instability corresponding to the system condition. The
results in a step change in reactance and provides fixed plot clearly indicates that when the limit of the voltage
inductive admittance. exceeds the nominal rate, the voltage could collapse. In
TSC has similar operational characteristic and this condition, the presence of SVC can effectively
composition as TSR. It consists of a back-to-back enhance the voltage stability margin by supplying the
thyristor pair in series with capacitors. The TSC is not reactive power and controlling the terminal voltage as
continuously controlled because of transient illustrated by the continuous line.
phenomena at switch-on, it is instead is switched on
and off independently. Therefore, the TSC cannot
inject a reactive current with variable amplitude into
the system. The transient phenomenon in TSC does not
generate harmonics but if they appear, it is not a serious
problem
The fundamental Block diagram which represents
the controlling action of a FACTS based
semiconductor device namely SVC is also shown
below. The control system of general SVC with TSC-
TSR configuration incorporating voltage regulator and
reactive power measurement is illustrated in particular.
The voltage control system aims to keep the V. RESULT & ANALYSIS
voltage within acceptable limits, especially at the point
of common coupling (PCC), since it is vital for The following graphs show the variation of p.u.
voltage regulation of the systems. To perform this Voltage magnitude with respect to the apparent power
particular operation, the voltage regulator processes all in the grid. It is observed that, during the point of
measured input variables and creates an output signal contact of the distributed generation to the smart grid,
that is proportional to reactive-power compensation. the voltage experiences a considerable amount of
The measured variables are then compared with the fluctuation. But when the SVC control is applied to the
voltage reference signal which is denoted as Vref, and system and compensation is carried out, there is a near
the error is calculated. This error becomes an input stable voltage profile as indicated in the second
variable for the controller. Taking this as the input, the graph.
output of the controller creates a per-unit susceptance
signal, which is denoted as Bref. This is done in order
to reduce undesired signal error to zero in the steady-
state operation. After this, the signal is then
transferred to the gate-pulse generation. This output
signal (Bref), derived from the voltage regulator, is
being transferred to the gate-pulse generation, which
creates proper firing pulses for TCR-TSC of the SVC.
Subsequently the undesired susceptance signal is
rectified and the desired susceptance output is available
at the SVC bus.

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 73

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
A similar control of the other two parameters of
stability, namely rotor angle and frequency stability can
be obtained and analyzed which indicates that the
variations in these parameters are controlled, and also
helps in improving power quality of the system
VI. CONCLUSION
Current existing electricity networks, in particular
distribution and transmission systems, have been
designed in radial topology with centralized generation
as the main power source to supply the load. As a
result, power flows from bulk generation to the end of
feeder. However, with the presence of distributed
generation the power flow is no longer radial but it can
be reserved or meshed with the distributed generation
sending power in any directions from where it is
coupled. This occurrence definitely has created a series
of new problems, some of them closely related to
system reliability, power quality and stability.
It is concluded from the above study is that the
introduction of distributed generation in a power
system causes power stability issues in terms of the
voltage, frequency and load angle of the grid to which
the DG is connected.
It is obvious that integrating distributed generation
in a network requires an advanced control device
which is critical to ensuring high reliability and
stability of the power system. The simulation result
clearly indicates that the utilization of SVC is able
to maintain the voltage, frequency and voltage angle
of the system in stability margins, following the
connection of distributed generation and fault. Thus,
74 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
this does not influence the Smart Grid transient stability
by much.
The result also shows the feasibility of integrating
distributed generation on Smart Grid while its
operation is in PV mode. Hence the bus voltage and
frequency of distributed generation is regulated by its
own controller.
The implementation of SVC with proper control
allows the grid to be smarter, especially in terms of
stability. This is because of the capability of SVC to
provide voltage enhancement by absorbing and/or
supplying reactive power during integration of
distributed generation and post fault conditions.
REFERENCES
[1] Hidayatullah, N.A., Stojcevsky, B. and Kalam A., ‘Analysis of
distributed generation systems, smart grid technologies and
future motivators influencing change in the electricity sector’,
Smart Grid and Renewable Energy Journal 2011, available
from http://www.SciRP.org/journal/sgre
[2] Hidayatullah, N.A., Paracha, Z.J. and Kalam, A., ‘Impacts of
distributed generation on smart grid’, International
Conference of Electrical Energy and Industrial Electronic
System (EEIES)
[3] Grid Wise Architecture Council, 'Grid Wise Architecture
Council', available from http://www.gridwiseac.org
[4] European Technology Platform Smart Grids, 'Strategic research
agenda for Europe‘s electricity networks of future', European
Commission, Directorate General for Research, Directorate
Energy.
[5] GridWise®ArchitectureCouncil website, from
http://www.gridwiseac.org/.
[6] National Institute of Standard and Technology website,
available from http://www.nist.gov/smartgrid/.
[7] Hingorani, N. and Gyugyi, L., 'Concepts and technology of
flexible AC transmission systems', Understanding FACTS,
IEEE Press 2000, p. 452.
[8] Wikipedia website: www.wikipedia.com
[9] Padiyar, K. R., 'Facts controllers in power transmission and
distribution', New Age International (P) Ltd Publisher 2009, p.
532.
[10] Kundur, P., Paserba, J., Ajjarapu, V., Andersson, G., Bose, A.,
Canizares, C., Hatziargyriou, N., Hill, D., Stankovic, A., Taylor,
C., Van Cutsem, T. and Vittal, V., 'Definition and classification
of power system stability IEEE/CIGRE joint task force on
stability terms and definitions',
[11] National Institute of Standard and Technology website,
available fromhttp://www.nist.gov/smartgrid/
[12] SEL website, available from
http://www.selinc.com/mirroredbits/
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Precariousness in Technology Via Web Crime
and Statically Crimes in the World
Ajay B. Gadicha
P.R. Patilcollege of Engineerign and Technology, Amravati
Abstract—Technology [use is] becoming second
nature to the whole generation’
This paper demonstrate the concept, how various
dangers of technology affected to the human in the form of
crime. In Our Gadget-Obsessed society, the daily use of
technology has become second nature. Seeing people
listening to music, texting, or updating their Face book
status while walking down the street is commonplace. The
benefits of living in a technologically advanced world are
abundant, but there are also dangers associated with
everyone’s favorite electronic favorite electronic toys and
social networking sites.
In recent years, there have been multiple reported
instances of online victimization. Social networking sites
have been held partially responsible for many different
scams, stalking and harassment, and murder, yet many
social media networkers continue to post personal
information online.
Threats online, through different mediums like
Facebook, Twitter, or just general email, are one of the
most common problems we get in schools,’ he said. ‘How
many [people] have more than 100 friends [on Facebook,
Twitter, etc]? It’s impossible to know all 200 people very
well, so the best way to protect yourself is to be careful as
to who you speak to and who you befriend on those social
networking mediums.’
Social networking sites have become an integral part
of the lives of most of the youth today. It has encouraged
new ways to communicate and share information. The
relative freedom afforded by social networking sites has
caused concern regarding the potential of its misuse by
individual patrons.
This questions the safety and security of the users,
especially girls who are more preyed upon particularly in
relation to online sexual predators. These sorts of cyber
crimes leave an everlasting scar in the minds of the users
and change the way in which they communicate in the
social networking sites and sometimes even force them to
completely opt out of the social networking sites. This
study deals with how girls are affected by cyber crimes in
social networking sites and how those crimes impact their
social networking pattern.
Keywords: Cyber Crimes, Social Networking, Users,
Safety, SNS.
I. INTRODUCTION
Social Network Service (SNS) [1], e.g. Facebook,
Twitter,and LinkedIn etc. changes the world. Each of
these ownsthousands of millions of users’ personal
information. Owningsuch a large user information
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
database attracts the criminals andleads to a sharp
increase of computer crime attacks on SNS. Criminals
can perform different kinds of attacks to obtainsensitive
personal information. In addition to the
privacyprotection problem, the financial loss and the
damage on Reputation of one person or organization is
also significantlylarge.In order to raise the public
awareness and to provide a solidunderstanding and
summary of SNS, we have studied therelated criminal
activities on SNSs, the possible safetymeasurements
and the legislation works from the start to therecent
development of SNSs.
In order to raise the public awareness and to
provide a solidunderstanding and summary of SNS, we
have studied therelated criminal activities on SNSs, the
possible safetymeasurements and the legislation works
from the start to therecent development of SNSs.
Social network sites have made communication for
peoplenot only convenient, but also instantaneous
connections acrossthe boundaries. According to the
report of Criminal Use ofSocial Media [2], before 2012,
there were 750 million activeusers in Facebook, 500
million users in YouTube, 200 millionusers in Twitter
and 100million users in LinkedIn.
Table 1 Shows how frequency people use SNS.
TABLE 1: THE STATISTICS OF THE USAGE OF SNSS
SNSs Users (Million) Statistics
Facebook 1120 700 billion minutes per month spent
YouTube 500 92 billion views per month
Twitter 256 65 million tweets are created per day
LinkedIn 589 Users are across 1 million companies
Social networking sites, email, instant messaging,
video- and photo- sharing sites and comment posting
are all tools that help people to communicate and
socialize with each other (Mooney, 2009). The first
social networking site SixDegrees.com was launched in
1997. It allowed users to create profiles, list their
friends and surf the friends list (Boyd, & Ellison, 2007).
Starting from 1997 to 2010 there are some 1.5 billion
users of social networking websites (Kreutz, 2009).
People join social networking sites because it gives
them an opportunity to express their views, a feel of
independency and self esteem. It’s just a click way to
create a virtual profile and connect with millions of
users across the world, becomes more interesting
75
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
because you can stay connected with old friends and
family members.
According to ComScore, a leader in measuring the
digital world, 84 percent of India’s total internet
visitors are users of SNS. India is the seventh largest
market worldwide for social networking after the U.S.,
China, Germany, Russian Federation, Brazil and the
U.K. Facebook captures the top slot among SNS in
India with 20.9 million visitors. Interestingly, Indian
social networking audience has increased by 43 percent
within 2009–10 (‘Face book captures top,’ 2010).
TABLE 2: TOP 10 SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES IN THE WORLD
Rank Social Networking Estimated Unique Monthly
Sites Visitors
1 Facebook 1550,000,000
2 Twitter 94,800,000
3 MySpace 82,500,000
4 Linkedin 51,000,000
5 Ning 46,000,000
6 Tagged 38,000,000
7 Classmates 22,000,000
8 Hi5 26,000,000
9 myyearbook 10,000,000
10 Meetup 9,000,000
II. IMPACT OF SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES
There is a narrow gap between private and public
life in the age of social networking. Once you put
personal data, image or video on web site, you are
helpless to control its distribution. Though you can set
its privacy level in the profile but you are sharing them
with an unknown web administrator. Tomorrow your
personal information may lend in the hand of parents,
teacher, employer, spouse, criminal or a marketing
company. A study conducted by Pew Internet &
American Life Project in 2007 found that 66 percent of
teens restrict their online profile by making it private.
They found 82 percent teens post their first name,
followed by photos of themselves (79%), name of city
(61%) and email address (29%). According to Pew
study girls generally don’t post information that could
help in finding their physical location. On the other
hand, boys are just opposite and post more information
about their real location (Lenhart, & Madden, 2007).
A research by Gross and Acquisti after analyzing
4000 Facebook profiles of Carnegie Mellon University
students, found threats emerging from personal
information posted in social networking site. Only 1.2
percent of users changed their default privacy
preferences. Hence fully identifiable information like
(first name, last name, personal image, hometown, date
of birth, ZIP code) easily available to anybody
registered at Facebook. This information can be used to
estimate a person’s social security number and finding
sensitive medical information (Gross, & Acquisti,
2005). Using the information available on Facebook
76 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
profile one can easily determine likely physical location
of a person. Social networking sites are becoming a
threat to the privacy of an individual.
A. Impact of Unknown Friends
When you accept friend request from strangers,
you put yourself at severe risk. The men at other side
start exchanging words very cordially and within some
days you have a faith on them. Then they start the mind
game and start gathering more personal information. If
they get to know your email address, they could go to
email account and click on, forget password’. And the
system will ask a security question like–‘your favorite
teacher, your first phone number etc’. Unknowingly,
you have already shared this information with them. So
now they have access to your email account. This task
will be much easier if you set your date of birth, school
or college name as email password. A study conducted
by Internet security firm Webroot, found 2 in 10 people
use significant date, such as birth date, or a pet’s name
as password which is often publicly visible on social
networks. And 4 in 10 respondents shared password
with at least one person (Boulder, 2010).
Similarly, the Research done by BitDefender
reveals that 75 percent of individuals use same
password for social networking sites and Email (‘Study
reveals 75,’ 2010). All this ignorance by users becomes
the main reason behind hacking of SNS profile and
email account.
B. Effect on Biological Factors
Social networking users face severe health risk
because they reduce face-to-face contact and become
addicted in a virtual world of relationships. Instant
gratification of needs become their goal. According to
the U.S. Internet activity (January 2010) Nielsen Online
says, users spent an average of 9 hours a month on
Facebook. This makes Facebook Internet’s maximum
time waster. In U.S. 65 percent of people check their
Facebook profile before getting out of bed in the
morning and 25 percent check their accounts several
times in a day.
C. How Useful to Hackers/ Cybercriminal
The beginning of social networking sites started to
make contacts with people and build a network of
healthy relationship in the society. But now it seems
offering cybercriminals a great advantage to target
victims. Haydn and his family were out of home for
treatment of his son in Leeds. Instead of making phone
calls to everyone, he was updating on Facebook
message about son’s health. Someone read his
Facebook message and burgled their home during this
time. A report by Daily Mail shows ‘crimes associated
with the networking site have increased by as much as
7000 percent in some area–including cases of murder,
 Precarriousness in Tec
chnology Via We
eb Crime and S
Statically Crimes
s in the World

rape, peddophilia, bulllying, assault and burgglary’ Anallysis of the daata tells us thaat 98% of the students
s use
(‘Facebookk–crime,’ 20110). Pedophilees are using social
s at leaast one of the networking sites.
networkingg sites because that is wherre they can lurre the
0% 0%
victim willlingly. Teens easily believee in Love witth the
person theyy met online but
b actually thhey are fallingg to a
trap of sexuual predator. 4
41% Male
59% Female

Fig. 2

IV. POPULARITY OF SITES

Facebookis hands
h down w winner in this regard.
r One
majoor interpretatioon here is thatt59% users who
w use only
1 nettworking sitess, 99% of them m use orkut. Considering
C
the overall
o data, 94% studentss seem to usee orkut site
whicch makes it thhe mostpopulaar one. The second most
popuular is faceboook which is used by 34% 3 people
owed by a 6% share by each MySpaace, twitter,
follo
liked
dIn.

Fig. 1 14
Janis Wolak of the Crimes against Chiildren 12
likedIn
Research Center
C at the University ofo New Hamppshire 10
says: ‘majajority of cases involve young teenaagers, 8
mostly 13--, 14-, 15-yeaar-old girls whho are targeteed by 6 twitter
adults on Internet
I who are straightfoorward about being
b 4
interested in sex’ (Steenhuysen, 20008). In a siimilar 2
facebook
case, Ashleeigh Hall, a 17
1 year old giirl, accepted friend
f 0
request froom a 33 year old man on Facebook.
F Shee had 0 2010 2012
1990 2000
h was a connvicted rapist who
no idea thhat actually he
created a Fake profilee as a teenager. And Finnally, Fig. 3
Ashleigh wasw murdered by that peerson (‘Facebbook–
crime,’ 20010). The majjor problem is i that there is no The number of hours speent on these networking
way to verrify the actuall identity on cyberspace
c annd the sites should be annalyzed here too determine what
w impact
criminals takes the advanntage of this. it woould have onn the users. T The more the time spent,
moree probability ofo these sites being beneficcial is there.
D. Factorrs that Providde Sense that how
h to Safe he majority
m of thhe students sspend on an average of
abouut 6 to 9 hourrs every day ssurfing these networking
When we are usingg these sociaal networking sites sites. Amongst thoose about 28% % users spend more than1
daily theree may be chaance of attackk on us thesse are hourr everyday, raanging betweeen 10 to oveer 15 hours
some of thhe points thatt makes you and your faamily beingg spent every week. The neext question th hat arises is
safe on thhe networkingg sites. whatt else these stuudents would be doing if neetsurfing on
• Avoid acceptinng friend reqquest to unknnown
A thesee sites durinng that time.. When we asked that
peerson. quesstion during thhe survey, wee arrived at a number of
• A
Avoid putting your
y exact infformation ontto the suchh things.
Soocial networking sites.
• Taake precautionns while uploaading photo. A. The Impact onn Youth
• U
Update your prrofile privacy. The impact on youth cann also be calculated by
• D not post neggative things about
Do a your life
fe. analyyzing if these people meet personally to anyone
throuugh these netwworking sitess about 29% ofo the users
III. ANALYSIS
N AND INTERPRETAT
TION SYSTEM havee met someonee personally tthrough these networking
sites which is a huuge number aas it takes a lo
ot of trust in
The popularity
p of the social networking sittes is
meetting someone personally. H Here, the queestions arise
immense, especially ammongst the youth.
y The saample
regarrding safety and
a trust as a lot of peoplee fake their
chosen hadd a majority of students from the Schhools.
profi
files. For som
me, these netwworking sites make them

Bhagwant Institute
e of Technologyy, Muzaffarnaga h, India ‹ 77
ar, Uttar Pradesh
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

feel comfortable in their sexuality. For 49%, it is easier 20% of the sample population feels that there is
for them to be themselves while interacting through negative impact on their personal lives.
these sites. It raises question as to how real they are Benefits Users
while they act with people impersonal or in their normal More friends 25%
routine life. Better connectivity 63%
Found my life partner 1%
Enjoy leisure or time when I am alone 22%
Link with prospective recruiters 7%
0%
Who met
28%
throughnetworking sites
V. CONCLUSION
Who met Do you still think social networking sites are, at
throughnetworking sites
72% worst nothing to worry about, at best wholly positive
influences on humanity? If so then I’ll be amazed, but I
would love to hear your reasoning about these negative
Fig. 4: Analysis of Persons Meet on Networking Sites impacts of social networking sites. Will any of this
make me delete my Facebook and Twitter accounts? Of
B. Benefits of Social Networking Sites course not, but it does make me a little more cautious
Better connectivity is what these sites definitely about how (and how often) I use them.
provide. Also people seem to have more friends through
their use. It happens due to finding out old friends and REFERENCES
also remaining in close connection with the old as well [1] http://www.scribd.com/doc/13653301/The-Effect-of-Social-
as the existing friends. This also gives its users a way to Networking-Sites.
enjoy themselves or the leisure time when they are [2] http://www.ebizmba.com/articles/social-networking-websites
alone. They can be themselves and also remain in touch [3] http://www.srikumar.com/homepage/sangeetha_sridhar/social_n
etworking_cyber_crimes-part1.htm
with friends at the same time. Another benefit is the [4] http://article.sapub.org/10.5923.j.ijit.20120101.02.html
opportunity to connect with the prospective recruiters [5] Wright, Alex. (2007, December 2). Friending, ancient or
and to find employment through these sites. Only an otherwise. Retrieved from.
exception of 1% found their life partners through this. www.nytimes.com/2007/12/02/weekinreview/02wright.html
As per the survey, 80% of the people find that there is
no as such negative impacting their personal life. Only

78 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Performance Improvement of MOSFET

with High-K Dielectric Materials
S.L. Tripathi1, Priti Gupta2 and R.A. Mishra3
1
MNNIT, Allahabad, 2ITM, Gwalior, 3MNNIT, Allahabad

Abstract—This paper describes the use of high K
dielectric materials for better subthreshold performance
exhibited by Multi gate MOSFET structures. The
advancement in fabrication technology has also boosted
the use of different high K dielectric materials as oxide
layer at different places in MOSFET structures. One of
the most important multigate structure is FinFET which
shown better subthreshold swing (SS) and drain-induced
barrier lowing (DIBL), which is possible with optimum
ratio of gate length to Fin width. The SCEs parameters
such as on-state current (ION), off-state current (IOFF),
subthreshold slope (SS) and drain induced barrier
lowering (DIBL) has been drawn. Sentaurus TCAD has
been used for device simulation.
Keywords: SOI FinFET, Short channel effect, DIBL,
Subthreshold Slope, High K dielectric material, Spacer.
I. INTRODUCTION
Multi-gate MOSFET is a promising device for
ultimate CMOS device structure because the device
shows reduced short channel effect (SCE), higher
current drivability, nearly ideal subthreshold swing
(SS), and mobility enhancement[1],[2]. Suppression
of short-channel effects (SCEs) continues to be a major
challenge when devices are scaled down to these
dimensions. It was found that as the distance between
source and drain decreases, the gate loses its ability to
control the potential distribution and current flow in
the channel, and other undesirable effects, called the
short channel effects [3] start plaguing MOSFET’s.
This was so because the electric field lies from
source and drain were affecting the channel. In multi-
gate devices, the FINFET[4] is most suitable structure
because it can have simple self-aligned DG and TG
structure with good process compatibility and easier
thickness control of FIN body. Significant scattering of
carriers [5]–[7], increased parasitic resistance due to
thin and narrow source/drain (S/D) regions, and
increase in capacitance due to fringing fields in very
small 3-D geometry all have an adverse impact on the
FinFET performance. To fully capture the effect of
fringing field on FinFET device performance, one has
to consider the non planar nature of the device
geometry and account for the 3-D fringing fields[8].
The magnitude of the fringing electric field depends
upon the dielectric constant of the medium in which
it is getting leaked. The fringing field increases with
the use of high k dielectric material. The high K
dielectric material is utilized at different places in
different MOS devices for performance
improvement[9]. The use of spacer increases the
fringing electric field in the FinFET. Apart from
scaling the speed, power requirement of the circuit
can be enhanced by using some technique such as
using spacers in the FinFETs. Spacers are the
dielectric materials used alongside of the gate. Use of
spacer in a FinFET results in increased fringing
electric field which originates from the sidewalls of
the spacer to the fin region. Since the fringing field
depends upon the dielectric of the medium in which
the field is getting leaked, so the dielectric material
used for the spacer is important in deciding the
magnitude of the fringing field. This is studied by
using different materials such as Silicon Oxide (SiO2),
Silicon Nitride (Si3N4) and Hafnium Oxide (HfO2)
having dielectric constants of 3.9, 7.5 and 25
respectively. The adoption of relatively thinner spacers
of higher permittivity material is concluded to be
beneficial to device performance due to the
suppression of SCE[8].
II. DEVICE STRUCTURE AND DIMENSIONS
A FinFET with 20nm channel length is used for
the analysis. The channel of the FinFET is lightly
doped with the concentration of 1e15. The doping level
in source, drain region is 1e20; Gaussian doping is
used in extension regions. The gate electrode thickness
used is 40nm while the spacer width is kept at 15 nm.
The fin thickness used for the FinFET is 10nm. The
Spacer materials used are silicon oxide (SiO2), silicon
nitride (Si3N4) and hafnium oxide (HfO2) having
dielectric constant of 3.9, 7.5 and 25 respectively. The
threshold voltage of the device is 0.2 V. All the
simulations used in the paper are performed using the
Sentaurus TCAD tools [10].

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 79
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
Fig. 1: FinFET Structure with Spacer
III. SIMULATION AND RESULTS
The FinFET structures with high K dielectric
material spacers, are studied by using different
materials such as Silicon Oxide (SiO2), Silicon Nitride
(Si3N4) and Hafnium Oxide (HfO2) having dielectric
constants 3.9, 7 and 25 respectly. In these HfO2 shows
best performance(high on current) with dielectric
constant of 25. The transfer characteristics for different
material spacer FinFETs are shown in Fig.3
It is clear from the characteristics that there is
an increase in on state current of the device with the
use of high k dielectric material spacer. Simultaneously,
the off-state leakage current of the FinFET decreases
with the use of high k dielectric material, thus
increasing the Ion/Ioff ratio of the device which is
Fig. 2: Transfer Characteristics of the FinFET with Different
Dielectric Materials at VDS=Vdd
The variation of on-state current (ION) and off
state leakage current (IOFF) with different dielectric
materials is shown in Fig.3. Fig.4 shows that the
Ion/Ioff ratio increases with increasing dielectric
constant. . The value of sub threshold slope should be
as minimum as possible so as to have a faster switching
operation and also drain induced barrier lowering
should be as minimum as possible for the better
performance of the device. The sub threshold slope as
well as DIBL is minimum for Hafnium Oxide spacer
FinFET while it is maximum for FinFET without
spacer. very essential for low power operation of the
device. The decrease in off state current is basically
because of increase in the barrier potential faced by the
carriers as explained earlier. Here, the on state current
has doubled for Hafnium Oxide spacer FinFET if it is
80 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
compared with FinFET without spacer. Thus, there is
substantial improvement in the on state current of the
device. Also, the off state current is lowest for Hafnium
Oxide spacer FinFET device. So, in all maximum on
state current and minimum off state leakage current
is obtained for the Hafnium Oxide spacer FinFET
device.
Fig. 3: Variation in Ion and Ioff with Dielectric Constant of the
Spacer Material for FinFET
Fig. 4: Variation in Sub Threshold Slope and DIBL with Spacer
Dielectric Constant
IV. CONCLUSION
The use of high k dielectric materials such as
Si3N4, HfO2 improves the strength of the fringing
electric field resulting in increase in the on state
current while the off state current, sub threshold slope
and drain induced barrier lowering of the FinFET is
decreased, thus resulting in improvement of the device.
FinFET with high K dielectric material increases
Ion/Ioff ratio which increases the scope for high Wfin
(Fig.10). Further, high K dielectric material can be
useful in double metal gate MOS structures. The
proposed device has improved subthreshold
performance and avoid the use of underlap behavior of
gate or channel doping high.
REFERENCES
[1] Y.K. Choi, et al., IEDM 2001, pp. 421–424.
[2] J. Kedzierski, et al., IEDM 2001, pp. 437–440.
[3] J.P. Colinge, FinFETs and other Multi-Gate Transistors
Springer, 2007.
[4] Jean-Pierre Colinge, “Multiple-gate SOI MOSFETs” Solid-
State Electronics 48 (2004) 897–905.
[5] F. Gamiz and M.V. Fischetti, “Monte Carlo simulation of
doublegate silicon-on-insulator inversion layers: The role of
volume inversion,” J. Appl. Phys., vol. 89, no. 10, pp. 5478–
5487, 2001.
 Performance Improvement of MOSFET with High-K Dielectric Materials

[6] A. Khakifirooz and D. A. Antoniadis, “On the electron mobility
in ultrathin SOI and GOI,” IEEE Electron Device Lett., vol. 25,
no. 2, pp. 80–82, Feb. 2004.
[7] M. M. Chowdhury and J. G. Fossum, “Physical insights on
electron mobility in contemporary FinFETs,” IEEE Electron
Device Lett., vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 482–485, Jun. 2006.
[8] M.J. Kumar, S. K. Gupta and V. Venkatraman “compact
modeling of the effects of parasitic internal fringe capacitance
on the threshold voltage of high k dielectric nanoscale SOI
MOSFETs. IEEE transaction on Electronic Devices, 52, 706-
711(2004).
[9] Saji Josepha, George James Ta and Vincent Mathew “Transport
characteristics and subthreshold behavior of High-Κ dielectric
double gate mosfets with parallel connected gates” Journal of
Electron Devices, 16, 1363-1369(2012).
[10] “Sentaurus Structure Editor User’s Manual”, Synopsys
International.
[11] International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS),
2007 Edition.

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 81

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
A Review Paper on Single Electron
Transistor and its Applications
Nitin Shera1 and Anil Kumar2
1,2
Bhagwant University, Ajmer, India
e-mail: nitinsehra2@gmail.com, 2akumar14916@gmail.com
1
Abstract—The goal of this paper is to discuss about
the basic physics and applications of nano electronic
device ‘Single electron transistor [SET]’ which is capable
of controlling the transport of only one electron. Single-
electron transistor (SET) is a key element of current
research area of nanotechnology which can offer low
power consumption and high operating speed. The single
electron transistor is a new type of switching device that
uses controlled electron tunneling to amplify current.
Recent research in SET gives new ideas which are going to
revolutionize the random access memory and digital data
storage technologies.
Keywords: Nanoelectronics, Single-electron transistor;
Coulomb blockade, Coulomb oscillation, Quantum dot
I. THE PHYSICS OF SINGLE ELECTRON TRANSISTORS
A conventional field-effect transistor, the kind that
makes all modern electronics work, is a switch that
turns on when electrons are added to a semiconductor
and turns off when they are removed. These on and off
states give the ones and zeros that digital computers
need for calculation. Interestingly, these transistors are
almost completely classical in their physics. Only a few
numbers that characterize their behaviour are affected
by quantum mechanics. However, if one makes a new
kind of transistor, in which the electrons are confined
within a small volume and communicate with the
electrical leads by tunneling, all this changes. One then
has a transistor that turns on and off again every time
one electron is added to it, we call it a single electron
transistor (SET).
The single electron transistor is made of an island
connected through two tunneling junctions to a drain
and a source electrode, and through a capacitor to a gate
electrode (Fig. 1). When there is no bias on any
electrode, electrons in the system do not have enough
energy to tunnel through the junctions.
In a single electron transistor, a drain and source
electrode are connected through a tunneling junction to
an island, which is also capacitively connected to a
gate. When all the biases are zero, electrons do not have
enough energy to tunnel through the junction. However,
if you increase the bias, but keep it less than the
coulomb gap voltage, increasing the gate bias above the
point of maximum slope on the coulomb staircase
causes the state with one or zero excess electrons on the
island to have the same energy, resulting in the coulomb
82
barrier being removed and allowing electrons to tunnel
through the junctions and between the source and
the drain.
Fig. 1: Single Electron Transistor
The Coulomb energy is given by
Ec = e2/ 2C
Where e is the charge on an electron and C is the
total capacitance of the source and drain junctions and
the gate capacitor. When the bias between the source
and drain is greater than e/C (e/2C across each
junction), called the Coulomb gap voltage, electrons
actively tunnel across the junctions, resulting in
a current through the transistor independent of the
gate bias.
In quantization of electron flow, known as the
Coulomb staircase, the thermal energy of the system
must be much less than the Coulomb energy. As the
gate voltage increases, current increases in quantized
chunks.
This means that in order for a single electron
transistor to operate at room temperature,
kT≪ e2/2C
C≪ e2/2 kT ≈3.09×10−18F
The capacitance C must be much less than 3.09x10-
18
Farads. The capacitance is related to the distance
between the two sides of the junction, giving that
C≪3.09×10−18F ⇒ d<10 nm
the diameter of the island, d, must be less than 10
nanometers.
The transistor mode of operation occurs when the
bias between the source and drain is less than the
coulomb gap voltage. In this regime, when the gate bias
is increased to the point corresponding to the maximum
slope on the coulomb staircase (i.e. right before a jump
in current), the configurations on the island with zero or
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
 A Review Paper on Single Electron Transistor and its Applications
one excess electron have equal energies, removing the
coulomb barrier and allowing tunneling to occur. This
maximum point occurs when the gate is charged with
exactly minus half an electron. When another minus
half an electron charge is put on the gate, the coulomb
barrier is reinstated, resulting in an oscillation in
conductance of the transistor with maxima at half
integer multiples of e and minima at integer multiples
of e. This conductance oscillation allows the single
electron transistor to be used either as a transistor or as
an extremely precise device for measuring charge.
There are a variety of materials chosen for single
electron transistors based on the particular properties
desired in the system. Relevant properties include the
capacitance of the material, the ease of fabrication,
crystalline structure, electron mobility, and ease of
growing oxide layers. There are two classes of single
electron transistors used today, ‘metallic " and
‘semiconducting’. This refers to the material they are
commonly fabricated from as opposed to describing in
any way their operation. Both function through the
process of tunneling junctions.
II. APPLICATIONS OF SET
A. Detection of Infrared Radiation
The single-electron transistor can be used to detect
infrared signals at room temperature. By exciting
electrons over an electrically induced energy barrier,
both the range of detectable wavelengths and the
sensitivity of the device can be controlled. The sensor
works when an infrared signal excites conduction-band
electrons in a 25-nm-deep electron reservoir. A silicon
insulator channel measuring 40 × 400 nm is placed next
to the reservoir to increase the number of excited
electrons. A poly-silicon lower gate then turns off the
transistor and electrically forms an energy barrier,
creating a storage node on the other side. Electrons with
energy greater than the height of the barrier are injected
into the storage node, where they are read as changes in
current flowing through the transistor.
B. Charge Sensor
Single-electron transistors (SETs) are efficient
charge sensors for reading out spin or charge qubits
confined in quantum dots (QDs). To investigate their
capacitive parameters, which are related to the signal-
to-noise ratio (SNR) during qubit readout, twin silicon
single QDs were fabricated using a lithographic process
on a silicon-on-insulator substrate. Since the
configuration and dimensions of the QDs could be
determined by direct imaging, the theoretical capacitive
parameters could be compared to the measured values.
Good agreement was found between the calculated and
measured value, which confirms the validity of the
calculation method. The results indicated that
decreasing the SET diameter reduces the capacitive
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 83
coupling between qubits but increases the signal-to-
noise ratio for both dc and radio frequency single-shot
measurements. Since these results are independent of
the device materials, they are useful for establishing
guidelines for the design of SET charge sensors in
lateral QD-SET structures based on a two-dimensional
electron gas.
C. Ultrasensitive Microwave Dectector
Another application of Single Electron Transistor
can be as an Ultrasensitive Microwave Detector; island
is weakly coupled to a bias circuit through two small-
capacitance tunnel junctions and a capacitive gate. At
low bias voltages and temperatures, a single
quasiparticle may only be introduced to the island
through photon-assisted tunneling. Once this occurs, the
quasiparticle is trapped on the island because it takes a
relatively long time for this specific quasiparticle to
tunnel off. While it is trapped, charge is transported
through the system two electrons at a time. Since the
photon-assisted transition merely switches the detector
current on, this device is not limited to one electron
tunneled through the system per absorbed photon. This
makes the device an extremely sensitive and potentially
useful detector of microwave radiation.
D. Temperature Standards
Theoretical analysis based on the orthodox theory
has shown that ∆V=5.44NkBT/e is surprisingly stable
with respect to almost any variations of the array
parameters (with the important exception of a
substantial spread in the junctions’ resistances),
providing a remarkable opportunity to use the arrays for
absolute thermometry, since the fundamental constants
are known with high accuracy. Each particular array
may give high (1%) accuracy of within less than one
decade of temperature variations, but for arrays with
different island size (and hence different), these ranges
may be shifted and overlap. Thus, it is possible to have
an absolute standard of temperature with a very broad
(say, two-decade) total range from several circuits
fabricated on a single chip.
This development is very encouraging, but since all
this work is recent, some time is needed to see whether
these new devices will be able to compete with (or even
replace) the established temperature standards.
E. Supersensitive Electrometer
The technology of fabrication of tunnel barriers for
single-electron devices is still in its infancy, they
apparently contain many electron trapping centers and
other two-level systems capable of producing ‘telegraph
noise’-random low-frequency variations of the barrier
conductance.
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
The high sensitivity of single-electron transistors
have enabled to use them as electrometers in unique
physical experiments. For example, they have made
possible unambiguous observations of the parity effects
in superconductors. Absolute measurements of
extremely low dc currents (~10-20 A) have been
demonstrated. The transistors have also been used in the
first measurements of single-electron effects in single-
electron boxes and traps. A modified version of the
transistor has been used for the first proof of the
existence of fractional-charge excitations in the
fractional quantum hall effect.
F. Single-Electron Spectroscopy
Another application of single-electron electrometry
is the possibility of measuring the electron addition
energies (and hence the energy level distribution) in
quantum dots and other nanoscale objects.
There are two natural ways to carry out such
measurements. The first is to use the quantum dot as the
island of the single-electron box, capacitively coupled
to the single electron transistor or other sensitive
electrometer. The second is to use the quantum dot
directly as the island of a weakly biased single-electron
84 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
transistor and measure the gate voltages providing the
sharp increase of the source-drain conductance.
III. CONCLUSION
This research paper focuses the theoretical
discussion of basic principle of Single electron
transistor and its applications and importance in the age
of nanotechnology to provide low power consumption
and high operating speed in the field of ULSI design for
the fabrication of various electronic devices.
REFERENCES
[1] Quantum information technology based on single electron
dynamics, NIT basic research laboratories Atsugi-shi, 243-0198
Japan, Vol. 1 No.3 June 2003.
[2] A. E. Hanna and M. Tinkham (1991). ‘Variation of the Coulomb
staircase in a two-junction system by fractional electron charge.’
Physical Review B 44: 5919.
[3] Amiza Rasmi & Uda Hashim ‘Single-electron transistor (SET):
Literature Review’ journal 2005, koieg University, Malaysia.
[4] Andreas Scholze, ‘Simulation of single-electron devices,’ Ph.D.
dissertation, Univ. of Jena, Germany, 2000.
[5] Gregory S. Dubejsky, ‘Fabrication and DC characterization of
Single electron transfers at low temperature’, M.S. Thesis,
Queen’s Univ. Kingston, Ontario, Canada, Aug. 2007.
 Procee
edings of Nation
nal Conference on Trends in Siignal Processing & Communica
ation (TSPC’13)), 12th–14th April 2013

Prootectioon of Embeedded Softw ware frrom Siide

Chhannel Attaccks usiing Viirtual Securre Circcuit
H.K. Yasar Tharik1 and N. Neelima2
1
M.Tech (V
VLSI & Embeddded Systems), B.S.Abdur Rahman
R Univeersity, Chennaai–48, India,
2
Assiistant Professoor, ECE, B.S.A
Abdur Rahma an University, Chennai–48, India
e-mail:: 1ertharik@gm
gmail.com, 2neeelima@bsaunniv.ac.in

Abstract—Side-Chan nnel Attacks (S SCAs) can breeak a activ

vity of a desiign regardlesss of the internnal states of
cryptographic implementation within a very short time, an algorithm.
a Both randomizzed and con nstant side-
and therefoore, has becom me a practical threat
t to embeedded
channnel informaation prevennt the attacckers from
security. Thhis work preseents Virtual Seecure Circuit (VVSC)
as a softw ware counterm measure to SC CA. VSC proovides obseerving the innternal algoritthm states and a finally
protection to software by b emulating WDDL, an SCA- S thwaart SCA. This T work focuses on protecting
resistant hardware
h circcuit style. VSC
V is algoriithm- embbedded softwaare, the most ccommon impllementation
independen nt. This enablees designers tot protect diffferent of cryptography.. Existing sooftware counttermeasures
cryptographic software with
w only one solution.
s This work
w usuaally follow the maskingg approach. However,
proposes the concept of VSC toogether with two masking is not freee of limitatioons. Some massking-based
implementaation schemess. One schem me is based on o a
custom-insttruction singlee-core processoor architecturee and
counntermeasures were shown to be ineffecctive. Some
the other ono a dual-coree architecture. Correspondiingly, can easily be attacked.
a Thee others are algorithm-
we built twwo prototypes on FPGA sysstems. Experim ments speccific. Researchhers have to spend a largee amount of
with real-wworld side-channel power an nd electromaggnetic effort to find a ranndomized verrsion for everyy algorithm.
attacks demmonstrate thatt, compared wiith the unprotected So far,
f no succeessful solutionns of hiding in software
software, VSC
V on single-core processorr provides 20 times
t havee been experrimentally deemonstrated. This work
security immprovement. TheT experimen nts also show that,
propposes a hidiing-based sooftware coun ntermeasure,
although VSC
V on dual-ccore processor does not th hwart
electromagnetic attacks, it offers moore than 25 times t calleed Virtual Secure Circcuit (VSC).T This work
security improvement agaainst power attacks. We concclude propposes the concept of pprotecting so oftware by
that VSC is comparable in securityy improvemen nt to emuulating the hidding-based seccure hardwaree. Based on
WDDL butt is more flexib ble and has muuch lower hard dware this,, software protection becomes algorithm-
cost. indeependent.
Keywords: Side-Chan nnel Attacks, Dual-rail
D pre-ch
harge This work presents twoo different schemess to
technique, Virtual
V Secure Circuit, VSC. implement the VS SC concept. O
One is based on
o a custom
instrruction single-core architeccture, the other on a dual-
I. INTTRODUCTION coree architecturee. Both schem mes guaranteee that the
DESIG GNING securre embedded systems reqquires proccessor system ms have the saame behaviorr as hiding-
not only seecure protocolls and cryptoggraphic algoritthms, baseed circuits. Users
U can chooose the schem me that best
but also seecure implemeentations. A well
w known threat
t suitss their requireements.
to secure implementattions is calleed Side Chaannel
Attack (S SCA).SCA can break a cryptograaphic
implementtation in an embedded
e system within hours,
h
even thouggh the cryptographic algoorithm is ablle to
resist crypptanalysis attaacks for at leeast thousandds of
years. Thiss is because, besides
b the information useed by
cryptanalyssis, SCA collects additionala u
useful
informationn from side chhannels such as execution time,
t
power connsumption, annd electromaggnetic emanaation.
Side-channnel informatioon reveals the internal statees of
an algorithhm and helpps SCA to suubstantially reeduce
the attackk complexity.. Two mainn approachess to
counteract SCA are masking
m and hiding. Massking
randomizess the side-chaannel informaation and makkes it Fig. 1: SCA Attacks
A a Crypto-Device and Unccovers
unpredictabble. Hiding ensures connstant operational the Key Enclosed

ISBN: 978-9
93-82880-20-2 85
Proceedingss of National Co
onference on Tre
ends in Signal Processing
P & Co
ommunication (TSPC’13), 12th
h–14th April 2013

II. PRELIMINARIES
R

This section inntroduces soome prelimiinary

knowledgee on SCA annd a typical hiding technnique,
dual-rail prre-charge (DR
RP) technique..

III. SIDE CHANNEL

H ATTAACKS
Fig.1 shows a crypptographic deevice. The deevice
implementts a cryptograaphic algorithm m, representeed by
f. f takes the
t plaintext (PT)
( and the key
k (K) as innputs,
and generrates the enncryption resuult (ER) (ER =
f(PT,K)). The internal secret key K is not dirrectly
observablee through thhe ports of the device. The
objective ofo SCA is to reveal
r the vallue of K. Eacch bit
of ER is reelated to everry bit of PT annd every bit ofo K.
Suppose K has 128 bitss, then a tradiitional brute force
f
attack needds to consider 2^128 possibble key values. It is
this huge search
s space that
t ensures the
t security of o the
cryptograpphic algorithmm. Instead, SC CA divides K into
Figg. 2: (a) A CMOSS Standard NAND D has Data-depen
ndent Power
pieces andd breaks them m one by onee. For exampple, a Dissipation; (b) A DR
RP NAND Gate hhas a Data in Dep pendent Power
typical SE EA algorithm uses an 128--bit key. Usinng an Dissipatioon
SCA that reveals one key k byte at a time, the seearch
Figure 2 illusstrates the opeeration of a DRP
D NAND
space for the
t entire keey is reducedd from 2^1228 to
gatee. This exampple approxim mates static annd dynamic
16*28 = 2^12.
2 SCA breaks
b the enttire key piece by
powwer dissipationn of a logic gaate through the Hamming
piece in the followiing way. Thhere are alw ways Weiight and HammingH Diistance of its output
intermediaate values that are only relatted to a smalll part resp
pectively. In thhe case of a siingle NAND gateg (Figure
of K, e.g. one byte of K. K Assume thhat an intermeediate 2a), the static annd dynamic power dissipattion depend
state IS deepends on a single
s key bytte K[7:0] andd the on the
t input valuues of the gate. For exam mple, if the
plaintext PTP (IS = g(P PT,K[7 :0])). Then K[7 : 0] can statiic power is 0, 0 both inputss must be 1. This side-
be discoverred with only 2^8 guesses. channnel leakage is critical to SCA. Figuree 2b shows
To test which gueess is correcct, SCA needds to the same test casse on a DRP N NAND gate. In I this case,
observe IS S. This variiable is indiirectly observvable the circuit enccodes each logic value with a
through itss power dissiipation, whichh is a part of the commplementary pair.p Furtherm more, each pair
p is pre-
power disssipated by thee entire device. Through prroper charrged to (0,0) in i each clock cycle before evaluation.
correlationn techniques, the
t overall poower dissipatioon of As a result, eachh clock cycle,, every DRP signal pair
the device can be used inn place of the power dissipation show ws exactly onne transition ffrom 0 to 1 and a another
from IS. Poower dissipateed by unrelateed components can one from 1 to 0. 0 The resultting static an nd dynamic
be treated as noise. Inn such way, SCA successsfully powwer dissipationn are indepenndent of the in nput values
obtains thee information of the internaal states and finnally of th
he DRP gate.
attacks thee device. In reecent years, veery powerful SCA So far, DRP P technique haas been broad dly used to
techniques have emergged. Modern secure embeedded prottect hardware circuits. No DRP softwarre has been
systems therefore need n to apply adeqquate succcessfully impllemented. Thhe difficulty iss that DRP
countermeaasures to preevent SCA. The next section cannnot be realizeed in convenntional processsors, since
reviews a hardwaree countermeeasure technnique exissting micro arcchitectures doo not exhibit thet required
commplementary opperations.
developed for this purpoose.
Although DRPD has deesirable prop perties, the
tech
hnique also haas disadvantagges. The first drawback
d is
IV. THE DRP
D TECHNIQU
UE
its large
l overheaad on area, ppower, and laatency. The
The DRP tecchnique is an effeective secoond is the requuirement of syymmetric placcement-and-
countermeaasure against SCA. Its basis is to reduce the routte of compleementary siggnal paths. Due D to the
side-channnel informationn leaked fromm the intermeediate proccess variation,, it is practicaally not possib
ble to obtain
state IS. Hardware circuuits implementted as DRP haave a commpletely symm metric direct annd complemen ntary paths.
constant power dissiipation and electromaggnetic According to, prrocess variation makes cry yptographic
emanation.. implementations more vulneraable to SCA. As A a result,
althoough DRP technique hhas become a popular
coun ntermeasure too SCA.

86 ‹ Bhagw
want Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar
U Pradesh, In
ndia
 Protection of Embedded Software from Side Channel Attacks using Virtual Secure Circuit
V. SCALABLE ENCRYPTION ALGORITHM
SEA is a parametric block cipher for resource
constrained systems (e.g. sensor networks, RFIDs) that
has been introduced in . It was initially designed as a
low-cost encryption/ authentication routine (i.e. with
small code size and memory) targeted for processors
with a limited instruction set (i.e. AND, OR, XOR
gates, word rotation and modular
addition).Additionally and contrary to most recent
block ciphers (e.g. the DES and AES Rijndael), the
algorithm takes the plaintext, key and the bus sizes as
parameters and therefore can be straightforwardly
adapted to various implementation contexts and/or
security requirements. Compared to older solutions for
low cost encryption like TEA (Tiny Encryption
Algorithm)or Yuval’s proposal, SEA also benefits from
a stronger security analysis, derived from recent
advances in block cipher design/cryptanalysis.
Fig. 3: Block Diagram of VSC Protected Embedded Circuit
VI. BASIC OPERATIONS
Due to its simplicity constraints, SEAn, b is based
on a limited number of elementary operations (selected
for their availability in any processing device) denoted
as follows: (1) bitwise XOR ⊕, (2) addition mod 2b,
(3) a 3-bit substitution box S := {0, 5, 6, 7, 4, 3, 1, 2}
that can be applied bitwise to any set of 3-bit words for
efficiency purposes. In addition, we use the following
rotation operations (4) Word rotation R, defined on nb-
word vectors, (5) Bit rotation r, defined on nb-word
vectors.
VII. NCL S-BOX DESIGN
The SEA algorithm consists of a number of
rounds that are dependent on the key size. For both
cipher and inverse cipher of the SEA algorithm, each
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 87
round consists of linear operation and nonlinear
operation. Each byte in the array is updated by an 8-bit
S-Box, which is derived from the multiplicative inverse
over GF(2^8). The SEA S-Box is constructed by
combining the inverse function with an invertible
affine transformation in order to avoid attacks based on
mathematics. The S-Box is one the of most critical
components in the implementation of AES hardware. It
consumes the majority of power and is also the most
vulnerable component to SCAs.
VIII. FUNCTIONAL VERIFICATION OF THE PROPOSED
NCL S-BOX DESIGN
The proposed NCL S-Box has been implemented
in very high-speed integrated circuits (VHSIC)
hardware description language (VHDL) and simulated
with ModelSim by Mentor Graphics. By referring to
the waveform shown in Fig. 4, the initial value of the
input and that of the output are NULL and DATA0,
respectively, as previous input registers are reset to
NULL and output registers are reset to DATA0. As
soon as the reset falls down to 0, Ko from the output
register becomes 1, and Ki for the input register
connected to Ko becomes 1. As Ki rises, the input is
changed to the waiting input signal 01 01 01 01 01 01
01 01 in dual-rail signaling, which means 00000000 in
binary and 0x00 in hexadecimal. The output arrives
later due to the propagation delay; The output becomes
01 10 10 01 01 01 10 10 in NCL, which means
01100011 in binary and 0x63 in hexadecimal. The
input signals are cumulative from 0 to 255,with
increment by 1 in each cycle. As shown in Fig. 4, the
input signal increases from 0x00 to 0x02, and the
corresponding output signals are 0x63, 0x7C, and 0x77,
respectively. The results are matching with the standard
S-Box [37] announced by the National Institute of
Standards and Technology. As every bit of the output
signal changes from NULL to DATA, Ko falls to 0,
which means that the output register has received the
proper output DATA wave.
Every single component (i.e., affine and inverse
affine transformation, and multiplicative inversion) has
been separately verified. All the input/output data were
extracted using the VHDL textio package; then, a
scripting program was written to verify each of the
output date, ensuring the function correctly. Table I
shows the encryption and decryption arbitrary
simulation results for both the synchronous S-Box and
the NCL S-Box using ten sample inputs, with five for
encryption and five for decryption, respectively. On the
NCL S-Box output column, the results are shown as 16
bits, which are the extended dual-rail signals. For
example, for input 158, the NCL S-Box output is 01 01
01 01 10 01 10 10, and this dual-rail encoded data word
is equivalent to 00001011 in binary, which is equal to
the output of the conventional synchronous S-Box.
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Fig. 4: Sample Mentor Graphics ModelSim Waveform for the
Proposed NCL S-Box with Input Signals Changing from 0d to 3d
TABLE I. SIMULATION RESULTS FOR TEN ARBITRARY SAMPLES FROM
THE CONVENTIONAL SYNCHRONOUS S-BOX AND THE PROPOSED NCL
S-BOX
IX. VIRTUAL SECURE CIRCUIT
While VSC protects software, its ultimate
objective is to reduce the side-channel leakage
originating from hardware, and more specifically from
the processor system.
A processor has different parts that are potential
sources of side-channel leakage. There are three
different data paths . The first data path is the
computational data path. It starts from the register file,
goes through the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), and
returns to the register file. For memory-operations,
there are two additional data paths. The memory-load
data path is used to transfer information from memory
to the register file. The memory-store data path is used
to transfer information from the register file to the
memory. Each of the above data paths is a potential
source of side-channel leakage. For example, Figure 3b
shows the execution of an AND operation, which
configures the computational, Data path as an array of
AND gates. Clearly, this operation leads to data-
dependent power dissipation which must be avoided.
The concept of VSC is to protect all of these three data
paths with the DRP technique and to do programming
such that only the protected data paths are used to
implement the cryptographic algorithms.
88 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
X. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The experimental setup for power attacks used
an automatic measurement system that contained a
FPGA board, an oscilloscope and a PC, shown in
Figure 5. A RS232 cable connected the FPGA board
and the PC to enable the communication between these
two. To do power attacks, the oscilloscope used a
current probe (Tektronix CT-2) to monitor the current
flowing into the FPGA core. Here, current represents
the power of the FPGA. In the electromagnetic attacks,
the oscilloscope used a H-field probe (ETS-LINDREN
903) to detect the magnetic field. Between the
oscilloscope and the PC, communication was done
through a USB cable. We programmed the PC to send
command to the oscilloscope and plaintext to the
FPGA, and to obtain the sampled signal from the
oscilloscope, after one sampling is done.To reduce
noise sampled by probes, every sampled trace
transferred to the PC is an average trace of 32
normaltraces (with the same plaintext).
Fig. 5: Experimental Setup
XI. CORRELATION ATTACKS
With measurement results, Correlation Power
Attacks (CPA) and Correlation Electromagnetic
Attacks (CEA) were mounted. In the experiments, both
CPA and CEA focused on the outputs of the Sub Bytes
step (16 bytes) in the first round of the AES algorithm.
SCA divides the SEA key (128 bits) into 16 bytes and
attacks each byte at a time. With the correlation attack
technique, the attack results on one key byte are 256
correlation coefficient traces corresponding to 256
possible values of that key byte. If the coefficient trace
correlated to the correct key byte value is identifiable
from other values, then the attack on this byte is
successful. Measurements to Disclosure (MTD) is used
to quantify the security of a countermeasure. MTD
for one key byte is the smallest number of
measurements that makes the correct key byte’s
coefficient trace identifiable.
This work used two different leakage models,
including a byte-based model and a bit-based model.
The byte-based model makes use of Hamming weight
of the entire output (one byte) of the S-Box in the
SEA’s Sub Bytes step. The bit-based model makes
 Protection of Embedded Software from Side Channel Attacks using Virtual Secure Circuit
use of Hamming weight of only 1 bit of the S-Box’s
output. Usually, the byte-based model is more efficient
because it contains more useful information. However,
when attacking DRP countermeasures, sometimes the
bit-based model could be better. This is because the
imbalance within complementary wire pairs could be
positive (e.g. the direct wire is longer) or negative (e.g.
the complementary wire is longer), depending on
specific circuit routing. In such case, adding Hamming
weights of different bits in a byte together may average
out the imbalance, which is not helpful for attacks. The
experiments tried both models and selected the more
powerful one to present the results.
XII. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
This work proposes VSC as a solution to protect
software from SCA with the DRP technique. This
concept can be implemented following two schemes.
One is on an customizable single-core processor and
the other is on a synchronized dual-core processor. A
set of real-world attacks based on power and
electromagnetic emanation have been done to quantify
the security improvements. Except that dual-core VSC
is still breakable by electromagnetic attacks, in all the
other cases, the VSC schemes offer comparable
protection against power and electromagnetic attacks
when compared with the real DRP circuits. In addition,
considering its algorithm independent and low-
hardware-cost features, we expect VSC an effective
SCA countermeasure for software cryptography.
Symmetric routing is important to DRP
technique. A further step to this work can be
combining VSC and symmetric routing for higher
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 89
SCA resistance. Also, DRP technique is considered to
have a good nature against fault attacks. Integrating
fault-attack resistance to VSC also deserves further
investigation. As for future deployment, we see the
first step to deploy VSC as a practical SCA solution on
extensible processors.
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AES, Secure against Some Attacks,” CHES 2001, vol. LNCS
2162, pp. 309–318, 2001.
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[5] D. Macii and D. Petri, “Accurate software-related average
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[6] V. Konstantakos, K. Kosmatopoulos, S. Nikolaidis, and T.
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systems,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. 55, no. 5, pp.
1662–1670, Oct. 2006.
[7] D. Macii and D. Petri, “An effective power consumption
measurement procedure for bluetooth wireless modules,” IEEE
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2007.
[8] L. Angrisani, M. D’Apuzzo, and M. Vadursi, “Power
measurement in digital wireless communication systems
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[9] T. Lopez and R. Elferich, “Measurement technique for the static
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Aug. 2007.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
On Capturing Exceptions in Workflow
Models for Flexible Processes
Shivani Chauhan1 and Punit Agarwal2
1,2
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar–251315, U.P., India
e-mail: 1shivanichauhanbit@gmail.com, 2punitagarwal.mca@gmail.com
Abstract—Process support systems, such as
workflows, are being used in a variety of domains.
However, most areas of application have focused on
traditional production-style processes, which are
characterized by predictability and repetitiveness.
Application in non-traditional domains with highly
flexible process is still largely unexplored. Such flexible
processes are characterized by lack of ability to completely
predefine or an explosive number of alternatives. In this
paper, we will present an approach to building workflow
models for such processes. We will present our approach
in the context of a non-traditional domain for workflow
deployment, which is, degree programs in tertiary
institutes. The primary motivation behind our approach is
to provide the ability to model flexible processes without
introducing non-standard modeling constructs. This
ensures that the correctness and verification of the
language is preserved. We propose to build workflow
schemas from a standard set of modeling constructs and
given process constraints. We identify the fundamental
requirements for constraint specification and classify them
into selection, termination and build constraints. Finally,
we will demonstrate the dynamic building of instance
specific workflow models on the basis of these constraints.
Keywords: flexible workflow, tertiary education,
constraint specification
I. INTRODUCTION
Effective business organizations develop processes
to ensure that their activities are performed in a
consistent and reliable manner. These processes
consist of four primary components, namely objects,
tasks, performers and constraints. The object is a
business entity, such as a home loan application,
which is required to be worked on during its life
cycle. The business activities defining this work form
the tasks to be performed, such as checking the
applicant’s credit rating or current financial
commitments. Performers carry out these tasks on the
objects, as the task cannot perform its associated
work on the object directly. A performer may be a
person, typically someone filling an organizational
position, such as a manager or a supervisor, or it
may be
Workflow systems are currently the leading
technology for supporting business processes.This
technology manages the execution of the tasks
involved in a business activity, the scheduling of
90
resources and the control of the flow of the associated
information required by performers to execute the
tasks. Typically the tasks involved in the business
process are interdependent in that the execution of
one task is conditional upon the execution of one or
a number of other tasks. Workflow management
systems employ a process model to capture this flow
of execution between tasks. This model is used by a
workflow management system to schedule and
coordinate the execution of these tasks. Production
workflows based on this framework have been
developed to automate the coordination of the activities
for processes that are typically characterized by well-
defined procedures and are highly repetitive in nature.
The processes may be complicated in nature,
involving a large number of tasks, performers and
coordination constraints. However many new
categories of workflow technology are emerging to
address the diverse range of processes now looking to
engage the technology due to the automated
coordination benefits that it provides.
The ability to predefine a business process
completely cannot be relied upon. Furthermore even
highly predictable processes are subject to change as
organizations adjust their activities in response to
influences such as new legislation, innovations and
competitive pressures. Another pressure on the rigid
process definition comes from the need for support of
exceptional cases, in particular unforeseen scenarios
that cannot be suitably addressed by the existing
process definition. At the other extreme of a continuum
of support for process change is the complete
relaxation of coordination constraints, which has lead
to developments in ad-hoc workflows to cater for
complete flexibility in the execution. Positioned
between the extremes of this continuum is the support
for processes that can be partially defined but not
completely specified until runtime.
A typical example is healthcare, where patient
admission procedures are predictable and repetitive,
however, in-patient treatments are prescribed uniquely
for each case, but none-the-less have to be coordinated
and controlled.
Another application is higher education, where
students with diverse learning needs and styles are
working towards a common goal (degree). Study paths
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
 On Capturing Exceptions in Workflow Models for Flexible Processes
taken by each student need to remain flexible to a large
extent, at the same time providing study guidelines and
enforcing course level constraints is necessary to ensure
a certain quality of learning.
Web content management is also characterized by
flexible processes, where especially in large projects,
every development suggests the need for an overall
plan to provide the objectives, approvals, and strategy,
as well as a flexible means of coordinating the
combined efforts of the theme designers, graphic
experts, programmers, and project planners.
Effective Customer Relationship Management
(CRM), a critical component in enterprise solutions,
also signifies the need to provide a flexible means of
composing call center activities according to the
available resources and data, but within certain
constraints, thus allowing for an integration of CRM
systems with core organizational workflow processes
and underlying applications.
We will introduce in the following section, some
basic terminology and a simple workflow modeling
language. In the next section we will present an
analysis of flexible processes in the context of
tertiary degree processes, and identify the fundamental
requirements for constraint specification for such
processes. We will also demonstrate the unsuitability of
‘prescriptive’ process modeling languages in this area.
Finally, we will introduce our proposed approach. We
will show how flexibility of specification can be
achieved without compromising the simplicity and
consequently verifiability of the modeling language.
II. BASIC TERMINOLOGY
We will use basic workflow modeling concepts to
demonstrate our approach. Below we introduce basic
terminology for the sake of clarity:
• We define a workflow schema as a
representation of a set of activities, the
ordering and interdependencies between these
activities, the resources available to perform
them and their information or data
requirements that are required to complete a
business process.
• A workflow instance, like its database
namesake, denotes a particular occurrence of
the business process as defined by the
schema.
• An instance type is the set of instances that
follow the same execution path through the
conditions that exist in the workflow schema.
A. Semantics of the Workflow Language
We also introduce a graphical workflow definition
language, which will be used for demonstrating various
concepts. This language conforms closely to the
workflow management coalition standards. Note that
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 91
we will utilize only the basic set of modeling
constructs, consisting of Sequence, Exclusive Or Split
(Choice) Exclusive Or Join (Merge), And Split (Fork),
And Join (Synchronizer). The graphical representation
of these constructs is shown in Figure 1.
Fig. 1: Basic Workflow Constructs
The semantic context of the basic constructs is
presented with reference to the process depicted in
Figure 1.
Sequence enables an activity in the workflow after
the completion of another activity in the same process
as shown by activity C’s dependency on Activity B.
And Split (Fork) supports simultaneous execution
in the process by allowing a single thread of control
to split into multiple threads that can be executed in
parallel. The branch containing Activities B, C and D
can execute simultaneously with the branch containing
Activities E and F.
And Join (Synchronizer) brings together multiple
parallel threads into a single thread of control. Activity
G will only trigger after the incoming transitions from
the branch containing Activity B, C and D and the
branch containing Activity E and F are triggered.
Exclusive Or Split (Choice) represents a point in
the workflow process where one of several branches is
chosen based upon the results of a condition. That is,
Activity E or Activity F will follow Activity A in this
branch of the process.
Exclusive Or Join (Merge) allow alternate
branches to come together without synchronization.
Completion of either Activity E or Activity F will
trigger the merge.
The above defines the structural layer of the
workflow that captures the flow of execution from one
task to another. In addition a temporal layer is required
to capture scheduling constraints additional to those
imposed by the structure, a data layer to capture the
data requirements of workflow tasks, and data flow
between tasks, and an execution layer to schedule and
control the actual tasks invocations, resources and data.
Therefore, each task in the workflow is described by a
set of properties. These properties relate to the data,
time, underlying applications, resources, clients,
compensation and much more. We do not elaborate on
task properties in this paper. However, the task is a
complex object with rich semantics, and cannot be
considered as a mere node in the workflow graph.
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
III. ANALYSING FLEXIBLE PROCESSES
In this section we will present an analysis of
flexible processes through the tertiary education
domain. Today’s student communities are constantly
changing, with more and more part time, mature age
and international students with a wide variety of
educational, professional and cultural backgrounds.
These students have diverse learning needs and styles.
Where as degree programs are generally well defined
in terms of overall process constraints, it is difficult to
judge the validity of specific choices made by
students. We see two primary areas of application in
this domain:
Flexible Learning: Mixed mode delivery of
educationis receiving increasing attention as academic
institutes look to technology for a solution to the
constraints that time, location and recourses place on
the availability of their programs to potential students
in an international marketplace. Although a number of
collaboration tools exist, these tools basically enable
building of intelligent websites. A novel approach has
been presented in [LHS+01], which makes use of
workflow-driven e-learning. The Flex-eL system
introduced in the above provides students with a
flexible, yet controlled means of progressing through
the study process by making use of workflow
functionality to define and execute study and
assessment tasks. This approach not only enables
effective collaboration between the teaching and
learning groups, but also provides coordination, control
and monitoring of individual study plans.
Student Planning and Academic Advising: Tertiary
programs offer a diverse collection of courses that
allow specialization on various aspects of a program.
The wide variety of valid combinations of courses that
satisfy a particular program's requirement indicates a
high degree of flexibility. A simple program structure
consisting of 9 courses of compulsory material and a
further 3 courses of elective material which are
selected from a schedule of 14 available electives was
considered and found to yield a total of some 364
instance types. A further illustration considers a less
structured program, such as Arts or Science, where
some 20 to 30 courses are required from a schedule
that can contain thousands of courses. A number of
factors impact on the choices made by the students
including changing areas of interest, changing
workload requirements and changing program rules.
The multiplicity of validcombinations of courses that can
be undertaken, and ensuring that these satisfy the
requirements of programs, particularly where these
requirements have changed during the duration of the
student’s enrolment constitute a complex problem.
Although academic courses are not currently
deployed as workflow tasks in the typical sense, the
92 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
appropriateness of workflow modeling concepts can be
easily seen.
Academic courses equate to process tasks, these
courses are interdependent and the academic program
represents a long duration business process. At the
same time, there is an inherent flexibility in these
processes, required for diverse student requirements,
which makes their modeling in traditional process
definition languages very difficult.
In Figure 2 we give an example of a degree
program with 9 compulsory and 3 electives out of 14
offered courses. This Figure partially captures one of
the eleven sub-processes required to model the
program and is intended to demonstrate how a
prescriptive language generates an explosive number of
instant types.
Fig. 2: Modeling Flexible Processes in a Prescriptive Language
Due to the above factors, we found this to be an
appropriate and challenging domain for investigating
the modeling of flexible processes.
IV. DEFINING THE FLEXIBLE MODEL
Basically we define flexibility as the ability of the
workflow process to execute on a partially defined
model which is only fully specified at runtime and may
be unique to the instances . Although the fundamental
question we are addressing is the modeling of the
partial (rather flexible) model, it is important to point
out that the flexible model is to be used to build valid
instances. We identify the following as the essential
components of the flexible model:
A set of fragments from which an instance can be
built.
• A workflow task.
• A complex sub-process.
A set of modeling constructs that can be used to
compose the fragments for a given instance.
• Sequence.
• Fork/ Synchronize.
• Multiple executions.
In this paper we will utilize two constructs, namely
sequence and fork/ synchronize in the context of the
 On Capturing Exceptions in Workflow Models for Flexible Processes
chosen domain. However, at a more generic level, we
see the use of structures that allow multiple executions
in sequence and/ or in parallel. While choice and merge
constructs may be present within workflow fragments,
we propose that these constructs not be used to build the
instances. Since an instance represents a particular
occurrence of the workflow process, the choices should
be made during the building of the instance. The
elimination of the choice-merge construct from the
instance template further has the advantage of
simplifying the model, and removing the chance of
deadlocks or lack of synchronization.
A set of constraints that will define the rules
under which valid instances can be built. We identify
three levels of constraint specification.
• Selection Constraints.
• Termination Constraints.
• Build Constraints.
A. Selection Constraints
Selection constraints dictate the inclusion of a
fragment in the pool of fragments available for
building. In degree programs, fragments are simply
courses. A course is available for selection (included
in the pool of fragments available for building) when
certain constraints have been met. In this domain we
identified three types of constraints which are basically
interdependencies that exist between courses. These
are prerequisite, companion and incompatible.
Prerequisite requirements for a course describe its
dependency on the completion of a set of courses.
These prerequisite requirements may take the form of
satisfactory completion of:
• A specific course.
• A number of specific courses.
• A number of subjects in an area of study or
at a study level or in an area of study at
a level.
• Advanced standing
One of a number of alternatives, where each
alternative may be in any one of the above forms.
Companion requirements describe courses that are
dependent upon other courses being undertaken in
concurrence with them.
Fig. 3: Higher Education Domain Task Interdependencies
Finally a course may be incompatible with another
course. Successful completion of an incompatible for a
course will prevent the credit for that course.
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 93
These dependencies can be depicted as a control
flow structure in the given workflow language, as
shown in Figure 3.
B. Termination Constraints
In the absence of an explicit termination task, it is
essential to identify the termination constraints, which
define to a large extent the process goal. Furthermore,
these constraints must be defined in terms of the
fragments from which the instances are built. In the
higher education domain, we can identify the following
termination constraint;
The total number of courses (units) to be
completed is always specified but some programs may
require that a specified number of units be completed
in a particular area or at a particular level or a
combination of both.
C. Build Constraints
In addition to the rules captured by the
selection and the termination constraints, further
restrictions exist to control the building of the
process. The build constraints specific to this domain
are typically:
• Rules specifying the availability of course
(semester 2, alternate years).
• Rules specifying the minimum and maximum
student workloads (units taken per semester).
• Rules specifying performance requirements.
For example, entry into honors programs may
require an overall grade average or a grade
average taken over a number of courses.
V. BUILDING VALID INSTANCES
The dynamic build approach allows for the
continuous build of an instance from the set of
available fragments and modeling constructs. The
absence of a constraint violation permits the build to
continue. Initially the instance specification will be
undefined and the pool of fragments available to the
build will contain only those fragments without
selection constraints. Specification of the instance can
begin with a selection of the available fragments
connected through the constructs to form what we call
the open instance. The instance will remain open
until such times as the fragments it is comprised of
satisfy the termination constraints of the process. The
closed instance specification therefore defines a valid
instance type that may be adopted by future instances
of the process. Building of the open instance is
progressive and dynamic. The set of fragments
available to the build activity, at a point of time in the
build, is dependent upon the fragments that exist in
the open instance at that point of time. As fragments
are added to the open instance more fragments have their
selection constraints satisfied by it and are added to the
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
pool of available fragments. This is demonstrated in
Figure 4 by an example of a set of five fragments of
which two are available through the satisfaction of their
selection constraints by the fragments contained in the
open instance. In the figure it should be noted that the
selection constraints for each fragment have themselves
been represented in the workflow modeling language for
clarity of the example.
Fig. 4: Dynamic Build using Fragments
with Satisfied Selection Constraints
The validity of the generated instance, that is its
structural correctness, is ensured by the restriction of
the constructs to sequence and fork/ synchronize. In the
absence of choice/ merge constructs it is not possible to
introduce deadlock and loss of synchronism into the
structure. The semantic correctness of the composition
of the fragments is ensured by the selection constraints
governing the availability of fragments, as well as the
build and termination constraints. For example, a
fragment is only available if the selection constraints
identify it. In Figure 5, Fragment E cannot be
included in the process as the completion of Activities
A and B is required by the process before activity E can
be executed. This is captured by the selection
constraint for Fragment E that hides this fragment
from the process until such time as the open instance
supports it.
Fig. 5: Enforcement of Semantic Correctness in the Open Instance
The build constraints capture the restrictions on
the extent of building that are not enforced by the
selection constraints. For example a student may not be
permitted to undertake more than three courses
concurrently. The application supporting the build will
prevent a fork structure being generated in the open
instance with greater than three concurrent paths each
containing course fragments. The termination
constraints that define the process goals are enforced by
94 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
checks on the instance data of the open instance under
development. Once the instance data check identifies
that a termination constraint has been satisfied, the
instance is allowed to complete. A simple example is
presented in Figure 6. In the example the termination
constraint is satisfied if any four fragments from the
set Fragments (A, B, C, D, E) are successfully
completed.
Fig. 6: Enforcement of Termination Constraints
It is important to note that the approach has very
little impact on the functionality of the underlying
workflow engine. The open instance generated by the
build acts as a process model. Execution takes place
with full enforcement of all coordination and temporal
constraints. We are currently developing a constraint
specification language that can be integrated with the
workflow definition language, thus extending the
functionality of the process definition tool. This will
allow the building of valid instances as demonstrated
above. We do anticipate the need for an interface
between the process definition tool and the workflow
scheduler, so that the open instance can be changed
(built) and deployed interactively during the execution
of the flexible workflow process. However the facility
to access an instance copy of the process model is
already being provided by several workflow
management systems.
VI. RELATED WORK
The work presented here is closely related to
developments in a number of areas of workflow
technology. Greater support for flexibility using the
descriptive model may be possible through extensions
to the workflow definition language. Possibly as a
response to commercial concerns, work has been
undertaken to extend this language to support more
complex routing and control primitives not possible
with the existing basic constructs. For example the
basic OR-Join (Merge) construct could be extended to
allow the subsequent activity to activate once N paths
of the M paths converging into the merge have
completed. Completion of the remaining paths would be
ignored. The various contemporary workflow
management systems support different levels of
expressive power in the workflow definition languages
developed for them to capture the more complex
 On Capturing Exceptions in Workflow Models for Flexible Processes
requirements that recur frequently in business
processes. Given the fundamental differences this
introduces to a workflow management system, use of
these language extensions will have implementation
consequences resulting in the loss of genericity and
limited verification support.
Within well-defined fixed processes the need to
support dynamic change as the business process
evolves in response to competitive and regulatory
influence, still exists. The biggest problem is the
handling of the active instances that were initiated in
the old model. Defining a migration strategy is a
complex problem and has been the target of extensive
research. Furthermore the need to handle exceptions to
cater for instances that cannot be anticipated at design
must also be supported. As the support for this level of
change is required in the traditional workflow
implementations considerable work has been devoted
to it also. Another aspect of work in this area is based
on the concept that an exception may result in a
change in the level of specificity of the process. For
example a highly specified process of processing
customer orders may move to a highly unspecified
collaborative process involving emails and
consultations as a result of strike conditions at a
particular manufacturing plant. The developments
supporting these dimensions of change are based on
the underlying assumption that the change is
exceptional. In the processes that our work aims to
support the change is inherent in the process.
Moving to the other end of our continuum for
organizational processes that spans from highly
specified and routine processes to highly unspecified
and dynamic processes we acknowledge the
significant work that has been performed in the
coordination of collaboration intensive processes. The
complete relaxation of coordination, to support ad-hoc
processes is not conducive to the processes targeted by
our work.
Positioned between the two extremes of our
continuum are developments in the areas of evolving
workflows. This work focuses on processes where
only part of the procedure can be adequately
predefined and the balance is non-procedural content.
The specification of the selection and sequencing
of the activities of the unchoreographed content,
which involves resources and collaboration, is
supplied by the performers at the time the tasks are
invoked. This work relates closely to the work
presented in this paper but is distinguished from it in
that the unchoreographed content is contained to
specific sections of the predefined process.
VII. CONCLUSION
The inability of workflow technology to eloquently
model processes containing a high degree of flexibility
has limited its deployment in some domains. This
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 95
paper provides a comprehensive analysis of flexible
workflow processes derived from an analysis of the
higher education domain. It attempts to address this
flexibility by developing a framework for specifying the
process model that can be tailored to individual
instance requirements. Our basic idea is to provide a
means of capturing the logic of highly flexible
processes without compromising the simplicity and
genericity of the workflow specification language or
seriously impact the functionality of the underlying
workflow engine. The framework proposed will provide
an approach to modeling dynamic organizational
processes that avoids the overheads incurred in their
specification, and modification in response to change,
that arise when a prescriptive approach is taken.
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 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Analysis of Characteristics of Magnetic

Resonant Coupling in Wireless Power Transfer
Divya Vaishnav1 and Ritesh Diwan2
1
Student of M.E. (Power Electronics), Department of Electronics & Telecommunication
Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekananda Technical University, Bhilai, India
2 Assistant Professor & HOD (ET & T), Department of Electronics & Telecommunication
Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekananda Technical University, Bhilai, India
e-mail: 1divyavaishnav06@gmail.com, 2riteshdiwan5@gmail.com,

Abstract—Wireless power transfer (WPT) via
magnetic resonant coupling has been attracting research
attention for various applications. Conventionally, load is
assumed to be constant and only transfer efficiency is
studied. In actual WPT applications, the load and transfer
distance change frequently. Furthermore, information
such as ratio of input voltage to output voltage, ratio of
input current to output current, and input impedance are
needed for understanding and constructing the power
transfer system. In this paper, not only the transfer
efficiency but also the three parameters mentioned are
studied. These parameters are then analyzed for changing
load and changing transfer distance conditions using
actual antenna’s parameters. From the analysis results,
the load resistance value for maximum efficiency exists.
Secondly, improving efficiency by changing load
resistance for small mutual inductance case has larger
effect. The optimum load resistance also changes
according to transmission distance and also the consumed
power peak may not correspond to maximum efficiency.
Finally, fault protection may also be necessary for the
cases when the load resistance is extremely high and when
the receiver antenna is not present causing high supply
current.
Keywords: Introduction, Self resonance theory,
analysis with variable distance & load and conclusion.
transfer distant were not discussed [7]. However, in
actual wireless power transmission applications, load
and transmitting distance change frequently.
Information such as the ratio of input to output voltage,
the ratio of input to output current and input impedance
seen from high frequency power supply are needed to
understand and construct the power transfer system
[8]
.This paper presents not only the mathematical
expression for transfer efficiency in SS-type magnetic
resonant coupling but also the voltage ratio, current
ratio and input impedance in terms of load and
transmitting distance change. The derived equations are
investigated using simulations. From these
mathematical expressions, important information for
wireless power transfer design such as voltage across
the load and load impedance values during maximum
efficiency are obtainable.

I. INTRODUCTION
Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) via magnetic
resonant coupling which was first introduced in year
2006 has been receiving much attention from
researchers and companies [1]. With this method high
transfer efficiency is obtainable over relatively larger
gap compared to induction method. Moreover the
magnetic field in this power transfer method is non-
radiative type and therefore is safe for the human body
[2] [3]
. The resonant antennas used in wireless power
transfer consist of coils and capacitors. Antenna design
with Series-Series (SS) configuration where the coils
and capacitors are connected in series is preferred in
recent research[9].Conventional studies assume the load
is always constant and discussed the transfer efficiency
only in terms of input power and output power[4]-[6] but
not in terms of voltage and input impedance.
Furthermore, the effects of changing load and changing
Fig. 1: Wireless Power Transmission via Resonance
II. CHARACTERISTIC OF SELF
RESONANCE FRQUENCY
A. Equivalent circuit
The resonant antennas used in WPT consist of coils
and capacitors. Antenna design with SS configuration
where the coils and capacitors are connected in series is
preferred in recent research [9]. The equivalent circuit of
magnetic resonance coupling method with SS
configuration has already been proved in the past
research [9], and is illustrated in Fig. 2. L1 and L2
represent the inductances of the coils. C1 and C2
represent the capacitances that are connected to coils in
series. R1 and R2 are the antennas’ internal losses. Lm is

96 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
 Analysis of Characteristics of Magnetic Resonant Coupling in Wireless Power Transfer

mutual inductance which is related to transfer distance. frequency is usually the same as antenna’s self resonant
Transmitting antenna and receiving antenna satisfy (1). frequency given by (1).
Term ωo in (1) is the self resonant frequency. The V1 Z11 Z12 I1
= (6)
equivalent circuit of the wireless power transfer system 0 Z21 Z22 I2
is shown in Fig. 2. Z11 = R1 + j(ωL1 − ) (7)
ωC
ωo = = (1) Z12 = Z21 = iωLm (8)
√L C √L C
Z22 = R2 + RL + i(ωL2 − ) (9)
ωC
Substituting the self resonant frequency, (2)-(5)
become (10)-(13).Equation (10) and (11) contain only
imaginary component. This shows that voltage and
current are phase shifted by 90 degree from input to
output regardless of the load impedance and
transmitting distance. On the other hand, (12) contains
only real component. This shows that power waveform
Fig. 2: Equivalent of Magnetic Resonance Coupling does not shift phase from input to output. Equation (13)
with Series-Series Configuration
also contains only real component showing that power
B. Definition of the Four Characteristics factor is 100%.At ω=ωo,
ω L RL
Av = j (10)
In this section, the four characteristics used to study R R (ω
R RL ) L
ω L
the phenomena of magnetic resonant coupling are AI = j (11)
RL R
defined. Fig. 3 shows T-type equivalent circuit of the (ω L ) RL
wireless power transfer, and is terminated by a load and Ap = (R (12)
R )(R R R RL (ω L ) )
a power source on each side. Properties to be defined (ω L )
Zin = R1 + (13)
are AV, AI, AP, Zin. Where AV is ratio of output to input RL R
voltage and AI is ratio of output to input current as
shown by (2) and (3). AP is the ratio of output to input III. ANALYSIS WITH VARIABLE DISTANCES AND LOAD
power as shown in (4). AP is the same as transmitting Using the derived equations, the change of each
efficiency. Power ratio is the product of AV and characteristic corresponding to load, RL and
complex conjugate of AI. Zin is the input impedance transmitting distance (which affects mutual inductance
seen from the power source as shown in (5). From (2)- Lm) is calculated. The antennas’ parameters are set to be
(5), the relation of power supply’s voltage and power the same as the actual antennas. L1 and L2 are 800 uH,
supply’s current can be known. C1 and C2 are 2000 pF and R1 and R2 are 1.2 Ω. Table 1
V
Av = (2) shows the Lm values of a few transmitting distances.
V
I
Ai = (3) TABLE 1: LM VS. TRANSFER DISTANCES
I
Ap = Av × Ai (4) S. N. Lm[uH] Distances[cm]
V 1 315 5
Zin = (5)
I 2 240 10
3 172 15
4 102 20
5 76 25
6 49 30
7 38 35
8 26 40
9 20 45
10 15 50

A. Analysis Result of Changing RL

Fig. 3: Equivalent Circuit of Wireless Power Transfer System
Terminated by Power Supply and Load at Each Side
C. Equations of the Characteristics in Self Resonance
Next, each characteristics of SS-type magnetic
resonant coupling is described. Equation (6) is derived
from the equivalent circuit in Fig. 3. The elements in
the matrix are described by (7), (8), and (9).The supply
Fig. 4, Fig. 5, Fig.6 and Fig. 7 show the plot of AP,
AV, AI and Zin corresponding to changing RL. Fig. 4
shows AP peaks at certain RL values. Transmitting
efficiency is affected by load resistance. Therefore
optimizing load value for high efficiency is important.
Moreover waveform of AP is precipitous meaning that
optimizing load resistance has larger effect when the
transfer distance is far. Fig. 5 shows that AV is
increasing with increasing RL and becomes saturated
when RL reaches a certain value. When the primary side

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 97

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

is powered, the voltage at the secondary side increases Fig. 6: Current Gain vs. RL with Different Lm
with the load resistance. This voltage may increase to a
dangerous level without proper control. Fig. 6 shows
that AI decreases with increasing RL. From (4), AP is
the product of AV and AI. Furthermore, from Fig. 4 and
Fig. 6, AP decreases due to decreasing AI when RL is
high whereas AV is saturated at this point. On the other
hand, efficiency declines when RL is extremely low due
to decreasing AV.Fig. 7 show that Zin decreases when
RL increases. The input impedance is low when RL
increases and no load condition occur. Power supply
current, I1 increases. Result of Fig. 5 and Fig. 7 shows
that no load (RL is infinite) may caused damage to both
the load and the power supply.

Fig. 7: Input Impedance vs. RL with Different Lm

B. Analysis Results of Changing Lm

Fig. 4: Power Gain vs. RL with Different Lm
Fig. 8, Fig. 9, Fig. 10, and Fig. 11 show the plot of
AP, AV,AI, Zin respectively when Lm changes. Fig. 8
shows that AP is large if Lm is large regardless of the
value of RL. This means that for small transfer distance,
the efficiency is always high. Fig. 9 shows that AV
peaks at a certain value of Lm. In other words,
secondary side’s voltage is maximized at a fixed
transfer distance. In this condition, the power
consumption is maximized but not the transfer
efficiency. Fig. 10 shows that AI is large when Lm is
large. When the transmission distance is near,
efficiency increases due to increasing current.

Fig. 5: Voltage Gain vs. RL with Different Lm Fig. 8: AP when Lm Changes

98 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Analysis of Characteristics of Magnetic Resonant Coupling in Wireless Power Transfer
Fig. 9: AV when Lm Changes
Fig. 10: AI when Lm Changes
Fig. 11: Zin when RL Changes
Fig. 10 shows that input impedance, Zin decreases
with lower Lm. For further transmission distance, the
input impedance is low as if the receiver antenna does
not exist. Therefore, the power supply current (I1) may
increase to a dangerous level if there is no fault
protection circuit.
IV. CONCLUSION
The characteristics of wireless power transfer
which are the voltage ratio, current ratio, and input
impedance and transfer efficiency are studied and
calculated using MATLAB coding mathematically. The
analysis is performed not only for constant load case,
but also for changing load and changing transfer distant
using the parameters of actual antennas. From the
analysis results, the optimal load resistance value for
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 99
maximum efficiency exists. Secondly improving
efficiency by changing load resistance for small mutual
inductance case has larger effect. The optimum load
resistance also changes according to transmission
distance and also the consumed power peak may not
correspond to maximum efficiency. Finally fault
protection may also be necessary for the cases when the
load resistance is extremely high and when the receiver
antenna is not present causing high supply current.
Future work will include performing experiments to
verify the mathematical analysis in this paper.
REFERENCES
[1] Andre Kurs, Aristeidis Karalis, Robert Moffatt, J.D.
Joannopoulos, Peter Fisher, Marin Soljacic,“WPT via Strongly
Coupled Magnetic Resonances ”,Science, Express, Vol.317,
No.5834, pp.83–86, 7 June 2007.
[2] Hori, Y.;, "Novel EV society based on motor/ capacitor/
wireless—Application of electric motor, supercapacitors, and
wireless power transfer to enhance operation of future vehicles,"
Microwave Workshop Series on Innovative Wireless Power
Transmission: Technologies, Systems, and Applications
(IMWS), 2012 IEEE MTT-S International , vol., no., pp.3-8, 10-
11 May.
[3] Aristeidis Karalis, J.D. Joannopoulos and Marin Soljačić,
“Efficient wireless non-radiative mid-range energy transfer,”
Annals of Physics, Volume 323, Issue 1, January 2008, Pages
34–48, January Special Issue 2008.
[4] Zhen Ning Low; Chinga, R.A.; Tseng, R.; Jenshan Lin; ,
"Design and Test of a High-Power High-Efficiency Loosely
Coupled Planar Wireless Power Transfer System," Industrial
Electronics, IEEE Transactions on , vol.56, no.5, pp.1801–1812,
May 2009.
[5] Sample, A.P.; Meyer, D.A.; Smith, J.R.; , "Analysis,
Experimental Results, and Range Adaptation of Magnetically
Coupled Resonators for Wireless Power Transfer," Industrial
Electronics, IEEE Transactions on , vol.58, no.2, pp.544–554,
Feb. 2011
[6] Imura, T.; Hori, Y.; , "Maximizing Air Gap and Efficiency of
Magnetic Resonant Coupling for Wireless Power Transfer
Using Equivalent Circuit and Neumann Formula," Industrial
Electronics,IEEE Transactions on , vol.58, no.10, pp.4746-4752,
Oct. 2011.
[7] Hosotani, T.; Awai, I.; , "A novel analysis of ZVS wireless
power transfer system using coupled resonators," Microwave
Workshop Series on Innovative Wireless Power Transmission:
Technologies,Systems, and Applications (IMWS), 2012 IEEE
MTT-S International ,vol., no., pp.235–238, 10–11 May 2012
[8] Moriwaki, Y.; Imura, T.; Hori, Y.; , "Basic study on reduction of
reflected power using DC/DC converters in wireless power
transfer system via magnetic resonant coupling,"
Telecommunications Energy Conference (INTELEC), 2011
IEEE 33rd International , vol., no.,pp.1-5, 9-13 Oct. 2011
[9] Imura et al.:"WPT during Displacement Using Electromagnetic
Coupling in Resonance -Magnetic versus Electric Type
Antennas-",IEEE Trans. IA, Vol. 130, No. 1, pp.76–83 2010.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Stepped Impedance Micro-strip Line

Low Pass Filter for Microwave L-Band
Amit Kumar1, Pradeep Rana2, Subodh Kumar Tripathi3 and Manish Singh4
1
ECE Dept. CERT, Meerut, Meerut, India
2
ECE Dept. KNGDMEC, Modinagar, India
3
ECE Dept. Rawal Institutions, Faridabad, India
4
ECE Dept. KIET, Ghaziabad, India
e-mail: amit.16march@yahoo.com, 2pradeepbharat@yaho.co.in,
1
3
subodh.lama@gmail.com, 4mks.manish1983@gmail.com

Abstract—In this paper design of stepped Impedance
Low Pass Filter for L-band application is presented.
Microwave systems have an enormous impact on modern
society Micro strip filters play various roles in wireless or
mobile communication systems. There is an increasing
demand for newer microwave and millimeter-wave
systems to meet the emerging telecommunication
challenges with respect to size, performance and cost. This
paper describes the design of low cost and low insertion
loss L-band Low Pass Filter (LPF) by using micro strip
line which achieve cut off frequency 2.24 GHz for
permittivity 4.2 value with a substrate thickness 2.4mm
for order n=6. Micro strip technology is used for simplicity
and ease of fabrication. The design and simulation are
performed using 3D full wave electromagnetic simulator
IE3D. The stepped-impedance low pass filters have 20dB
insertion loss at 3.4 GHz.
Keywords: Microstrip filter; L-band; IE3D; Stepped
impedance; Cutoff Frequency; Return Loss
I. INTROUDUCTION
Microwave communication systems are expanding
rapidly to higher frequency such as L-band since they
can provide many advantages over conventional
wireless links, for example the larger bandwidth and
smaller device size. Waveguide components are widely
used at these frequencies and offer very good
performance but the result in high production costs and
bulky systems. Conventional planar filter structures
suffer from radiation from the resonators into the
substrate and from high ohmic loss, and therefore give
high insertion loss and poor filter rejection However;
there is still a challenge in lowering the cost of the
commercial RF micromachined device since the devices
are fabricated in semiconductor- like process. The filter
is one of the primary and necessary components of a
microwave system. Microstrip line is a good candidate
for filter design due to its advantages of low cost,
compact size, light weight, planar structure and easy
integration with other components on a single circuit
board. Conventional filter structures like equal ripple
and Butterworth low pass filters are requirement of
special fabrication methods. Conventional low
frequency techniques for fabrication does not fit at these
frequencies due to the very high losses associated [1-5].
Although micro strip is not the highest performance
filter technology, still it is the preferred choice in many
thin-films on ceramic and printed circuit board
applications. RF pre-selector filters, image rejection
filters, local oscillator (LO) filters and intermediate
frequency (IF) filters can all be realized in micro strip.
The recent advance of novel materials and fabrication
technologies, including monolithic microwave
integrated circuit (MMIC),micro electro mechanic
system (MEMS), micromachining, high-temperature
Superconductor (HTS), and low-temperature co fired
ceramics (LTCC), has simulated the rapid development
of new micro strip and other filters [6-7].
In this paper, low pass filter is optimized for high
performance and an efficient. Micro strip technology is
used for simplicity and ease of fabrication. The design
and simulation are performed using 3D full wave
electromagnetic simulator IE3D.
II. FILTER DESIGN METHOD
The design of low pass filters involves two main
steps. The first one is to select an appropriate low pass
prototype. The choice of the type of response, including
pass band ripple and the number of reactive elements
(order of the filter) will depend on the required
specifications. The element values of the low pass
prototype filters, which are usually normalized to make
a source impedance g0=1 and a cutoff frequency
Ωc=1.0, are then transformed to the L-C elements for
the desired cutoff frequency and the desired source
impedance, which is normally 50 ohms for micro strip
filters. The next main step in the design of micro strip
low pass filters [8] is to find an appropriate micro strip
realization that approximates the lumped element filter.
The element values for the low pass prototype with
maximally flat response at pass band ripple factor
LAR=0.1dB. Characteristic impedance source/load
Z0=50 ohms, are taken from normalized values gi i.e.g1,
g2, g3, g4……gn, The filter is assumed to be fabricated
on a substrate of dielectric constant εr and of thickness

100 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2

 Stepped Impedance Micro-strip Line Low Pass Filter for Microwave L-Band

h mm for angular (normalized) cutoff frequency Ωc, TABLE 1: DIMENSIONS OF THE STEPPED IMPEDANCE
LOW PASS FILTER (FOR N=6)
using the element transformation [9].
The filter design steps are as follows: Section Zi= Zl or βl (Degree) Wi(mm) li(mm)
1. Determine the number of sections from the ZH (Ω)
1 20 11.86 11.39 2.1
specification.
2 150 27 0.1789 5.42
Characteristics for micro strip parameters. 3 20 44.29 11.39 7.79
Filter Design Specifications: 4 150 36.9 0.1789 7.4
• Relative Dielectric Constant εr = 4.2. 5 20 34.42 11.39 6.1
6 150 9.89 0.1789 1.98
• Height of substrate, h=2.4mm. 7 50 30 3.04 6.85
• Cutoff frequency=2.5 GHz.
• The loss tangent tanδ=0.02. IV. SIMULATION RESULT
• The filter impedance Z0 =50Ω. For the simulation purpose we have used Full-wave
• The highest line impedance EM solver IE3D.The dimensions of the filter are given
ZH=ZOL=150Ω. in the above table.
• The lowest line impedance Zl=Zoc=20Ω.
Ωc=1.
2. We have taken the element value for low pass
filters from [9] for n=6.
3. The electrical lengths of the inductor
=
The electrical length of the capacito0r sections

L and C are the normalized element values of the

low pass prototypes.
4. To calculate the width of capacitor and Fig. 1: Stepped Impedance Microstrip Low Pass Filter
inductor we use the following formula [9].
Above is a figure of design filter in IE3D polygon
For
editor window. It is a 6-Pole Stepped Impedance
Microstrip Low Pass Filter on a Substrate with εr=4.2
(1)
and h=2.4mm at 2.24GHz.

Where, A (2)

Where (3)
Where η=120π ohms is the wave impedance in free
space.
5. For

(4)
6. The effective dielecteic constant can be found Fig. 2: Full-Wave EM Simulated Performance of the Stepped
by the following formula [7] Impedance Low Pass Filter n=6 at 2.24GHz

(5)
7. Effictice wavelength is also found as [2]
(6)

III. DIMENSION OF THE FILTER

The dimension of the filter is shown in Table 1.
Fig. 3: 3D Current Distribution Display of the Stepped
Impedance Low Pass Filter n=6 at 2.24GHz

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 101

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
V. RESULT & ANALYSIS
The simulated filter structure and response is
shown in fig. 1, fig.2 and show the current distribution
shown in fig 3. In the response graph gain (dB) is
plotted on the Y-axis and frequency (GHz) on the
X-axis. It is clear from fig.2 that the simulation cut off
frequency is found is 2.24GHz and insertion loss at
3.40GHz is-20.06dB. So the designed stepped
impedance low pass filter is capable if passing
frequency less than 2.24GHz and Rejects the frequency
after 2.24GHz. The return loss performance up
to-37.672dB at 1.27GHz. So this filter can be used for
L-band applications.
VI. CONCLUSION
A microstrip stepped impedance low pass filter has
been designed and simulated. The low pass filter design
for cut off frequency of 2.5GHz and the simulated filter
achieved parameters cut off frequency 2.24 GHz and -
20dB insertion loss at 3.4 GHz. The designed filter can
be included at the transmitting and receiving end of
system to get desired spectrum for L-band application.
We have designed stepped impedance low pass filter
because it takes less space than a similar low pass filter
using stubs. Its compact nature minimizes required
102 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
space for realization and is suitable for integration
within Wireless system.
REFERENCES
[1] G. Mathaei, L.Y. oung, E.M.T. Jones, “Microwave Filter
impedance matching networks and coupling Structures”, Artech
House, Norwood, MA, 1980.
[2] R.E. Collin,” Foundation for Microwave Engineering”,Second
Edition, McGraw-Hill, N. Y.1992.
[3] M. Makimoto, S.Yamoshita, “Microwave Resonators and
Filters”, IEEE Trans. Wireless Communication Vol. 2, August
1986.
[4] Tae-Yeoul Yun, Kai Chang, “Transaction on Microwave Theory
and Techniques”, IEEE Trans, Vol. 49, No. 3, 2001.
[5] Sudipta Das, Dr. S.K.Chowdhury,Senior Member of IEEE,
“Design Simulation and Fabrication of Stepped Impedance
Microstripline Low Pass Filter for S-band Application using
IE3D and MATLAB” international Journal of Electronics &
Communication Technologies, Vol. 3, Issue 1,PP.98-100, Jan –
March 2012.
[6] Navita Singh, Saurabh Dhiman, Prerna Jain, Tanmay Bhardwaj,
“Design of Stepped- Impedance Microstrip line Low Pass Filter
For Wireless communication”, International Conference on
Advanced Computing, Communication and Networks’11,
PP. 806–808.
[7] Navita Singh, Dr.Avinash Kumar and Pravesh Singh, “Low Pass
Filter for L-band Application using Steppedimpedance
Microstrip Lines”, Journal of Engineering Research and Studies,
E-ISSN 0976–7916.
[8] Jia Shen G. Hong, M. J. Lancaster, “Micro strip Filters for
RF/Microwave Applications”, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2001.
[9] D.M. Pozar, “Microwave Engineering”, John Wiley, 2000.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

A Simple Design of a Narrow Band

TM-mode Filter using 1D Dielectric
Photonic Crystal
Deepti Jain, K.D. Jindal, Kh. S. Singh, Vipin Kumar and Sanjeev Sharma
Department of Physics, S.K.K. Jain (P.G.) College Khatauli, Uttar Pradesh, India

Abstract—An analytical study of one-dimensional
photonic crystal structure consisting alternate layers TiO2
and SiO2 has been presented. Using transfer matrix
method, the reflectivity of TE and TM modes has been
calculated theoretically. It is found that at 1550nm
wavelength and for an angle of incidence of 780, the
reflectivity of the TE mode for such a structure is unity
and that of the TM mode is almost zero. This property
may be exploited for the design of optical TE mode filter
or TM mode filter.
Kwywords: Photonic crystal, Optical filter, Transfer
matrix method.
I. INTRODUCTION
Many studies on periodic structures for their optical
properties have been worked out by many investigators
in the last century. The concept of photonic crystals was
put forward in the latter half of the 1980s. Notably, the
pioneering works of by Yablonovitch [1] and John [2]
may be considered as the new beginning of this exciting
field of study. Generally, photonic crystal structures
may be considered to be regular arrangements of
dielectric materials which may lead to the formation of
an energy band structure for electromagnetic wave
propagating through them. The majority of applications
of photonic crystals exploit the phenomenon of
photonic band-gap (PBG). Photonic band-gap may be
defined as a frequency region characterized by zero
density of the electromagnetic states. The propagation
of electromagnetic waves inside of a photonic crystal is,
therefore, suppressed for the frequencies within PBG.
Because of the existence of PBGs in certain photonic
crystals, the design of efficient low-loss dielectric
reflectors that can confine radiation in channels
(waveguides) or localized defects (resonators) with
sizes comparable to the wavelength of light has become
a possibility.
The possibility of the design of optical band-pass
filter in near and far infra-red regions based on one
dimensional photonic crystals was suggested in 1992 by
Ojha et al [3]. Later on Chen et al. calculated important
results on photonic filters by using photonic air bridges
[4]. Photonic band gap filter for wavelength division
multiplexing was fabricated by D’Orazio et al. [5].
However, S.K. Singh et al. obtained large frequency
range of omni-directional reflection by overlapping two
photonic crystals [6]. In another investigation, Villar et
al. have analyzed one-dimensional photonic band gap
structures with a defect layer of liquid crystal for the
development of fiber-optic tunable wavelength filters
[7]. Recently, Kumar et al. proposed a simple design of
a cascaded photonic band gap filter in ultraviolet region
[8]. Qiao et al. [9] reported a new kind of photonic
crystal constructed by different positive index materials
is called Photonic Quantum Well (PQW). With the help
of this structure photonic band gaps may be enlarged
and narrow multichannel filters can be obtained
[10-11].
In the present paper we use alternate layers of TiO2
and SiO2 .One of the most important properties of fused
silica is its extremely low coefficient of expansion: 5.5
x 10-7 mm This makes the material particularly useful
for optical flats, mirrors, furnace windows and critical
optical applications On the other hand, titanium dioxide
(TiO2) is attracting wide attentions due to its novel
applications in photo catalysts, sensors and solar cells. .
First of all, TiO2 has a fairly large refractive index
which is large enough to form a photonic band gap in
photonic structures. Secondly, the optical absorption
loss of TiO2 is about 10 times lower than that of silicon
at the optical communication wavelength of 1.5µm.
thirdly; its thermal expansion coefficient is very small.
Fig. 1: Periodic Variation of One Dimensional
Photonic band Gap Structure
II. THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
Using transfer matrix method, which is widely used
for the description of the properties of stacked layers

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Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

used it to determine the reflectivity and transitivity of 16 sub-layers of AB unit cell. For AB stack, we choose
photonic structures. the material of layer A as TiO2 and the material of layer
Let us consider the stack of N layers perpendicular B as SiO2 having refractive indices 2.65 and 1.45
on the OZ axis as it can be seen in fig.1. The index of respectively. The incident and emergent medium is
refraction profile in the form of rectangular symmetry is taken as air .The thickness of two layers are taken as
given by: a=465 nm and b=255 nm respectively.
⎧⎪n , 0 < z < d1
n( z ) = ⎨ 1 (1)
⎪⎩n2 , d1 < z < d 2
Where n( z ) = n( z + md ) and m = 0, ±1, ±2,.....
and d=d1+d2 is the lattice period.
To determine the electric field, we solve the
following system and find the relation between A0, B0,
As, Bs
⎛ A0 ⎞ ⎛ M 11 M 12 ⎞ ⎛ As ⎞ (2)
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜
⎝ M 21 M 22 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ B s ⎟⎠
⎝ 0⎠
B
With the matrix given by
N
⎛ M11 M12 ⎞ −1 ⎡ 2 −1 ⎤ Fig. 2: Dispersion Spectra of TiO2 /SiO2 One Dimensional PC
⎜M ⎟ = D0 ⎢i∏ D PD Ds
⎝ 21 M 22 ⎠ ⎣ =1 i i i ⎥⎦ for TE and TM Polarization with Angle of Incidence at 780

Where Figure 2 depicts the Dispersion spectra of photonic

structure Air/ (AB) 16 /Air. From Figure2, it is clearly
⎧⎛ 1 1 ⎞ seen that there are photonic band gaps (PBGs) for TE
⎪⎜ n cos θ − n cos θ ⎟ for TE wave
⎪⎝ i i i i⎠ 1.280-1.626 µm and TM 1.347-1.504µm ranges of
Di = ⎨ wavelength at angle 780.It is noticeable that at particular
⎪⎛ cos θ i cos θ i⎞ wavelength 1.55 µm TE mode present the band gap but
⎪⎩⎜⎝ ni − ni ⎟⎠
for TMwave
TM mode does not .i.e. TE mode waves completely
reflected and do not pass through the crystal on t
⎛ e jφl 0
⎞ he other hand TM mode waves show vice versa
and Pi = ⎜ ⎟ withφl = ki di properties. This phenomena can also be studied by
⎜ 0 e− jφl ⎟ figures 3, 4 and 5.
⎝ ⎠
Where (l=1, 2 for the first and second layers of the
unit cell respectively and N is the period of the
structures). The reflectance and transmittance of the
structure for TE and TM polarizations are given by
2
M 21 n cos θ s 1
R= and T = s (3)
M11 n0 cos θ0 M11
where n0 and ns are the index of refraction of
incident medium and substrate.
According to Bloch’s theorem, the Bloch wave Fig. 3: Reflectance vs. Incident Angle at λ=1.55µm
vector K is obtained by solving the eigen value
problem. The dispersion relation between K and ω for
Bloch waves, can be expressed as
−1 ⎡ 1 ⎤
K (ω ) =
D
1
cos
⎢ 2⎣
(
M 11 + M 12
⎥ (4))⎦
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this section, by using equation (3) the reflection
and transmission properties of one dimension photonic
crystal have been presented. For numerical
computation, we use Air/ (AB)16/Air structure, where
Fig. 4: Transmittance vs. Incident Angle at λ=1.55µm
(AB) 16 is the periodic multilayered structure consist of

104 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 A Simple Design of a Narrow Band TM-mode Filter using 1D Dielectric Photonic Crystal
Fig. 5: Reflectance Spectra at Oblique Angle of Incidence780 of
TiO2/SiO2 One Dimensional PC for TE and TM Polarizations
Fig. 3, 4 shows the reflectivity and transmittivity of
TE and TM mode at different angle of incidence. Fig. 5
shows the reflectivity at different wavelength. On
studying this figure it is noticeable that at particular
angle and wavelength TE and TM mode exhibit unique
properties. At angle 780 and λ=1.55µm which is the
mean wavelength of optical window and can be used in
fiber optics communication, the reflectivity of TE mode
is unity and its transmittivity is zero while TM mode
shows vice versa i.e. TE waves are completely reflected
and do not pass through the crystal but TM waves are
completely transmitted at this wavelength and angle.
IV. CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that it is possible to achieve TE
and TM mode filter by using this property. It is also
called as a demultiplexer because by using that type of
photonic crystal we can increase the storage capacity of
line in fibre optics communication. So we can use the
proposed device as a tunable demultiplexer in optical
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 105
communication. The proposed device may also be used
as a single channel drop filter, and it may have many
applications in different optical systems.
REFERENCES
[1] E. Yablonovitch, “Inhibited Spontaneous Emission in
Solid-State Physics and Electronics”, Phys. Rev. Lett. 58,
pp. 2059–2062, May 1987.
[2] S. John, “Strong localization of photon in certain disordered
dielectric superlattice”, Phys. Rev. Lett. 58, pp. 2486-2489,
May 1987.
[3] S.P. Ojha, P.K. Chaudhary, P. Khastgir and O.N. Singh,
“Operating characteristics of an optical filter with a linearly
periodic refractive index pattern in the filter material”, Jpn. J.
Appl. Phys. 31, pp. 281–285, 1992.
[4] J.C. Chen, A. Haus, S. Fan, P.R. Villeneuve and J.D.
Joannopoulos, “Optical filters from photonic band gap
air bridges”, IEEE: J. Lightwave Technol. 14, pp. 2575–2580,
1996.
[5] D’Orazio, M. De Sario, V. Petruzzelli and F. Prudenzano,
“Photonic band gap filter for wavelength division multiplexer”,
Opt. Exp. 11, pp. 230–239, 2003.
[6] S.K. Singh, Khem B. Thapa and S.P. Ojha, “Large Frequency
Range of Omnidirectional Reflection in Si-based One-
Dimensional Photonic Crystals”, Int. J. Micro. Opt. Technol.
1(2), pp. 686–690, 2006.
[7] I. DelVillar, I.R. Matias, F.J. Arregui and R.O. Claus, “Analysis
of one dimensional photonic band gap structures with a liquid
crystal defect toward development of fiber-optic tunable
wavelength filters”, Opt. Exp. 11(5), pp.430–436, 2003.
[8] Vipin Kumar, Kh. S. Singh and S. P. Ojha, “A Simple Design of
a Monochromator by cascading photonic band gap Filters”, Int.
J. Micro. Opt. Technol. 5 (3), pp. 162–165, 2010.
[9] F. Qiao, C. Zhang, J. Wan and J. Zi, “Photonic quantum-
wellstructures: Multiple channeled filtering phenomena”, Appl.
Phys. Lett. 77, pp. 3698–3700, 2000.
[10] Y. Xiang, X. Dai, S. Wen and D. Fan, “Omnidirectional and
multiple-channeled high-quality filters of photonic
heterostructures containing single-negative materials”, J. Opt.
Soc. Am. A 24, pp. A28–A32, 2007.
[11] Y. H. Chen, “Frequency response of resonance modes in
heterostructures composed of single-negative materials”, J. Opt.
Soc. Am. B 25, pp. 1794–1799, 2008.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Nanorobotics
K.B. Mohd. Umar Ansari1 and Goldy Sharma2
M.Tech (Electrical Power & Energy Systems), Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering,
Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College, Ghaziabad, India
e-mail: 1mumar28@gmail.com, 2goldysharmaacet@gmail.com
Abstract—Nanorobotics is the technology of creating
machines or robots at or close to the microscopic scale of a
nanometre. More specifically, nanorobotics refers to the
still largely hypothetical nanotechnology engineering
discipline of designing and building nanorobots.
Nanorobots would be typically devices ranging in size
from 0.1-10 micrometers and constructed of nanoscale or
molecular components. As no artificial non-biological
nanorobots have yet been created, they remain a
hypothetical concept.
Another definition sometimes used is a robot which
allows precision interactions with nanoscale objects, or
can manipulate with nanoscale resolution. Following this
definition even a large apparatus such as an atomic force
microscope can be considered a nanorobotic instrument
when configured to perform nanomanipulation. Also
macroscale robots or microrobots which can move with
nanoscale precision can also be considered nanorobots
I. INTRODUCTION
Nanomachines are largely in the research-and-
development phase, but some primitive molecular
machines have been tested. An example is a sensor
having a switch approximately 1.5 nanometers across,
capable of counting specific molecules in a chemical
sample. The first useful applications of nanomachines,
if such are ever built, might be in medical technology,
where they might be used to identify cancer cells and
destroy them. Another potential application is the
detection of toxic chemicals, and the measurement of
their concentrations, in the environment. Recently, Rice
University has demonstrated a single-molecule car
which is developed by a chemical process and includes
buckyballs for wheels. It is actuated by controlling the
environmental temperature and by positioning a
scanning tunneling microscope tip.
II. NANOROBOTICS
Since nanorobots would be microscopic in size, it
would probably be necessary for very large numbers of
them to work together to perform microscopic and
macroscopic tasks. These nanorobot swarms, both
those which are incapable of replication and those
which are capable of unconstrained replication in the
natural environment, are found in many science fiction
stories, such as the Borg nanoprobes in Star Trek. The
word nanobotis often used to indicate this fictional
context and is an informal or even pejorative term to
refer to the engineering concept of nanorobots. The
106
word nanorobot is the correct technical term in the
nonfictional context of serious engineering studies.
Some proponents of nanorobotics, in reaction to
the grey goo scare scenarios that they earlier helped to
propagate, hold the view that nanorobots capable of
replication outside of a restricted factory environment
do not form a necessary part of a purported productive
nanotechnology, and that the process of self-
replication, if it were ever to be developed, could be
made inherently safe. They further assert that free-
foraging replicators are in fact absent from their current
plans for developing and using molecular
manufacturing.
In such plans, future medical nanotechnology has
been posited to employ nanorobots injected into the
patient to perform treatment on a cellular level. Such
nanorobots intended for use in medicine are posited to
be non-replicating, as replication would needlessly
increase device complexity, reduce reliability, and
interfere with the medical mission. Instead, medical
nanorobots are posited to be manufactured in
hypothetical, carefully controlled nanofactories in
which nanoscale machines would be solidly integrated
into a supposed desktop-scale machine that would build
macroscopic products
The most detailed discussions of nanorobotics,
including specific design issues such as sensing, power
communication, navigation, manipulation, locomotion,
and onboard computation, have been presented in the
medical context of nanomedicine by Robert Freitas.
Although much of these discussions remain at the level
of unbuildable generality and do not approach the level
of detailed engineering, the Nanofactory Collaboration,
founded by Robert Freitas and Ralph Merkle in 2000,
is a focused ongoing effort involving 23 researchers
from 10 organizations and 4 countries that is
developing a practical research agenda specifically
aimed at developing positionally-controlled diamond
mechanosynthesis and a diamondoid nanofactory that
would be capable of building diamondoid medical
nanorobots.
III. NUBOT
Nubot is an abbreviation for Nucleic Acid
Robots.Nubots are synthetic robotics devices at the
nanoscale. Representative nubots include the several
DNA walkers reported by Ned Seeman's group at
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2

NYU, Niles Pierce's group at Caltech, John Reif's
group at Duke University, Chengde Mao's group at
Purdue, and Andrew Turberfield's group at the
University of Oxford.
IV. NANOBOTS IN FICTION
Nanobots have been a recurring theme in many
science-fiction novels, sci-fi shows and movies, such as
the sci-fi show Red Dwarf where they are used to
manufacture a new arm for Dave Lister from his excess
body tissue. The popular video game series Metal Gear
Solid has "nanite" factories in-game. They are used as a
healing mechanism in the Sony PlayStation series
Ratchet and Clank. In the game System Shock 2,
"nanites" are used as currency as well as a type of
weapon ammo. Nanobots were also featured during the
Sci-Fi Channel era of Mystery Science Theater 3000,
where they were known as "nanites." They were
depicted on the show as microscopic, bug-like,
freestanding robots with distinct personalities,
including a hairdresser and union foreman. In
Stargate: Atlantis there is a race of machines called the
"Asurans" or "Replicators" whose bodies are entirely
built of nanites. The first person shooter Crysis
includes a suit that consists of nanorobots, which
replenish armor, health, enhance strength, speed and
even enable active camouflage.
A. Potential Applications
• Early diagnosis and targeted drug delivery for
cancer
• Biomedical instrumentation
• Surgery
• Pharmacokinetics
• Monitoring of diabetes
V. NANOTECHNOLOGY
Nanotechnology, which is sometimes shortened to
"Nanotech", refers to a field whose theme is the control
of matter on an atomic and molecular scale. Generally
nanotechnology deals with structures of the size 100
nanometers or smaller, and involves developing
materials or devices within that size.
Nanotechnology is extremely diverse, ranging
from novel extensions of conventional device physics,
to completely new approaches based upon molecular
self-assembly, to developing new materials with
dimensions on the nanoscale, even to speculation on
whether we can directly control matter on the atomic
scale.
There has been much debate on the future of
implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology has
the potential to create many new materials and devices
with wide-ranging applications, such as in medicine,
electronics, and energy production. On the other hand,
nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as with
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 107
Nanorobotics
any introduction of new technology, including concerns
about the toxicity and environmental impact of
nanomaterials,and their potential effects on global
economics, as well as speculation about various
doomsday scenarios. These concerns have led to a
debate among advocacy groups and governments on
whether special regulation of nanotechnology is
warranted.
A. Fundamental Concepts
One nanometer (nm) is one billionth, or 10-9, of a
meter. By comparison, typical carbon-carbon bond
lengths, or the spacing between these atoms in a
molecule, are in the range 0.12-0.15 nm, and a DNA
double-helix has a diameter around 2 nm. On the other
hand, the smallest cellular lifeforms, the bacteria of the
genus Mycoplasma, are around 200 nm in length.
To put that scale in another context, the
comparative size of a nanometer to a meter is the same
as that of a marble to the size of the earth. Or another
way of putting it: a nanometer is the amount a man's
beard grows in the time it takes him to raise the razor to
his face.
Two main approaches are used in nanotechnology.
In the bottom-up approach, materials and devices are
built from molecular components which assemble
themselves chemically by principles of molecular
recognition. In the top-down approach, nano-objects
are constructed from larger entities without atomic-
level control.
VI. SPECULATIVE
Molecular nanotechnology is a proposed approach
which involves manipulating single molecules in finely
controlled, deterministic ways. This is more theoretical
than the other subfields and is beyond current
capabilities.
Due to the popularity and media exposure of the
term nanotechnology, the words picotechnology and
femtotechnology have been coined in analogy to it,
although these are only used rarely and informally.
A. Tools and Techniques
Typical AFM setup. A microfabricated cantilever
with a sharp tip is deflected by features on a sample
surface, much like in a phonograph but on a much
smaller scale. A laser beam reflects off the backside of
the cantilever into a set of photodetectors, allowing the
deflection to be measured and assembled into an image
of the surface.
The first observations and size measurements of
nano-particles were made during the first decade of the
20th century. They are mostly associated with the name
of Zsigmondy who made detailed studies of gold sols
and other nanomaterials with sizes down to 10 nm and
less. He published a book in 1914. He used
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
ultramicroscope that employs a dark field method for
seeing particles with sizes much less than light
wavelength.
Next group of nanotechnological techniques
include those used for fabrication of nanowires, those
used in semiconductor fabrication such as deep
ultraviolet lithography, electron beam lithography,
focused ion beam machining, nanoimprint lithography,
atomic layer deposition, and molecular vapor
deposition, and further including molecular self-
assembly techniques such as those employing di-block
copolymers.
There are several important modern developments.
The atomic force microscope (AFM) and the Scanning
Tunneling Microscope (STM) are two early versions of
scanning probes that launched nanotechnology. Various
techniques of nanolithography such as dip pen
nanolithography, electron beam lithography or
nanoimprint lithography were also developed.
Lithography is a top-down fabrication technique where
a bulk material is reduced in size to nanoscale pattern.
B. Applications
Most applications are limited to the use of "first
generation" passive nanomaterials which includes
titanium dioxide in sunscreen, cosmetics and some food
products; Carbon allotropes used to produce gecko
tape; silver in food packaging, clothing, disinfectants
and household appliances; zinc oxide in sunscreens and
cosmetics, surface coatings, paints and outdoor
furniture varnishes; and cerium oxide as a fuel catalyst.
Nano-membranes have been produced that are
portable and easily-cleaned systems that purify,
detoxify and desalinate water meaning that third-world
countries could get clean water, solving many water
related health issues.
VII. HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
Some of the recently developed nanoparticle
products may have unintended consequences.
Researchers have discovered that silver nanoparticles
used in socks to reduce foot odor are being released in
the wash with possible negative consequences. A study
at the University of Rochester found that when rats
breathed in nanoparticles, the particles settled in the
brain and lungs, which led to significant increases in
biomarkers for inflammation and stress response.
A major study published more recently in Nature
nanotechnology suggests some forms of carbon
nanotubes a poster child for the nanotechnology
revolution could be as harmful as asbestos if inhaled in
sufficient quantities.
A. Medicine
The biological and medical research communities
have exploited the unique properties of nanomaterials
for various applications.Terms such as biomedical
108 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
nanotechnology, bionanotechnology, and nanomedicine
are used to describe this hybrid field. Functionalities
can be added to nanomaterials by interfacing them with
biological molecules or structures. The size of
nanomaterials is similar to that of most biological
molecules and structures; therefore, nanomaterials can
be useful for both in vivo and in vitro biomedical
research and applications. Thus far, the integration of
nanomaterials with biology has led to the development
of diagnostic devices, contrast agents, analytical tools,
physical therapy applications, and drug delivery
vehicles.
VIII. DIAGNOSTICS
Nanotechnology-on-a-chip is one more dimension
of lab-on-a-chip technology. Biological tests measuring
the presence or activity of selected substances become
quicker, more sensitive and more flexible when certain
nanoscale particles are put to work as tags or labels.
Magnetic nanoparticles, bound to a suitable antibody,
are used to label specific molecules, structures or
microorganisms. Gold nanoparticles tagged with short
segments of DNA can be used for detection of genetic
sequence in a sample. Multicolor optical coding for
biological assays has been achieved by embedding
different-sized quantum dots into polymeric
microbeads. Nanopore technology for analysis of
nucleic acids converts strings of nucleotides directly
into electronic signatures.
IX. DRUG DELIVERY
The overall drug consumption and side-effects can
be lowered significantly by depositing the active agent
in the morbid region only and in no higher dose than
needed. This highly selective approach reduces costs
and human suffering. Nanotechnology is also opening
up new opportunities in implantable delivery systems,
which are often preferable to the use of injectable
drugs, because the latter frequently display first-order
kinetics This rapid rise may cause difficulties with
toxicity, and drug efficacy can diminish as the drug
concentration falls below the targeted range.
X. TISSUE ENGINEERING
Nanotechnology can help to reproduce or to repair
damaged tissue. This so called “tissue engineering”
makes use of artificially stimulated cell proliferation by
using suitable nanomaterial-based scaffolds and growth
factors. Tissue engineering might replace today’s
conventional treatments like organ transplants or
artificial implants. On the other hand, tissue
engineering is closely related to the ethical debate on
human stem cells and its ethical implications.

XI. DNA NANOTECHNOLOGY
DNA nanotechnology has been applied to the
related field of DNA computing. A DX array has been
demonstrated whose assembly encodes an XOR
operation, which allows the DNA array to implement a
cellular automaton which generates a fractal called the
Sierpinski gasket. DNA computing can be done without
using the types of molecules made possible by DNA
Nanotechnology.
DNA nanotechnology is a subfield of
nanotechnology which seeks to use the unique
molecular recognition properties of DNA and other
nucleic acids to create novel, controllable structures out
of DNA. The DNA is thus used as a structural material
rather than as a carrier of genetic information, making
it an example of bionanotechnology. This has possible
applications in molecular self-assembly and in DNA
computing.
XII. DNA CROSSOVER MOLECULES
A double-crossover (DX) molecule. This molecule
consists of five DNA single strands which form two
antiparallel double-helical domains, on the left and the
right in this image. There are two crossover points
where the strands cross from one domain into the other.
DNA nanotechnology makes use of branched
DNA structures to create DNA complexes with useful
properties. DNA is normally a linear molecule, in that
its axis is unbranched. However, DNA molecules
containing junctions can also be made. For example, a
four-arm junction can be made using four individual
DNA strands which are complementary to each other in
the correct pattern. Due to Watson-Crick base pairing,
only portions of the strands which are complementary
to each other will attach to each other to form duplex
DNA. This four-arm junction is an immobile form of a
Holliday junction.
Junctions can be used in more complex molecules.
The most important of these is the "double-crossover"
or DX motif. Here, two antiparallel DNA duplexes lie
next to each other, and share two junction points where
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 109
Nanorobotics
strands cross from one duplex into the other. This
molecule has the advantage that the junction points are
now constrained to a single orientation as opposed to
being flexible as in the four-arm junction. This makes
the DX motif suitible as a structural building block for
larger DNA complexes.
XIII. DNA NANOTUBES
In addition to flat sheets, DX arrays have been
made to form hollow tubes of 4-20 nm diameter. These
DNA nanotubes are somewhat similar in size and shape
to carbon nanotubes, but the carbon nanotubes are
stronger and better conductors, whereas the DNA
nanotubes are more easily modified and connected to
other structures.
A. DNA Nanomechanical Devices
DNA complexes have been made which change
their conformation upon some stimulus. These are
intended to have applications in nanorobotics. One of
the first such devices, called "molecular tweezers,"
changes from an open to a closed state based upon the
presence of control strands.
DNA machines have also been made which show a
twisting motion. One of these makes use of the
transition between the B-DNA and Z-DNA forms to
respond to a change in buffer conditions. Another relies
on the presence of control strands to switch from a
paranemic-crossover (PX) conformation to a double-
junction (JX2) conformation.
REFERENCES
[1] Drexler, K. Eric (1986). Engines of Creation: The Coming Era
of Nanotechnology.
[2] Binnig, G.; Rohrer, H. (1986). "Scanning tunneling
microscopy". IBM Journal of Research and Development 30: 4.
[3] "Nanoscience and nanotechnologies: opportunities and
uncertainties". Royal Society and Royal Academy of
Engineering. July 2004.
[4] Kevin Rollins (Nems Mems Works, LLC). "Nanobiotechnology
Regulation: A Proposal for Self-Regulation with Limited
Oversight". Volume 6–Issue 2.
[5] Paull, J. & Lyons, K. (2008). "Nanotechnology: The Next
Challenge for Organics".Journal of Organic Systems 3: 3–22.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Digital Image Watermarking

Ravindra Kumar
Dept. of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, U.P., India
e-mail: rj.upcpr@gmail.com)

Abstract—In the past, duplicating art work was not

quite easy, it requires a high level of expertise to look like
Watermarked Information
original data. But now it is quite possible to duplicate the
digital data without losing data quality. Embedded
watermarks permits identification of owner of the work. Watermarked Check for
Main aim of this paper is to make review of Digital Image watermarked
watermarking

I. INTRODUCTION Original Image

A digital watermark is kind of marker covertly Fig. 2: Detection of Watermark

embedded in a noise-tolerant signal such as image data.
It is a technique use to hide user defined information The material that contain a digital watermark is
along with visible or invisible information[1]. It is called a carrier[1]. In digital watermarks a signal may
typically used to identify ownership of the copy write be audio, video, picture, text etc
signal. It may be used to verify the authentication or it
show the identity of its owners[2]. A watermarks is IV. CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGITAL WATERMARKING
embedded into a digital signal at each point of
Digital watermarking may be characterized in
distribution. If a copy of work is found later, then the
several ways
watermark may be retrieve from the copy and the
source of distribution is known. This technique
V. ROBUSTNESS
reportedly has been used to detect the source of
illegally copied movies. A digital watermark is called robust if it resists a
designated class of transformations. Robust watermarks
II. WHAT IS WATERMARK may be used in copy protection applications to carry
copy and no access control information[3].
A Watermark is a recognizable image or pattern
A digital watermark is called fragile if it fails to be
which appear on fine paper or some documents to
detectable after the slightest modification. Fragile
prevent counterfeiting. It is a visible Embedded overlay
watermarks are commonly used for integrity proof.
on a digital photo consisting of text or a copy right
information. It is prominently used for tracking
VI. PERCEPTIBILITY
copyright infringements and for backbone
authentication. A digital watermark is called perceptible if its
presence in the marked signal is noticeable. if the
III. STRUCTURE OF A DIGITAL WATERMARK original cover signal and the marked signal are
perceptually indistinguishable that’s called
The structure of a digital watermark is shown in
imperceptible[2].
figure.
VII. SECURITY
Watermark
information An unauthorized person can not detect or modify
the embedded data.

VIII. APPLICATION OF DIGITAL WATERMARK

∑ Watermarked Image
Original image
Fig. 1: Image Watermarking Procedure
Digital watermarking may be used for a wide
range of application such as.
1. Copy right protection.
2. Source tracking (different recipients get
differently watermarked content).

110 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2

 Digital Image Watermarking

3. Convert communication. A watermarking system is usually divided into

4. Broadcast monitoring (Television news often three distinct steps, embedding, attack, and detection.
contain watermarked video from international In embedded, an algorithm accepts the host and data to
agencies). be embedded, and produce a watermarked signal.
5. Ownership and copy right. Then watermarked signal is stored, usually
6. Document and image security. transmitted to another person. If this person makes a
7. Protection for audio and video content. modification, this is called an attract.
8. Locating content online. Detection is algorithm which is depends on the
attacked signal to attempt to the watermark from it. If
IX. CLASSIFICATION OF DIGITAL the signal was unmodified during transmission, then
IMAGE WATERMARKING watermarked still is present and it may be extracted.
It can be divided into two main parts:
XI. CONTRIBUTED AREA IN DIGITAL WATERMARKING
1. Visible watermarks.
2. Invisible watermarks. Contributed area in Digital watermarking are
following:
A. Visible Watermarks 1. Information and Communication Theory
In visible watermarks, the information is visible in 2. Adaptive signal processing
the video or image. Typically, the information is text 3. Cryptography &Cryptographic protocol
which identify the owner of the media. Visible 4. Detection and Decision making Theory
watermarks allow the original image to be viewed, but 5. Game theory
it still provide copyright protection by marking the Information and communication method deals with
image as it is owner’s property. digital watermarks are data encoding (embedded) side of problem.
preferable for strong copyright protection . Information theory methods are useful in computation
of the amount of data that can be encoded in the given
B. Invisible Watermarks signal.
In this information added as digital data to image
or video. One of its application is to copyright XII. DETECTION OF WATERMARKS
protection system which are intended to prevent The first step in the determination of whether a
unauthorized copying of digital media. Invisible stamp has a particular watermark is to remove any
watermarks are used to mark text, image content to hinges, gently place stamp in your tongs and hold it
prove its authenticity. against a strong light face forward at various angles,
being carefully not to damage to stamp from the heat of
X. DIGITAL WATERMARKING LIFE-CYCLE STEPS light source. Often a watermark will come into view,
Digital watermarks life-cycle phases with particularly if the watermark is in the area that is not
linked. Stamps with a large margin are prime candidate
embedding, attacking, detection function as shown in
figure. for this. You have probably seen a scan of block of
stamp where the watermark is clearly visible in the
Secure part Insecure part selvage.
The importance of viewing the stamp from any
S SA angles can not over-emphasized. This applies to any
method describe in this article. If the watermark does
Attacking
Embedded not come into view when held to a strong light, the
Signal S function A
Function E
stamp should be dipped in fluid, preferably face down

XIII. CONCLUSION
Digital watermarking is evolved in the area of
research and development. One key research problem
that we still face today is the development of truly
robust, secure and transparent watermarking technique
for different digital media including image, video,
SEA Result audio, text.
Detecting Another problem is the development of semi
Function fragile authentication techniques. The solution of this
technique application result and development of new
result in the field of information Theory, game theory,
Signal processing, Detection and Decision making

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 111

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

theory. Although a lot of progress has already been
made, there still remain many open issues that need
attention before this area becomes mature
REFERENCES
[1] Ingemar J. Cox: Digital watermarking and steganography.
Morgan Kaufmann, Burlington, MA, USA, 2008.
[2] Frank Y. Shih: Digital watermarking and steganography
fundamentals and techniques. Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton,
FL, USA, 2008.
[3] Khan, A. and Mirza, A. M. 2007. Genetic perceptual shaping:
Utilizing cover image and conceivable attack information
during watermark embedding. Inf. Fusion 8, 4 (Oct. 2007),
354–365.

112 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Wireless Sensor Network for Landslide
Detection
Manish Kumar1, Mayank Tripathi2, Mohit Kumar3 and Anand Tiwari4
1,2,3
Department of Electronics & Communication Engg., Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar
4
Department of Electronics & Communication Engg., Axis Institute of Technology & Management, Kanpur
e-mail: 1man_kum2007@yahoo.co.in, 2mayank_007n1@rediffmail.com, 3mohitkm0@gmail.com
Abstract—The power of wireless sensor network
technology has provided the capability of developing large
scale systems for real-time monitoring. This paper
describes the evolution of a wireless sensor network
system for landslide detection in the Idukki district of the
southern state of Kerala, India, a region known for its
heavy rainfall, steep slopes, and frequent landslides. The
deployment and data retrieval or collection from
geophysical sensors, the design, development and
deployment of WSN, the development of data collection
and data aggregation algorithms needed for the network,
and the network requirements of the deployed landslide
detection system, data analysis system etc has been
discussed in this paper.
Keywords: Wireless Sensor Network, Landslide,
Heterogeneous Networks Distributed algorithms
I. INTRODUCTION
Real-time monitoring of environmental disasters
are one of the prime necessity of the world. Different
technologies have been developed for this purpose.
Wireless sensor networks (WSN) is one of the major
technology that can be used for real-time monitoring.
WSN has the capability of large scale deployment,
low maintenance, scalability, adaptability for different
scenarios etc. WSN has its own limitation such as low
memory, power, bandwidth etc, but its capability to be
deployed in hostile environment, and low maintenance
requirement made it one of the best suited technology
for real-time monitoring.
This paper discusses the design and deployment of
a landslide detection system using wireless sensor
network1 at Anthoniar Colony, Munnar, Idukki (Dist),
Kerala (State), India. The deployment site has
historically experienced several landslides, with the
latest one occurring in the year 2005, which caused a
death toll of 10 (people).
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows.
Section II describes related work in WSN systems, and
other methods for landslide prediction. In Section III,
we describe about landslide phenomena and Section IV
describes about the sensors needed for monitoring
rainfall induced landslides. Section 5 details about the
enhanced sensor column design used along with this
system. Section VI describes about the wireless sensor
architecture used for landslide scenario and Section VII
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
details the different wireless sensor network algorithms
implemented in the landslide detection network. The
wireless sensor test bed for landslide detection is
described in detail in Section VIII. Field deployment,
its design concerns, and experiences are described in
Section IX. Finally we conclude in Section X and in the
same section future work is also discussed.
II. RELATED WORK
The evolution of wireless sensor networks has
fostered the development of real-time monitoring of
critical and emergency applications. Wireless sensor
technology has generated enthusiasm in computer
scientists to learn and understand other domain areas
which have helped them to propose or develop real-
time deployments. One of the major areas of focus is
environmental monitoring, detection and prediction.
The Drought Forecast and Alert System (DFAS) has
been proposed and developed in paper [10]. This
system uses mobile communication to alert the users,
whereas the deployed system uses real time data
collection and transmission using the wireless sensor
nodes, WiFi, satellite network and also through
internet. The real streaming of data through broadband
connectivity provides connectivity to wider audience.
An experimental soil monitoring network using a
wireless sensor network is presented in reference [11],
which explores real-time measurements at temporal and
spatial granularities which were previously impossible.
This paper also discusses about the reception of real-
time measurements at temporal and spatial granularity.
Research has shown that other than geotechnical
sensor deployment and monitoring, other techniques
such as remote sensing, automated terrestrial surveys,
and GPS technology,etc. also can be used by
themselves or in combination with other technologies
to provide information about land deformations. Paper
[12] describes a state-of-the-art system that combines
multiple sensor types to provide measurements to
perform deformation monitoring.
Reference [9] discusses the topic of slip surface
localization in wireless sensor networks, which can be
used for landslide prediction. A durable wireless sensor
node has been developed [13], which can be employed
in expandable wireless sensor networks for remote
113
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
monitoring of soil conditions in areas conducive to
slope stability failures. In this paper, real time
deployment of a heterogeneous network in India for
landslide detection has been discussed. This study
incorporates both theoretical and practical knowledge
from diverse domains such as landslides and
geomechanics, wireless sensor, Wi-Fi, and satellite
networks, power saving solutions, and electronic
interface and design, among others, which paved the
design, development and deployment of a real-time
landslide detection system using a wireless sensor
network.
III. LANDSLIDE
Landslide is a general term used to describe the
down slope movement of soil, rock and organic
materials under the influence of gravity. It can be
triggered by gradual processes such as weathering, or
by external mechanisms including:
• Undercutting of a slope by stream erosion,
wave action, glaciers, or human activity such
as road building.
• Intense or prolonged rainfall, rapid snowmelt,
or sharp fluctuations in ground-water levels.
• Shocks or vibrations caused by earthquakes or
construction activity.
• Shocks or vibrations caused by earthquakes or
construction activity.
• Loading on upper slopes.
• A combination of these and other factors.
Once a landslide is triggered, material is
transported by various mechanisms including sliding,
flowing and falling.The types of landslides vary with
respect to the:
• Rate of movement: This ranges from a very
slow creep (millimetres/year) to extremely
rapid (metres/second).
• Type of material: Landslides are composed of
bedrock, unconsolidated sediment and/or
organic debris.
• Nature of movement: The moving debris can
slide, slump, flow or fall.
Landslides constitute a major natural hazard in
India that accounts for considerable loss of life and
damage to communication routes, human settlements,
agricultural fields and forest lands. The Indian
subcontinent, with diverse physiographic,
seismotectonic and climatological conditions is
subjected to varying degree of landslide hazards; the
Himalayas including Northeastern mountains ranges
being the worst affected, followed by a section of
Western Ghats and the Vindhyas.
In India, landslides mainly happen due to heavy
rainfall, so this study concentrates on rainfall induced
landslides. Earthquakes can also cause landslides,
however in India this is primarily confined to the
114 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
Himalayan belt. High rainfall intensity accelerates the
sliding and slumping in the existing hazard zones. The
annual loss due to landslides in India is equivalent to
$400 million.
IV. SENSORS NEEDED FOR MONITORING RAINFALL
INDUCED LANDSLIDES
Under heavy rainfall conditions, rain infiltration on
the slope causes instability, a reduction in the factor of
safety, transient pore pressure responses, changes in
water table height, a reduction in shear strength which
holds the soil or rock, an increase in soil weight and a
reduction in the angle of repose. When the rainfall
intensity is larger than the slope saturated hydraulic
conductivity, runoff occurs [3]. Three distinct physical
events occur during a landslide:
• The initial slope failure.
• The subsequent transport.
• The final deposition of the slide materials.
The initial slope failure can occur due to the
increase in pore pressure and soil moisture content,
under heavy rainfall, which necessitates the inclusion
of geophysical sensors for detecting the change in pore
pressure and moisture content with the warning system
developed for landslide detection .So the system
discussed in this paper also includes geophysical
sensors such as pore pressure transducer and dielectric
moisture sensor for capturing the in-situ measurements.
After the slope failure the subsequent transport of
the material happens that will generate slope gradient
change, vibration etc, which has to be measured and
monitored for effective issue of warning. So the
warning system includes strain gauge, and tiltmeter,
that can be used for measuring in-situ slope gradient
changes. Along with them geophone is used for
analysing the vibration.
V. ENHANCED SENSOR COLUMN DESIGN
Commercially available wireless sensor nodes do
not have implanted sensors to measure pore pressure,
moisture content, vibration, earth movements, etc. This
constraint has lead us to implement data acquisition
boards to connect the external sensors to the wireless
sensor nodes. The geological sensors were placed
inside a sensor column and they were connected to the
wireless sensor node via a data acquisition board as
shown in Figure 1. The sensor column design discussed
in this paper is an enhanced version of the sensor
column discussed in [9], which uses a homogeneous
structure, whereas our design uses a heterogeneous
structure which differs with respect to the terrain
conditions and the geological and hydrological
parameters of the deployment site. Also, in this sensor
column design all the geological sensors (such as
geophone and dielectric moisture sensor) are not placed
inside the column but are connected to the same

wireless sensor node. The sensor column design also
includes tilt meters which can be used for validating the
deformation measurements captured using strain
gauges.
Fig. 1: Enhanced Sensor Column Design [14]
VI. WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
The wireless sensor network at the deployment site
follows a two-layer hierarchy, with lower layer wireless
sensor nodes, sample and collect the heterogeneous
data from the sensor column and the data packets are
transmitted to the upper layer. The upper layer
aggregates the data and forwards it to the sink node
(gateway) kept at the deployment site.
The geological and hydrological properties of the
whole landslide prone area differ in each location, so it
can be divided in to regions having unique properties.
Our deployment area is divided into three regions such
as crown region, middle region, and toe region as
shown in Figure 2, and numerous low level nodes
attached to homogeneous sensor column are deployed
in these regions.
VII. WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK ALGORITHM
The wireless sensor network uses four algorithms
for implementing clustering, distributed consensus
among the data, energy efficient data aggregation and
time synchronization, which will contribute for the
development of an efficient landslide detection system.
The real-time monitoring networks are constrained by
energy consumption, due to the remote location of the
deployment site and the non-availability of constant
power. Considering these factors, the wireless sensor
network at the deployment site implements a totally
innovative concept for distributed detection, estimation
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 115
Wireless Sensor Network for Landslide Detection
and consensus to arrive at reliable decisions, more
accurate than that of each single sensor and capable to
achieve globally optimal decisions as discussed in
research papers [16],[17], and [18].
Fig. 2: Regionalized Wireless Sensor Network Architecture
for Landslides
In landslide scenario, the implementation of this
algorithm imposes a constraint of handling
heterogeneous sensors in each sensor column. The
different methods that can be used for implementing
this algorithm, for landslide scenario are:
1. Homogeneous sensor columns deployed in
each region can be compared and a consensus
value can be achieved for all the sensor
columns in that region.
2. All the sensors deployed in the landslide prone
area can be assigned with a weightage with
regard to its impact on landslide detection, and
a common consensus value can be achieved
executing the algorithm at once, for all
deployed sensors.
3. Decentralized consensus performed for the
same type of sensors in all sensor columns in a
region.
Decentralized consensus for the same type of
sensors has been developed for the deployed network.
The decentralized algorithm will be executed for each
type of sensors, one by one, for all homogeneous
sensor columns deployed at each region. After initial
set of sensors achieve its consensus, the next set of
sensors will execute the decentralized algorithm and so
on, as shown in Figure 3.The other designs demand
apriori knowledge of correlation between different
geophysical sensors, whereas this method does not
require this apriori knowledge, but the processing delay
will be more compared to other methods, due to the
multiple execution of same algorithm.
Since the study concentrates on the detection of
rainfall induced landslides, the most relevant data will
be arriving during rainy season. So rainfall based alert
levels have been developed which will influence the
sampling rate of the geological sensors and the
transmission of data to higher layers as discussed in the
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
threshold based algorithm [14]. This algorithm will
help to reduce the energy consumed during the low
alert levels and also in collecting and transmitting large
amounts of data, only when the environmental and
geological conditions demand the same. Other than
these methods, state level transitions have been
incorporated to reduce the energy consumption per
node which will also contribute to reduced energy
consumption throughout the network. These
requirements, however, lead to the need of time
synchronization, and the algorithm planned for
implementation in our network is discussed in research
paper[19].
Fig. 3: Decentralized Consensus for Same Type of Sensors
VIII. WIRELESS SENSOR TESTBED
FOR LANDSLIDE DETECTION
The design and development of a wireless sensor
network for the landslide scenario involves
consideration of different factors such as terrain
structure, vegetation index, climate variation,
accessibility of the area etc. The prerequisites of
wireless sensor network development are selection of
sensor column location, sensor column design and its
data collection method, understanding transmission
range and necessity of external antennas or additional
relay nodes, identification of the communication
protocol, development of application specific
algorithms for data aggregation, routing and fault
tolerance etc. The wireless sensor testbed deployed at
Anthoniar Colony, Munnar, Idukki (Dist), Kerala
(State), India, follows a two layer hierarchy, with a
lower layer and an upper layer. The lower layer
wireless sensor nodes are attached to the sensor
columns. They will sample and collect the
heterogeneous data from the sensor column and the
data packets are transmitted to the upper layer. The
upper layer consists of cluster heads, which will
aggregates the data and forwards it to the sink node
116 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
(gateway) kept at the deployment site. Data received at
the gateway has to be transmitted to the Field
Management Center (FMC) which is approximately
500m away from the gateway. A Wi-Fi network is used
between the gateway and FMC to establish the
connection. The FMC incorporates facilities such as a
VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) satellite earth
station and a broadband network for long distant data
transmission. The VSAT satellite earth station is used
for data transmission from the field deployment site to
the Data Management Center (DMC), situated at our
university campus 300 km away, while the broadband
connection provides fault tolerance for long distance
transmission and can also be used for uploading real
time data directly to a web page with minimum delay.
The DMC consists of the database server and an
analysis station, which performs data analysis and
landslide modeling and simulation on the field data to
determine the landslide probability.The wireless sensor
network architecture for landslide detection is shown in
Figure 4.
Fig. 4: Wireless Sensor Network Architecture
for Landslide Detection
IX. FIELD DEPLOYMENT
The existing infrastructure has evolved through
several iterative phases in its implementation.
Important research focal points were deciding the
sensor column locations, designing and constructing
the sensor columns, sensor column deployment
methods, interfacing circuitry, wireless sensor network,
Wi-Fi network, satellite network, and power solutions,
soil tests, and data analysis.

Extensive field investigations were conducted for
identifying the possible locations for sensor column
deployment.At the deployment site, Anthoniar Colony,
an initial twenty sensor column locations consisting of
150 sensors total, were identified with respect to their
geological relevance. The pilot deployment consists of
two sensor columns, with ten sensors,are deployed in
the field along with six wireless sensor nodes are
shown in Figure.
Fig. 5: Field Deployment
X. DEPLOYMENT OF SENSOR COLUMN
One of the sensor columns is deployed at the toe
region where various water seepage lines converge.
This fact lead to the installation of pore pressure
transducers at different depths (2m, 5m) of the sensor
column 1. The other geophysical sensors attached to
this sensor column are dielectric moisture content
transducer, and a geophone. Both pore pressure
transducer and the dielectric moisture sensor are
sampled at every five minutes, where as geophone is
sampled at the rate of 10 samples/second. The MicaZ
wireless sensor node connected to the sensor column
transmits the digitized data values to the upper layers of
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 117
Wireless Sensor Network for Landslide Detection
the network. The other sensor column is attached with
movement sensors since the location of it is in an
unstable region. This sensor column has three tilt
meters(1m, 2m, 3.5m), and three strain gauges(1.5m,
2.5m, 4m ) to capture the earth movement from the
sensor column bending. A dielectric moisture sensor is
also connected to the sensor column at 1 feet depth.
The wireless sensor nodes sample these sensors at
every five minutes and sent the data to upper level
sensor nodes in the network. The spatial granularity
will be increased by further addition of more sensor
columns (approximately 20) and wireless sensor nodes
(approximately 20) which is in process.
A. Design and Deployment of Wireless
Sensor Network
The design and development of a wireless sensor
network for the landslide scenario involves
consideration of different factors such as terrain
structure, vegetation index, climate variation,
accessibility of the area etc. The prerequisites of
wireless sensor network development are selection of
sensor column location, sensor column design and its
data collection method, understanding transmission
range and necessity of external antennas or additional
relay nodes, identification of the communication
protocol, development of application specific
algorithms for data aggregation, routing and fault
tolerance etc. The wireless sensor network architecture
at the deployment is discussed in Section 4, and the
wireless senor nodes used for the deployment are 2.4
GHz MicaZ motes from Crossbow. The initial gateway
was stargate with Intel XScale processor 400MHZ and
running ARM Linux OS was programmed as the Sink
Node, while the new gateway is a single board
computer which has 64 MB RAM, 32 MB flash and a
fixed base mote that is used to send and receive the
messages through the transceiver. The sensor column is
physically attached to a wireless sensor node which is
integrated with a data acquisition board. The distance
between current sensor columns is approximately 50
meters, at a slope of about 70ˇr. Due to the terrain
structure and vegetation, the data from the sensor
columns are not able to reach the gateway. The major
reasons for this is, no line of sight path between the
columns,between the first sensor column and the
gateway, and between the second sensor column and
the gateway. The above observations, along with
experimental tests, have led us to employ three relay
nodes in between the sensor columns themselves and
the gateway. One of the relay nodes is a cluster head
for the first and second sensor column. The data from
the cluster head is transmitted to the gateway in the
form of packets. At the gateway the received packets
are time stamped and stored.
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
B. Deployment of WI-FI Network
The Wi-Fi Network is used to transfer the data
from the gateway to the FMC and it uses an external
antenna and an access point for the same. The Network
has been tested with WLAN standards 802.11a/b/g.The
Wi-Fi network allows us to install the gateway in any
scalable distance from the FMC. Since the Munnar
region experiences frequent landslides and has several
landslide prone areas within every 1 sq km, which can
be utilized as future extension sites for landslide
detection systems by connecting them to the FMC via a
Wi-Fi network.
C. Deployment of Satellite Network
The basic satellite communication network in the
landslide scenario is based on VSAT. The geological
data collected at the landslide deployment site is
transmitted from the FMC at the deployment site to the
DMC at Amrita University’s Amritapuri campus, using
the VSAT earth station. The data is transmitted using
UDP Protocol which includes recovery of lost packets,
corrupted packets, secure transmission, route via
broadband during unavailability of VSAT, buffering
the data to disk in case both networks are unavailable
and sending the data as soon as the network is
connected, etc.
XI. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
Wireless sensor network for landslide detection is
one of the challenging research areas available today in
the field of geophysical research. This paper describes
about an actual field deployment of a wireless sensor
network for landslide detection. This system uses a
heterogeneous network composed of wireless sensor
nodes, Wi-Fi, and satellite terminals for efficient
delivery of real time data to the data management
center. The data management center is equipped with
softwares and hardwares needed for sophisticated
analysis of the data. The results of the analysis in the
form of landslide warnings and risk assessments will be
provided to the inhabitants of the region.The pilot
deployment of this system is already in place at
Anthoniar Colony, Munnar, Idukki, Kerala, India. In
the future, this work will be extended to a full
deployment with increased spatial variabilty, and the
work in this regard is progressing. Field experiments
will be conducted to determine the effects of density of
the nodes, vegetation, location of sensor columns etc.,
for detecting rainfall induced landslides, that may help
in the development of low cost wireless sensor network
for landslide detection.
118 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
REFERENCES
[1] Thampi. P. K., Mathai. John., Sankar. G., Sidharthan. S.,
Landslides:Causes, Control and MitigationˇT, (based on the
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[2] Ramesh, M. V., Real-time Wireless Sensor Network for
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[3] LAN. Hengxing., ZHOU. Chenghu1., C. F. Lee., WANG
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[4] Wang, G., and K. Sassa., Pore-pressure generation and
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[7] Mikkelsen. Erik. P., Cement-Bentonite Grout Backfill for
Borehole Instruments, Geotechnical News, Pages 38-42,
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[8] McKenna G.T., Grouted In Installation of Piezometers in
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353, 1995.
[9] Terzis. Andreas., Anandarajah. Annalingam., Moore. Kevin.,
Wang. I-Jeng., Slip Surface Localization in Wireless Sensor
Networks for Landslide Prediction, IPSN’06, USA, April 19-
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Information Science and Engineering, Vol 22, Pages 751-769,
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Gray. J., Life Under your Feet: A Wireless Soil Ecology Sensor
Network, 2006.
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[15] Barbarossa. S., Scutari. G., Decentralized Maximum-
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 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

A Tutorial Overview
on the DGS to Design Microwave Devices
Vikash Kumar1 and Sanjay Gurjar2
1,2
Bhagwant University, Ajmer
e-mail: vikashvvit@gmail.com, 2ersanjay86@yahoo.in
1

Abstract—A tutorial overview on defected ground
structure using microstrip line is developed to design
various types of microwave devices like filter, oscillator,
coupler, resonator etc. The Defected Ground plane is the
etched shape on the backside of the metallic ground plane
induces inductive and capacitive effects of the circuits. The
induced inductive and capacitive effect due to DGS
provides better roll-off rate and improved slow wave
structure. There are different shape are etched to fulfill
our requirement in the field of microwave communication.
In this tutorial overview the frequency characterization
and slow wave structure properties is discussed. The
improved slow-wave structure provides the circuit size
reduces up-to the 40%. In this paper discussed how the
inductive and capacitive effect induces on the metallic
defected ground plane and discussed how slow wave
structure improved and how it can calculate analytically
due to the improved frequency characterization. It
provides better cutoff frequency and attenuation pole in
same frequency without any periodic array of defected
ground structure.
Keywords: DGS, roll-off rate, slow-wave structure,
PBG.
After all a new structure was developed that was
defected ground structure (DGS) firstly proposed by
park et al. in 1999. DGS alleviate this problem by
connecting two PBG cells with a thin slot which causes:
• The circuit area becomes relatively small
without periodic structures because only a few
DGS elements have the similar typical
properties as the periodic structure like the
stop-band characteristic.
• DGS needs less circuit size for only a unit or a
few periodic structures showing slow-wave
effect.
DGS has found its application in the design of
planner circuits, low-pass filter, high-pass filters, band-
pass filter, resonator, oscillator, couplers, etc.
DGS have gained significant interests. It rejects
certain frequency bands and hence it is called
electromagnetic band gap (EBG) structure. Figure (1)
gives the schematic of such a DGS with its approximate
surface area.

I. INTRODUCTION
Now a day wireless communication is daily need of
our life. So we need to how we make this system
flexible. By which it have better noise immunity, larger
bandwidth with less required area, low power
consumption, high reability, compact effect, high
quality miniature components with a dual-band
operation and so many things.
For this we want a single system like PCB by
which we make our all requirements like smart board or
substrate at which we design our all required circuit that
are used in our wireless communication system.
At first we need to know about photonic band-gap Fig. 1: DGS Unit Cell Diagram
(PBG) structure that is a periodic structure which has
DGS is realized by etching a defective patter in the
been known as providing rejection of certain frequency
ground plane, which disturbs the shield current
band. However, it is difficult to use a PBG structure for
distribution in the ground plane. This disturbance can
the design of the microwave or millimeter wave
change the characteristics of a transmission line such as
component due to the difficulties of modeling.
equivalent capacitance and inductance to obtain the
There are so many design parameters that effect on slow wave effect and band-stop property.
the band gap property, such as the number of lattice A DGS for the microstripline has etched-defects in
shape, lattice spacing and relative volume fraction. a metallic ground plane like photonic band gap
Another problem is caused by the radiation from the structures. Since an etched-defect of the ground plane
periodic etched defects. disturbs the shielded current distribution in the ground

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 119

Proceedingss of National Co
onference on Tre
ends in Signal Processing
P & Co
ommunication (TSPC’13) 12th–
–14th April 2013
3

plane. Thee DGS with periodic or non-periodic

n s
shape
provides reejection band in some frequuency range due d to
increasing the effectivee inductance of a transmiission
line. This disturbance can c change characteristics
c of a
transmissioon line succh as line capacitance and
inductancee. This band reejection charaacteristic of DGGS is Fig. 3: Various DGSs:
D (a) Spiral H
Head, (b) Arrowhhead-slot,
(c) “H”Shape Slots, (d) A Square Oppen-loop with a slot in Middle
available to
t a power am mplifier moduule and filterss, etc. Section, (e) openn-loop Dumbbelll and (f) Interdigital DGS
Increase effective
e induuctance with DGS can proovide
wider widtth of transmisssion line thatt of a conventtional In figure (3), it is shown tthat a variety of attached
line. This characteristic
c can apply to power
p dividerrs and area shapes incluuding spiral hhead, arrowheead-slot and
branch linee coupler. Thhose device appplications reequire “H” shape slots annd so on.
various moodeling methoods to obtain equivalent cirrcuits Spiral head DGS
D is proposed for compacct structure.
and parameeter for the DG GS. This structure shoows a narrow w width stop band
b and is
A new w etched lattiice shape forr the microstrrip is not therefore useful
u for LLPF design, harmonics
proposed asa a unit DG GS. An etchedd in ground plane supp pressions or brroad out of baand rejection.
disturbs thhe shield currrent distributiion in the grround The use of ellliptic shape D DGS is to pro ovide sharp
plane. Thiss disturbance can change characteristics
c s of a cut off frequenncy response as well as a a good
transmissioon line suchh as a line capacitance and Perfo
formance in both
b the pass band and thee stop band
inductancee. The proposeed DGS conssists of narrow w and but slow-wave
s facctor is less.
wide etcheed areas in baackside metallic ground plaane as H-shape, Y-shhape DGS havve very compact size and
shown in figure
fi (2) below: imprroved slow— —wave factor for the samee frequency
respo onse than dummbbell shape.
Complementaary square Split Ring Resonator
(CSS SRR) unit haas interesting filtering chaaracteristics,
suchh as high attennuation rate, hhas a couple ofo the finite
attennuation poles,, and low levvel of pass baand ripples.
Casccading CSSRR R units with ddifferent dimen nsions have
been n utilized to design high performance Low Pass
Filteer (LPF). Slow w-wave factoor for the CS SSRR based
DGS S is highest am
mong all the puublished DGS S layouts.

II. FREQUEN
NCY CHARACT
TERISTICS OF DGS
D
The proposedd DGS unit seection can pro ovide cutoff
frequuency and attenuation
a poole in some frequency
with
hout any perriodic array of DGS. The T cutoff
frequuency is mainnly dependent to the etched square area
Fig. 2: Threee-dimensional viiew of the Propossed DGS Unit Secction,
which iss ETCHED in the Ground Plane off a Microstrip Linne in grround plane. There
T is also aattenuation po
ole location,
whicch is due to the etched gap ddistance. The presence of
Whichh give rise to increasiing the effeective a cappacitance facttor should be needed. The etched gap
capacitancee and inducctance of a transmission line area,, which is plaaced under a conductor lin ne shown in
respectivelly. Thus, ann LC equivvalent circuit can figurre (2), provvides the paarallel capacitance with
represent the
t proposed unit
u DGS circcuit. The effeccts of effecctive line indductance. Thhus, the prop posed DGS
physical dimensions
d off the proposeed DGS on these sectiion is fully desscribed by twoo parameters:
equivalent circuit parammeters are desscribed. To design
d • The etcheed dimension
circuits with
w the propposed DGS unit section, the • Gap distaance
equivalent circuit and parameters
p forr the DGS seection
should be extracted. These
T are various methodds by III. EQU
UIVALENT CIR
RCUIT OF DGS
which prooposed DGS unit section derived like field
analysis method.
m The eqquivalent circcuit parameterrs are This is a simlipfied
s ciircuit that reeduced the
extracted based on thhe circuit analysis theoryy. By comp plexity of circcuit. So that aany proposed section to a
employing the extracteed parameterrs and the circuit c practtical circuit design,
d it is nnecessary to extract the
analysis thheory, the bannd gap effectt for the provvided equiv valent circuitt parameters. In order to derived the
DGS sectioon can be explained. equiv valent circuiit parameterss of DGS unit u at the
A vaariety of sloot geometries etched inn the referrence plane, the
t S-parametters vs frequeency should
microstrip line ground plane.
p This is shown
s in figurre (3) be calculated
c by full-wave eleectromagnetic simulation
below: to ex
xplain the cutooff and attenuuation pole chaaracteristics
of th
he DGS section.

120 ‹ Bhag
gwant Institute of
o Technology, Muzaffarnagar,
M Uttar Pradesh, India
 A Tutorial Overview on the DGS to Design Microwave Devices

At present, DGS can be equivalent by three types

of equivalent circuits:
• LC and RLC equivalent circuits.
• ߨ shaped equivalent circuits.
• Quasi-static equivalent circuits.
Figures of all equivalent circuits are shown below:

Fig. 6: π Shaped Equivalent Circuit for Unit DGS:

(a) Equivalent Circuit, (b) π Shaped Circuit

IV. SLOW WAVE STRUCTURE

Fig. 4: LC Equivalent Circuit: (a) Equivalent Circuit of the Dumbbell
DGS Circuit, (b) Butterworth-type one-pole Prototype
Low-pass Filter Circuit
A microstrip line plays an important role in
microwave circuits. The mechanism behind the slow
wave propagation is to separately store the electric and
magnetic energies as much as possible in the guided
wave media. Slow-wave structure act to reduce the
group velocity of a transmission line or increase its
group delay compared to a normal “fast-wave”
structure. Slow wave structures are useful in shrinking
distributed elements, that means reduce the circuit up to
40% as compare to the traditional design.

Fig. 5: RLC Equivalent Circuit for Unit DGS

Fig. 7: New Design and Analysis Method of DGS: (a) Analysis Method of DGS, (b) Equivalent-circuit Model of Unit Cell DGS

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 121

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
One of the function key of SWS is the slow-wave
factor that is the ratio of the wave velocity of a native
transmission line to a slow-wave structure. The higher
the SWF, the more the transmission line’s wavelength
is reduced compared to its normal wavelength in the
chosen dielectric medium. By ‘normal’ we are
comparing it to CPW or microstrip or stripline.
The heat dissipation capability of SWS is one of
the important factors that determine the average output
power and affect the stability and reliability.
Slow-wave mode propagation is of great interest
for its use in matching the field velocity and reducing
the dimension of distributed components in integrated
circuits. SWS with microstrip line with periodic
structure patterned reduced insertion loss and work at
very high frequency. The novel slow-wavw microstrip
line is very promising for use in MIC and MMIC
because of its low loss and compact size.
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper, the better performance of DGS from
tradition PBGs is reported. The fundamental concept
about DGS presented and how we use in microwave
transmission circuit. Different shaped equivalent circuit
to design of DGS has been introduced. Also this paper
give the basic ideas about SWS and how it compatible
to use in IC design.
122 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
REFERENCES
[1] J.S. Kim, Y.T. Lee, C.S. Kim and D. Ahn, ”A vertically periodic
defected ground structure and its application in reducing the size
of microwave circuits, ”IEEE microwave and Wireless
Components Lett. vol.12, no.12, Dec. 2002.
[2] J.S .Lim, J.S. Park, Y.T. Lee, D. Ahn and S. Nam, ”Application
of defected ground structure in reducing the size of amplifier,
”IEE Microwave and Wireless Components Lett, vol. 12, no. 7,
July 2002.
[3] B .Wu, B. Li, T. Su and C.H. Liang, Study on transmission
characteristics of split ring resonator defected ground structure,
National key laboratory of antenna and microwave
techn0logy,Piers Online, v0l. 2, no. 6, 2006
[4] S.K. Parui and S. Das, ”An asymmetric defected ground
structure with elliptical response and its application as a lowpass
filter, ”Int. J. Electron. Commun. (AEU) 63 (2009), pp 483-490.
[5] C.S. Kim, J.S. Park, D. Ahn and J.B. Lim, “A novel 1-D
periodic defected ground structure for planar circuits, ”,IEEE
Microwave and Guided wave Lett. vol. 10, no. 4, April 2000.
[6] D. Ahn, J. S. park, C. S, Kim, J. Kim, Y.Qianand T. Itoh, ”A
design of the low-pass filterbusing the novel microstrip defected
ground structure, “,IEEE Trans.microwave theory Tech,, vol.49,
pp.86-93, Jan.2001.
[7] T.J. Ellis and G.M.rebeiz,”MM-wave tapered slot antennas on
micromachined photonic bandgap dielectrics.” in IEEE MIT-s
Int. Microwave Symp. Dig. June 1996, pp. 1157-1160.
[8] M.M. Sigalas, R.Biswas, and K.M.Ho,” theoretical study of
dipole antennas on photonic-crystal substrate’” Microwave Opt.
Technol. Lett., vol. 13, pp. 205-209, Nov. 1996.
[9] Y. Qian, V.Radisic, and T.Itoh,” Simulation and experiment of
photonic band gap structures for microstrip ciccuits,” in Proc.
APMC’ 97, pp. 585-588.
[10] D.M. Pozar, Microwave Engineering. Reading, MA:
Aditional-Wesley, 1990, pp. 486-517.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Study of Improved Technique

of Bridging Fault Simulation
Diksha Verma
Electronics & Communication Engg., BIT, Muzaffarnagar
e-mail: ecdiksha2013@gmail.com

Abstract—There are two key factors involved in this left to dangle while the winning node is connected to all
paper. These factors are to obtain accurate bridging fault the destinations of both nodes.
simulation results and to present a hybrid technique that
improves the speed and accuracy of bridging fault
simulation for gate-level standard cell designs. The results
of both combinational and sequential circuits are
compared after study with several other bridging fault
simulators.

I. INTRODUCTION
This is very essential to drive the defect levels of
integrated circuits to extremely low levels. The
traditional single stuck-at fault model does not always
predict the behavior of physical defects in CMOS
technologies. Fault simulation using only this model is
no longer an accurate estimater of IC quality. It is the
drawback of this model and it indicates that there is a
need for more detailed and realistic fault model and
associated fault simulators.
The fault resulting from fabrication defects, Fig. 1: Example Circuit with Bridge form G to H
modeled as dust particles of various size on photomask,
TABLE 1: GATE INPUT PATTERN IMPACT ON OUTPUT
is the bridging fault.This fault type will be the focus of BRIDGE VOLTAGE
this work. Recent work has shown that bridging faults
cause more complex circuit behaviour. Simulation A[0] A[1] A[2] A[3] B C VGH (V)
0 0 0 0 0 1 4.25
method to deal with these complexities exist, but can be
0 0 0 0 1 1 3.68
computationally expensive or limited to combinational 0 0 0 1 0 1 4.13
circuits. This paper will present a fast bridging fault 0 0 0 1 1 1 3.25
simulation method that accurately models the behaviour 0 0 1 1 0 1 3.68
of bridging faults by considering circuit-level near 0 0 1 1 1 1 2.54
bridging site while using gate-level simulation every 0 1 1 1 0 1 2.54
0 1 1 1 1 1 1.38
where else. 1 1 1 1 0 0 2.66

II. BRIDGING FAULT MODELS In switch-level fault simulators (e.g. COSMOS,

The given circuit will be used to illustrate the
differences in bridging fault models at gate-level,
switch-level and the circuit-level.
Bridging defects are modeled at gate-level as
permanent network configurations which alter the
logical structure of the circuit. There are four classes of
these wired-logic bridging fault: wired-and, wired-or
and two types of dominant driver faults- (i) when G
always outdrives H (G ‘wins’) (ii) when H always
outdrives G (G ‘loses’). And a new node GH is created
by addition of the bridging logic gate and this node
drives all the former destination of bridged nodes G and
H. In case of dominant driver faults, the losing node is
CHAMP, IDSIM3), bridging defects can be shown by
inserting a large permanently conducting transistor
between two nodes or by joining the two nodes and
forming more complex pull up and pull down networks.
The circuit-level simulators, such as SPICE2 and
SPICE3, can model a bridging defect by inserting a
resistor between two circuit nodes. Capacitive and
inductive properties of the bridging defect can also be
included. Theese can help in calculating the delay
information which may be useful in detecting bridging
defects.

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 123

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
III. ACCURACY OF BRIDGING FAULT MODELS
There are two main factors that differentiate the
accuracy of the models: the determination of the volt-
age value that results at the site of the bridge, and the
interpretation of that voltage value by the receivers (the
gates downstream of the bridge).
The connection of two nodes via a bridging defect
implies that the gates driving those two nodes will be
engaged in a drive fight (logic contention) when they
have opposite values.
The second factor that determines the accuracy of a
bridging fault model is interpretation of the voltage at
the bridged node by the receiving logic gate.
A CMOS digital logic gate is a very high gain
amplifier that causes its output to be forced to a power
supply rail when the sensitized input is forced above or
below its logic threshold. The input logic threshold of a
gate input is defined as the voltage value at which the
input and output of the gate are equal (assuming all
other inputs to the gate are held at noncontrolling
values). A small deviation of the input voltage above or
below the logic threshold, typically a few tenth of a
volt, is sufficient to cause a large swing in the output.
The decision on how to interpret a bridging voltage
must be made with respect to the input logic threshold
voltage of each input of each gate downstream from the
bridge.
The 3.7 V output value is well above the logic
threshold of any input for any gate in the library,
making this a solid logic one. This example shows that
a single node value (the bridged node G H) is
interpreted in all three possible (different) ways: 0, X,
and 1.
The implication of this behavior is disconcerting:
different branches from a single fanout stem can
effectively have different logic values! Typical gate and
switch-level simulators use a single value to represent
the voltage on each node (stem) in the circuit and thus
cannot recognize this behavior without special
modifications. Even then, the restriction to digital
values (0, 1, and X) eliminates the possibility of
performing comparisons between bridging voltages and
input logic thresholds. These restrictions prevent the
accurate interpretation of bridging voltages by gate and
switch- level bridging fault simulators.
IV. FAST AND ACCURATE BRIDG-ING
FAULT SIMULATOR
The tradeoff between speed and accuracy in
bridging fault simulation techniques should be quite
clear by now. Only circuit-level techniques have
sufficient in- formation to produce correct results, while
only gate- level techniques can perform digital
simulation with sufficiently high throughput. This
section presents a hybrid approach based on these two
124 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
techniques that can deliver the accuracy of a circuit-
level simulator with the speed of a gate-level simulator.
V. REALIZATIONS AND IDEAS
Appying the mechanics of the various bridging
fault simulation methods, these observations are made:
• The vast majority of time spent in bridging
fault simulation is in the digital field of interest
and is very much simiilar to single stuck-at
fault simulation,
• Circuit-level details need to be used only at the
bridging site,
• All likely bridging sites can be identified from
lay-Out,
• The only information needed to model the
behavior of a bridge correctly is the short-
circuit voltage of the two driving gates and the
logic threshold of all receiving gates.
• Only a limited number of short-circuit voltages
are possible based on the identified bridging
sites and the number of cells in the library,
• All logic threshold voltages are known from
li-brary characterization.
• Given these realizations about the nature of the
procedures essential to bridging fault
simulation, the following ideas suggest
themselves:
• Use the highest performance single stuck-at
sim-ulator available as the underlying core
simulator.
• Precompute the short-circuit voltage for all
combinations of gates (and all pertinent input
combi-nations) that can be involved in a
bridging fault.
• Precompute the logic threshold voltages for all
library cell inputs.
• Modify the fault simulator's evaluation routine
to specially treat the fault site by using the
tabu-larized short-circuit voltages and logic
threshold voltages.
The drawback of the new technique is that a single
stuck-at fault simulator needs to be extended to per
form one additional type of evaluation: determining the
digital values at gate inputs that are immediately
downstream from the fault site. This is accomplished in
two phases:
1. Use the bridging defect's driving gates and
their input values to index into a precomputed
short- circuit voltage table to obtain the voltage
seen by the receiving gates, then
2. Compare that voltage to the precomputed logic
threshold voltage for each fanout of the bridge
site to obtain a digital value for simulation.
VI. DIFFERENCES FROM PREVIOUS WORK
• The use of explicit SPICE-derived data for
every gate input is unique to this simulator.

This feature is key to obtaining accurate
simulation results.
• Earlier simulators were also limited to
combinational or fully scanned circuits,
while this work handles sequential circuits.
VII. ASSUMPTIONS
The following assumptions were made in the devel-
opment of the simulator and are responsible for both its
speed and its limitations:
• Circuits will be standard cell ASICs.
• Only routing channel bridging faults will be
considered.
• The circuits will be represented at the logic
gate level.
• The size of the standard cell library is
reasonably small (100 gate types or less).
The practical import of these assumptions on the
simulator is:
• Only logic gate output shorts need to be
handled.
• The storage space for and cost of library
characterization is acceptable.
VIII. SIMULATION ALGORITHM
In order to maximize fault simulation performance,
the differential-based PROOFS algorithm was chosen to
be the platform upon which the bridging fault simulator
would be built. The basic algorithm had to be extended
to perform the following functions:
• Inject bridging faults instead of stuck-at faults,
• Evaluate the short-circuit voltage at a bridging
site,
• Compare the short-circuit voltage with the
logic threshold voltage of fanout gates to
deduce new logical values,
• Resolve feedback bridging faults.
IX. LIMITATIONS
The use of circuits that are completely represented
at the gate level and whose bridging faults exist only
between gate outputs restricts the applicability of this
simulator. There is no guarantee that all likely bridg-
ing faults on a any chip will occur only between gate
outputs (intragate faults being the chief example). Table
3 clearly shows that only a minority (between a quarter
and a third) of actual bridging faults are gate output
shorts. It should be noted, however, that shorts between
gate outputs tend to be the most probable type of bridge
because these signals are usu- ally routed over relatively
large areas and are thus prone to spot defects.
The scalability of this simulator can be limited by
the size of the lookup table for short-circuit voltages,
which can grow geometrically with both the num- ber
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 125
Study of Improved Technique of Bridging Fault Simulation
of gate types and the number of gate fanins. If the
number of cells in the library is very large, or if the
number of unique ways to drive ones and zeros is very
large, the lookup table for the bridging volt- ages can
become unwieldy. The gate input threshold voltage
table grows only linearly with the number of gate types
and gate fanins in the library and is not a limiting factor.
Another source of error in the precomputed data is
an incorrect assumption for the value of the likely
bridging resistance. If the resistance of the actual
bridging defect is significantly different from that
as- sumed during characterization, the simulator can
pre- dict incorrect results. By repeating the SPICE
char- acterization of the short-circuit voltages with a
new value of the bridging resistance, a more accurate
table can be created for the simulator to use.
X. CONCLUSION
For prediction of the behavior of a bridging fault
correctly, there are two key steps to model physical
mechanisms that must be taken. (i) determining the
voltage at the bridging site by resolving the drive fight
between the bridged gates, and (ii)interpreting that
voltage by comparing it to the logic threshold voltages
of each gate input connected to the bridged node. The
BRIDGESIM program uses precomputed values for
these voltages to obtain accurate values to feed into a
gate-level simulation platform. This technique delivers
an excellent throughput and accuracy, but is limited by
the scalability of the table lookup procedure and the
assumptions made during circuit-level characterization.
REFERENCES
[1] A. Pancholy, J. Rajski, and L.J. McNaughton, "Empirical failure
analysis and validation of fault models in CMOS," in
Proceedings of the IEEE International Test Conference,
pp. 938-947, Sept. 1990.
[2] F. Ferguson and J. Shen, "Extraction and sim- ulation of realistic
CMOS faults using inductive fault analysis," in Proceedings of
the IEEE In-ternational Test Conference, pp. 475-484,
Sept. 1988.
[3] K.C.Y. Mei, "Bridging and stuck-at faults," IEEE Transactions
on Computers, pp. 720-727, July 1974.
[4] J.M. Acken and S.D. Millman, "Accurate mod- eling and
simulation of bridging faults," in Pro- ceedings of the IEEE
Custom Integrated Circuits Conference, pp. 17.4.1-17.4.4,1991.
[5] J.M. Acken and S.D. Millman,"Fault model evolution for
diagnosis: Accuracy vs. precision," in Proceedings of the IEEE
Custom Integrated Circuits Conference, pp. 13.4.1-13.4.4,1992.
[6] G.S. Greenstein and J.H. Patel, "E-PROOFS: A CMOS bridging
fault simulator," in Pro-ceedings of the IEEE International
Conference on Computer-Aided Design, pp. 268-271, Nov.1992
[7] C. Timoc, M. Buehler, T. Griswold, C. Pina, F. Scott, and L.
Hess, "Logical models of physi- cal failures," in Proceedings of
the IEEE Interna- tional Test Conference, pp. 546-553,
Oct. 1983.
[8] R.E. Bryant, "COSMOS: A compiled sim- ulator for MOS
circuits," in Proceedings of the ACM/IEEE Design Automation
Conference, pp. 9-16, June 1987.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Survey on 4G Technology and its Applications
Khaleel Ahmad1, Ankur Bhardwaj2 and Ashutosh Kumar3
1
Dammam University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
2
Bhagwant Institute of Technology Muzaffarnagar, U.P., India
3
S.I.T.E Meerut, U.P., India
e-mail: khaleelamna@yahoo.co.in, 2ankurbhardwajbit@gmail.com, 3ashutoshk8685@gmail.com
1
Abstract—During the last few decades, mobile
communication has developed rapidly. The increasing
dependency of people on telecommunication resources is
pushing even more current technological developments in
the mobile world.
1G mobile networks being a wholly analogue
network, provide voice calls. This was superseded by 2G.
It introduced services like text messaging (SMS) and
email, along with voice calls. With 2.5G or enhanced 2G,
internet access became popular which was earlier limited
only to WAP. 3G mobile telecommunication is a
generation of standards for mobile phones and mobile
telecommunication services fulfilling the International
Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000)
specifications by the International telecommunication
Union[1,2]. It promises to deliver higher bandwidth and
ubiquitous wireless access. 4G technology prescribes that
users can enjoy mobility, seamless access and high quality
of service in an all-IP network. 4G will be the certain path
to the future radio and mobile communication system[8].
This paper presents the drawbacks of 3G technology
and advance features of 4G technology. And, it also
describe framework of 4G technology. Apart from this, we
will discuss core technologies of 4G mobile system
including security strategy and adaptive network in 4G.
Keywords: GSM, 2G, 3G, 4G, CDMA, TDMA
I. INTRODUCTION
A. First Generation (IG)
Mobile networks were deployed in late 1970’s and
early 1980's, being a wholly analogue network,
providing voice calls. Some of the most successful 1G
system is Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) System and
Advance Mobile Phone System (AMPS)[3].
1) Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) System
This system was developed in Europe in 1981. The
two variants of NMT are: NMT-450 and NMT-900.
The numbers indicate the frequency bands uses. NMT-
900 was introduced in 1986 because it carries more
channels than the previous NMT-450 network.
2) Advance Mobile Phone System (AMPS)
This system was developed by U.S. Federal
Communications commission in 1983 and allocated 666
duplex channels with 40 MHZ of spectrum in the 800
126
MHZ band and each channel have a one way bandwidth
of 30 KHZ for each duplex channel for the U.S. AMPS.
B. Second Generation (2G)
Mobile networks was superseded in the 1990s,
(GSM, initially Group Special Mobile later changing
name to Global System for Mobile Communications)
which being digital along with voice it introduced
everyone to text messaging (SMS, Short Message
Service). 2G technologies can be divided into TDMA-
based and CDMA based standards depending on the
type of multiplexing used [2,6]. The main 2G standards
are:
1. GSM (TDMA-based), originally from Europe
but used in almost all countries on all six
inhabited continents. Today, it accounts for
over 80% of all subscribers around the world.
Over 60 GSM operators are also using
CDMA2000 in the 450 MHz frequency band
(CDMA450).
2. IS-95 aka cdmaOne (CDMA-based, commonly
referred as simply CDMA in the US), used in
the Americas and parts of Asia. Today, it
accounts for about 17% of all subscribers
globally. Over a dozen CDMA operators have
migrated to GSM.
3. PDC (TDMA-based), used exclusively in
Japan.
4. iDEN (TDMA-based), proprietary network
used by Nextel in the US and Telus Mobility
in Canada.
5. IS-136 aka D-AMPS (TDMA-based,
commonly referred as simply 'TDMA' in the
US), was once prevalent in the Americas but
most have migrated to GSM.
C. Second and a Half Generation (2.5G)
Is used to describe 2G-systems that have
implemented a packet-switched domain in addition to
the circuit-switched domain. It does not necessarily
provide faster services because bundling of timeslots is
used for circuit-switched data services (HSCSD) as
well.
The first major step in the evolution of GSM
networks to 3G occurred with the introduction of
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). CDMA2000
networks similarly evolved through the introduction of
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2

1x1RTT. The combination of these capabilities came to
be known as 2.5G.
D. Third Generation (3G)
Mobile telecommunication is a generation of
standards for mobile phones and mobile
telecommunication services fulfill the International
Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000)
specifications by the International telecommunication
Union. Application services include wide-area wireless
voice telephone, mobile Internet access, video calls and
mobile TV, all in a mobile environment [3,4].
To meet the IMT-2000 standards, a system is
required to provide peak data rates of at least 200 kbit/s
(about 0.2 Mbit/s).
The following standards are typically branded 3G:
1. The UMTS system, first offered in 2001,
standardized by 3GPP, used primarily in
Europe, Japan, China (however with a
different radio interface) and other regions
predominated by GSM 2G system
infrastructure. The cell phones are typically
UMTS and GSM hybrids. Several radio
interfaces are offered, sharing the same
infrastructure:
2. The original and most widespread radio
interface is called W-CDMA.
3. The TD-SCDMA radio interface was
commercialized in 2009 and is only offered in
China.
4. The latest UMTS release, HSPA+, can provide
peak data rates up to 56 Mbit/s in the downlink
in theory (28 Mbit/s in existing services) and
22 Mbit/s in the uplink.
5. The CDMA2000 system, first offered in 2002,
standardized by 3GPP2, used especially in
North America and South Korea, sharing
infrastructure with the IS-95 2G standard. The
cell phones are typically CDMA2000 and IS-
95 hybrids. The latest release EVDO Rev B
offers peak rates of 14.7 Mbit/s downstream.
E. Limitations of 3G
1. It is difficult to extend to higher data rate in
CDMA.
2. It is difficult to provide a full range of multi-
rate services and not a fully integrated System.
3. There is also a propagation problem in CDMA;
it may not work in a multi path systems from
private to public and indoor to wide area
[9,17].
II. 4G TECHNOLOGY
In telecommunications, 4G is the fourth generation
of cellular wireless standards. It is a successor to the 3G
and 2G families of standards. In 2009, the ITU-R
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 127
Survey on 4G Technology and its Applications
organization specified the IMT-Advanced (International
Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) requirements
for 4G standards, setting peak speed requirements for
4G service at 100 Mbit/s for high mobility
communication (such as from trains and cars) and 1
Gbit/s for low mobility communication (such as
pedestrians and stationary users)[10,11].
A 4G system is expected to provide a
comprehensive and secure all-IP based mobile
broadband solution to laptop, computer, wireless
modems, smartphones, and other mobile devices.
Facilities such as ultra-broadband Internet access, IP
telephony, gaming services, and streamed multimedia
may be provided to users.
IMT-Advanced compliant versions of LTE and
WiMAX are under development and called "LTE-
Advanced" and "Wireless MAN-Advanced"
respectively. ITU has decided that LTE Advanced and
Wireless MAN-Advanced should be accorded the
official designation of IMT-Advanced. On December 6,
2010, ITU recognized that current versions of LTE,
WiMAX and other evolved 3G technologies that do not
fulfill "IMT-Advanced" requirements could
nevertheless be considered "4G", provided they
represent forerunners to IMT-Advanced and "a
substantial level of improvement in performance and
capabilities with respect to the initial third generation
systems now deployed"HYPERLINK \l "cite_note-
ITUSeminar-."
A. Advanced Features of 4G Technology
Fig. 1: Evolution of Wireless Technology
• Wider mobile coverage area
• Smoother quicker handoff.
• Broader bandwidth - higher data rates
• WLAN for hot spots, an extension of 2G
and 3G.
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
• Terminal Heterogeneity and Network
Heterogeneity.
• Global roaming and inter-working between
different access technologies.
• Better scheduling and call admission control
techniques.
• User Friendliness and User Personalization.
• Support interactive multimedia, voice, video,
wireless internet and other broadband
services [12].
III. FRAMEWORK OF 4G TECHNOLOGIES
4G mobile communication system is based on full
IP network. It has load mechanism based on IP &
network maintenance and management & control of
network source based on IP. Core network is
independent of concrete wireless access network and it
can supply end-to-end IP service and can be compatible
with current core network and PSTN. Core network is
open structure and it has three properties; service,
control and transport. These properties will be different
from 3G properties [12, 9].
Fig. 2: Framework of 4G Technology
IV. 4G TECHNOLOGIES
Some of the key technologies required for 4G are
briefly described below:
A. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(OFDMA)
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(OFDM) not only provides clear advantages for
physical layer performance, but also a framework for
improving layer 2 performance by proposing an
additional degree of freedom. With OFDM, it is
possible to exploit the time domain, the space domain,
the frequency domain and even the code domain to
optimize radio channel usage [6, 7]. It ensures very
robust transmission in multi-path environments with
reduced receiver complexity. OFDM also provides a
frequency diversity gain, improving the physical layer
performance .It is also compatible with other
enhancement Technologies, such as smart antennas and
128 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
MIMO (multiple-input and multiple-output) radar
antenna. OFDM modulation can also be employed as a
multiple access technology (Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiple Access).
B. Software Defined Radio (SDR)
Software Defined Radio (SDR) benefits from
today's high processing power to develop multi-band,
multi-standard base stations and terminals. In future
terminals will adapt the air interface to the available
radio access technology. In contrast to the current
scenario, this is done by the infrastructure. Several
infrastructure gains are expected from SDR. For
example, to increase network capacity at a specific time
(e.g. during a sports event), an operator will reconfigure
its network adding several modems at a given Base
Transceiver Station (BTS). SDR makes this
reconfiguration easy. In the context of 4G systems,
SDR will become an enabler for the aggregation of
multi-standard pico/micro cells.
C. Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO)
MIMO uses signal multiplexing between multiple
transmitting antennas (space multiplex) and time or
frequency. It is well suited to OFDM, as it is possible to
process independent time symbols as soon as the
OFDM waveform is correctly designed for the channel.
This aspect of OFDM greatly simplifies processing. The
signal transmitted by m antennas is received by n
antennas. Processing of the received signals may deliver
several performance improvements range, quality of
received signal and spectrum efficiency. In principle,
MIMO is more efficient when many multiple path
signals are received. The performance in cellular
deployments is still subject to research and simulations.
However, it is generally admitted that the gain in
spectrum efficiency is directly related to the minimum
number of antennas in the link.
V. SECURITY STRATERGY OF 4G
Security is a major issue in today’s convergence
communication world. Some of the key features of 4G
security are furnished below:
1. The heterogeneity of wireless networks
complicates the security issue.
2. Dynamic reconfigurable, adaptive, and
lightweight security mechanisms should be
developed.
3. Security in wireless networks mainly involves
authentication, confidentiality, integrity and
authorization for the access of network
connectivity and QoS resources for the mobile
nodes flow.
4. AAA (Authentication Authorization Auditing)
protocols provide a framework for such
suffered especially for control plane functions
and installing security policies in the mobile
node such as encryption, decryption and
filtering[14].

A. Protocols & Modulation
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is considered to
be the evolved IP protocol for mobile systems
providing:
1. Enhanced address space
2. Security
3. Extension headers
B. Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
It has a flexible structure and can be easily
extended. Therefore, it plays a role of true multimedia
protocol that controls and transports:
1. Emails 2. Pictures
2. WEB links 4.Videos Service scripts
3. Speech 6. Multiparty sessions
C. Wideband Code Division Multiple
Accesses (WCDMA)
It is a wideband direct sequence CDMA system.
User information bits are spread over a wide bandwidth
by multiplexing. The high data bit rates (2Mbps) can be
support by use the variables Spreading factor and
Multicode Connection. The Most important feature of
WCDMA is Power Control, Particularly on uplink[15].
VI. ADAPTIVE 4G NETWORK
Future 4G network is an adaptive network. More
advances in networks are needed to keep pace with the
rapidly changing terminals and applications, as
follows[16]:
1. Smart antenna, software radio, together with
advanced base station are the key techniques to
achieve adaptability of wireless access points
to diverse terminals, i.e. to make radio systems
and air networks re-configurable.
2. Hierarchical and ubiquitous as well as overlay
cellular systems, including picocell, microcell,
macro-cell, and mage cell ones, implements
seamless network interconnection of both
symmetric and asymmetric nature, and
seamless terminal handoff of both horizontal
and vertical levels respectively.
3. Network layer hierarchical mobility
management based on Mobile IPv6 and
Cellular IP brings quick and seamless handoff
to terminals. The Mobile IPv6 also presents a
great contribution to the adaptability of
heterogeneous networks.
4. Ad hoc wireless networks are a kind of self-
deployed wireless networks to make networks
portable and adaptable, and thus dynamically
share unlicensed radio spectrum.
5. Network reconfiguration can be obtained by
the configuration of protocol stacks and
programmability of network nodes. Thus, it
can adapt convincingly to the changing
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 129
Survey on 4G Technology and its Applications
channel conditions and low or high data rate
users.
6. Miscellaneous services can be delivered
through a mixture of transmission networks
including unicast, multicast, and broadcast
network. According to the service types, e.g.\
real-time attribute, importance, bandwidth
demand, or data stream type, multiple levels of
QoS can be defined for various services.
7. Network resource can be dynamically
allocated to cope with varying traffic load,
channel condition, and service environment.
Traffic conditions will be dynamically
monitored and controlled via techniques such
as distributed and decentralized control of
network.
VII. CONCLUSION
As the history of mobile communications had
presented, legion attempts had been made to reduce a
number of technologies to a single global standard.
Projected 4G systems offer promise of a standard that
can be embraced worldwide through its key concept of
integration. Future wireless networks will need to
support diverse IP multimedia applications to allow
sharing of resources among multiple users. There must
be a low complexity of implementation and an efficient
means of negotiation between the end users and the
wireless infrastructure.
REFERENCES
[1] CWTS: Certified Wireless Technology Specialist Official Study
Guide. John Wiley and Sons, 29-Jun-2009 - Computers - 504
pages.
[2] Wireless security and privacy: best practices and design
techniques By: Tara M. Swaminatha.
[3] http://www.3gafrica.org/graphical/adminews/Whitepapers/acron
yms.pdf
[4] GSM, GPRS and edge performance: evolution towards
3G/UMTS By- Juan Melero.
[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G technology.
[6] A.B.M.Rezbaul Islam and Tae-Sun Chung Information and
computer Engineering Ajou University, Korea.
[7] Qing Xiuhua, Cheng Chuanhui and Wang Li “ ,” Department of
Mathematics and Physics Wuhan University of Science and
Engineering. Page , year, vol.
[8] Departement of Computer Science & Techonolgoy,Hubei
University Of Economics.
[9] Shih-Lian Huang,”Evolution from 3G to 4G ITN-620 enterprise
network design, July 2005 in ITNG.
[10] J. M. Pereira. "Fourth Generation: Now it is Personal!",
Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications, vol. 2, pp.
1009-1016, (2000).
[11] J. Ibrahim. "4G Features", Bechtel Telecommunications
Technical Journal, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 11-14, (2002).
[12] S. Wildstrom, AT&T’s Stephenson: the road to 4G, 2009.
[13] P. Taylor, AT&T to roll out 4G network, 2009.
[14] D. Perkins, 4G: challenges and opportunities, 2007.
[15] A. Lyle, Clear, first 4G network launched, 2009.
[16] http://www.cisco.com/networkers/nw00/pres/2307.pdf.
[17] http://www.agilent.com/cm/wireless/pdf/3G-
Seminar2001_02.pdf
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

A Study of Compact Muon Solenoid

Avinash Kumar
Department of Electronics & Communication,
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, U.P., India
e-mail: avinash001.hzb@gmail.com

Abstract—The goal of CMS experiment is to
investigate a wide range of physics, including the search
for the Higgs boson, extra dimensions, and particles that
could make up dark matter. Most of the activities at
CERN are currently directed towards operating the new
Large Hadron Collider (LHC), and the experiments for it.
Keywords: Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS), Large
Hadron Collider (LHC), Hadron Calorimeter (HCAL),
Cathode strip chambers (CSC), Electromagnetic Calorimeter
(ECAL)
be injected into the LHC.This accelerator has begun to
generate vast quantities of data, which CERN streams
to laboratories around the world for distributed
processing (making use of a specialized grid
infrastructure, the LHC Computing Grid). In April
2005, a trial successfully streamed 600 MB/s to seven
different sites across the world. If all the data generated
by theLHC is to be analyzed, then scientists must
achieve 1,800 MB/s before 2008.

I. INTRODUCTION
The European Organization for Nuclear Research,
known as CERN or Cern is an international
organization whose purpose is to operate the world's
largest lephparticysics laboratory. Established in 1954,
the organization is based in the northwest suburbs of
Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border, and has 20
European member states.The term CERN is also used to
refer to the laboratory, which employs just under 2,400
full-time employees, 1,500 part-time employees, and
hosts some 10,000 visiting scientists and engineers,
representing 608 universities and research facilities and
113 nationalities. CERN's main function is to provide
the particleaccelerators and otherinfrastructure needed
for high-energy physics research-as a result, numerous
experiments have been constructed at CERN following
international collaborations. It is also the birthplace of A. Construction of the CMS detector for LHC at
the World Wide Web. The main site atMeyrin has a CERN
large computer center containing powerful data-
processing facilities, primarily for experimental data The initial particle beams were injected into the
analysis; because of the need to make these facilities LHC August 2008.The first attempt to circulate a beam
available to researchers elsewhere, it has historically through the entire LHC was at 8:28 GMT on 10
been a major wide area networking hub. September 2008,[but the system failed because of a
faulty magnet connection, and it was stopped for repairs
II. THE LARGE HADRON COLLIDER on 19 September 2008.
At 1200 BST on Tuesday 30 March 2010 the LHC
Most of the activities at CERN are currently successfully smashed two proton particle beams
directed towards operating the new Large Hadron travelling with 3.5 TeV (trillion electron volts) of
Collider (LHC), and the experiments for it. The LHC energy, resulting in a 7 TeV event. However, this is just
represents a large-scale, worldwide scientific the start of the road toward the expected discovery of
cooperation project.The LHC tunnel is located 100 the Higgs boson. This is mainly because the amount of
meters underground, in the region between the Geneva data produced is so huge it could take up to 24 months
International Airport and the nearby Jura mountains. It to completely analyse it. When the 7 TeV experimental
uses the 27 km circumference circular tunnel previously period ended, the LHC revved up to 8 TeV (4 TeV
occupied by LEP which was closed down in November acceleration in both directions) in March 2012, and will
2000. CERN's existing PS/SPS accelerator complexes begin particle collisions at that rate in early April 2012.
will be used to pre-accelerate protons which will then At the end of 2012 the LHC will be shut down for

130 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2

 A Studyy of Compact Muon Solenoid

maintenancce for up to tw wo years, to strengthen

s the huge The ATLAS experiment, at the other side of the
magnets innside the acceelerator. It will then attemmpt to LHCC ring is desiggned with sim milar goals in
n mind, and
create 14 TeV events. In July 20122, CERN scieentists the two
t experimeents are designned to complement each
claimed too have discovvered a new sub-atomic
s paarticle otherr both to exteend reach and to provide co
orroboration
that couldd be the muuch sought after a Higgs boson
b of fiindings. CMS S and ATLAS S uses differennt technical
believed too be essential for
f formation of the Univerrse. soluttions and dessign of its detector magnet system to
achieeve the goals.
III. COMPAC
CT MUON SOLE
ENOID
C. Detector Sum
mmary
The Compact
C Muonn Solenoid (C CMS) experim ment is
one of tw wo large genneral-purposee particle phhysics CMS is desiigned as a ggeneral-purposse detector,
capaable of studyinng many aspeccts of proton collisions
c at
detectors built
b on the Large
L Hadronn Collider(LH HC) at
14 TeV,
T the centeer-of-mass eneergy of the LH HC particle
CERN in Switzerland and a France. The T goal of CMS
accelerator.
experimentt is to investtigate a wide range of phyysics,
The CMS dettector is builtt around a huge solenoid
including the search for theHigggs boson, extra magn net. This takkes the form of a cylindriical coil of
dimensionss, and particcles that coulld make up dark supeerconducting cable
c that geneerates a magnnetic field of
matter. 4 tesslas, about 100 000 timess that of the Earth. The
CMS is i 25 meters long,
l 15 meterrs in diameterr, and magn netic field is confined by a steel 'yoke'' that forms
weighs abbout 12,500 tons.[1] Appproximately 3,600 3 the bulk
b of the deetector's weigght of 12 500 tonnes. An
people, representing 1883 scientific institutes annd 38 unussual feature of the CMS detector is thatt instead of
countries, form the CM MS collaboratiion who built and being g built in-sittu undergrounnd, like the other giant
now operrate the deteector.[2] It is i located inn an detecctors of the LHHC experimennts, it was con nstructed on
undergrounnd cavern at Cessy
C in Frannce, just acrosss the the surface,
s beforre being lowwered undergro ound in 15
border from m Geneva. Inn July 2012, along
a with ATTLAS, sectiions and reassembled.
CMS discoovered a bosoon, which is very v similar to
t the It contains subsystems w which are designed
d to
Standard Model Higgss Particle. Future F researcch is meassure the ennergy and m momentum of o photons,
required too decide if thiss boson is Higggs Particle orr not. electtrons, muons, and other prroducts of thee collisions.
The innermost layer is a silicon-baseed tracker.
IV. BACKGROUND
D Surro ounding it is a scintillatingg crystal electtromagnetic
calorrimeter, whichh is itself surrrounded with a sampling
Recennt collider exxperiments suuch as the now- calorrimeter for haadrons. The traacker and the calorimetry
dismantledd Large Electrron-Positron Collider at CERN
C are compact enouugh to fit innside the CM MS Solenoid
and the (ass of October 2011) recentlly closed Tevvatron whicch generates a powerful m magnetic fielld of 3.8T.
l have provvided remarkkable insights into,
at Fermi lab Outsside the magnet are the largge muon detecctors, which
and precision tests of, the Standard Model of Paarticle are innside the return yoke of thee magnet.
Physics. However,
H a number of questions reemain
unanswered.
A priincipal conceern is the laack of any direct
d
evidence for
f the Higgs boson, the particle resuulting
from the Higgs mecchanism whhich providess an
explanationn for the masses
m of elementary partticles.
Other quuestions incclude uncerrtainties in the
mathematiccal behaviourr of the Standdard Model att high
energies, the
t lack of anny particle phhysics explannation
for dark matter
m and thhe reasons forr them balance of
matter and antimatter obbserved in the Universe.
B. Physiccs Goals
The main
m goals of thhe experimentt are:
• Too explore phyysics at the TeV
V scale.
• Too discover thee Higgs bosonn.
• Too look for evvidence of phhysics beyond the
sttandard modeel, such as suuper symmetrry, or
exxtra dimensionns.
• Too study aspectts of heavy ion collisions. The setup off the CMS. Inn the middle, under the
so-caalled barrel there is a man for scale.

agwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar,, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 131

Bha
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

(HCAL=hadron calorimeter, ECAL=electromagnetic optically clear material, ideal for stopping high energy
calorimeter) particles. Lead tungstate crystal is made primarily of
metal and is heavier than stainless steel, but with a
1) CMS by layers touch of oxygen in this crystalline form it is highly
transparent and “scintillates” when electrons and
photons pass through it. This means it produces light in
proportion to the particle’s energy. These high-density
crystals produce light in fast, short, well-defined photon
bursts that allow for a precise, fast and fairly compact
detector. It has a radiation length of χ0 = 0.89 cm, and
has a rapid light yield, with 80% of light yield within
one crossing time (25 ns). This is balanced however by
a relatively low light yield of 30 photons per MeV of
incident energy. The crystals used have a front size of
22 mm × 22 mm and a depth of 230 mm. They are set
in a matrix of carbon fiber to keep them optically
isolated, and backed by silicon avalanche photodiodes
for readout.The Hadron Calorimeter (HCAL) measures
the energy of hadrons, particles made of quarks and
gluons(for example protons, neutrons, pionsand kaons).
Layer 1–The Tracker Additionally it provides indirect measurement of the
presence of non-interacting, uncharged particles such as
neutrinos.The HCAL consists of layers of dense
material (brass or steel) interleaved with tiles of plastic
scintillators, read out via wavelength-
3) Layer 3–the hadronic calorimeter

D. The Silicon Strip Tracker of CMS

Momentum of particles is crucial in helping us to
build up a picture of events at the heart of the collision. E. Half of the Hadron Calorimeter
One method to calculate the momentum of a particle is
to track its path through a magnetic field; the more Shifting fibres by hybrid photodiodes. This
curved the path, the less momentum the particle had. combination was determined to allow the maximum
The CMS tracker records the paths taken by charged amount of absorbing material inside of the magnet coil.
particles by finding their positions at a number of key
points.
The tracker can reconstruct the paths of high-
energy muons, electrons and hadrons (particles made up
of quarks) as well as see tracks coming from the decay
of very short-lived particles such as beauty or “b
quarks” that will be used to study the differences
between matter and antimatter.
2) Layer 2–the electromagnetic calorimeter
The Electromagnetic Calorimeter (ECAL) is
designed to measure with high accuracy the energies of
electrons and photons.
The ECAL is constructed from crystals of lead
tungstate, PbWO4. This is an extremely dense but

132 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India


The Hadron Calorimeter Barrel (in the foreground,
on the yellow frame) waits to be inserted into the
superconducting magnet (the silver cylinder in the
Centre of the red magnet yoke).
The high pseudorapidity region (3.0 < |n| < 5.0) is
instrumented by the Hadronic Forward (HF) detector.
Located 11 m either side of the interaction point, this
uses a slightly different technology of steel absorbers
and quartz fibres for readout, designed to allow better
separation of particles in the congested forward region.
The HF is also used to measure the relative online
luminosity system in CMS.
The brass used in the endcaps of the HCAL used to
be Russian artillery shells
1) Layer 4–the magnet
The CMS magnet is the central device around
which the experiment is built, with a 4 Tesla magnetic
field that is 100,000 times stronger than the Earth’s.
CMS has a large solenoid magnet. This allows the
charge/mass ratio of particles to be determined from the
curved track that they follow in the magnetic field. It is
13 m long and 6 m in diameter, and its refrigerated
superconducting niobium-titanium coils were originally
intended to produce a 4 T magnetic field. The operating
field was scaled down to 3.8 T instead of the full design
strength in order to maximize longevity.
The inductance of the magnet is 14 Η and the
nominal current for 4 T is 19,500 A, giving a total
stored energy of 2.66 GJ, equivalent to about half-a-
tonne of TNT. There are dump circuits to safely
dissipate this energy should the magnet quench. The
circuit resistance (essentially just the cables from the
power converter to the cryostat) has a value of 0.1 mΩ
which leads to a circuit time constant of nearly 39
hours. This is the longest time constant of any circuit at
CERN. The operating current for 3.8 T is 18,160 A,
giving a stored energy of 2.3 GJ.
2) Layer 5–The muon detectors and return yoke
As the name “Compact Muon Solenoid” suggests,
detecting muons is one of CMS’s most important tasks.
Muons are charged particles that are just like electrons
and positrons, but are 200 times heavier. We expect
them to be produced in the decay of a number of
potential new particles; for instance, one of the clearest
"signatures" of the Higgs Boson is its decay into four
muons.
Because muons can penetrate several meters of iron
without interacting, unlike most particles they are not
stopped by any of CMS's calorimeters. Therefore,
chambers to detect muons are placed at the very edge of
the experiment where they are the only particles likely
to register a signal.
To identify muons and measure their momenta,
CMS uses three types of detector: drift tubes (DT),
cathode strip chambers (CSC) and resistive plate
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 133
A Study of Compact Muon Solenoid
chambers (RPC). The DTs are used for precise
trajectory measurements in the central barrel region,
while the CSCs are used in the end caps. The RPCs
provide a fast signal when a muon passes through the
muon detector, and are installed in both the barrel and
the end caps.
The drift tube (DT) system measures muon
positions in the barrel part of the detector. Each 4-cm-
wide tube contains a stretched wire within a gas
volume. When a muon or any charged particle passes
through the volume it knocks electrons off the atoms of
the gas. These follow the electric field ending up at the
positively-charged wire. Cathode strip chambers (CSC)
are used in the endcap disks where the magnetic field is
uneven and particle rates are high. CSCs consist of
arrays of positively-charged “anode” wires crossed with
negatively-charged copper “cathode” strips within a gas
volume. Resistive plate chambers (RPC) are fast
gaseous detectors that provide a muon trigger system
parallel with those of the DTs and CSCs. RPCs consist
of two parallel plates, a positively-charged anode and a
negatively-charged cathode, both made of a very high
resistivity plastic material and separated by a gas
volume. When a muon passes through the chamber,
electrons are knocked out of gas atoms. These electrons
in turn hit other atoms causing an avalanche of
electrons. The electrodes are transparent to the signal
(the electrons), which are instead picked up by external
metallic strips after a small but precise time delay. The
pattern of hit strips gives a quick measure of the muon
momentum, which is then used by the trigger to make
immediate decisions about whether the data are worth
keeping. RPCs combine a good spatial resolution with a
time resolution of just one nanosecond (one billionth of
a second).
A part of the Magnet Yoke, with drift tubes and
resistive-plate chambers in the barrel region.
3) CMS
The CMS detector uses a huge solenoid magnet to
bend the paths of particles from collisions in the LHC
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
(LHCThe Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) is a general-
purpose detector at the Large Hadron Collider).It is
designed to investigate a wide range of physics,
including the search for the Higgs boson, extra
dimensions, and particles that could make up dark
matter. Although it has the same scientific goals as the
ATLAS experiment, it uses different technical solutions
and a different magnet-system design.
The CMS detector is built around a huge solenoid
magnet. This takes the form of a cylindrical coil of
superconducting cable that generates a field of 4 tesla,
about 100,000 times the magnetic field of the Earth.
The field is confined by a steel “yoke” that forms the
bulk of the detector’s 12,500-tonne weight. An unusual
feature of the CMS detector is that instead of being built
in-situ like the other giant detectors of the LHC
experiments, it was constructed in 15 sections at ground
level before being lowered into an underground cavern
near Cessy in France and reassembled. The complete
detector is 21 meters long, 15 meters wide and 15
metershigh. The CMS experiment is one of the largest
international scientific collaborations in history,
involving 4300 particle physicists, engineers,
technicians, students and support staff from 179
universities and institutes in 41 countries
A quick search indicates just how eager people are
to declare that their magnet is the world's largest
without actually checking to see if anyone else has a
bigger one. Sometimes if you read the fine print, you
see things like "the world's largest magnet used for MRI
research" which is really just a subset of all the magnets
in the world.Reading our question literally, I'd say the
world itself is the world's biggest magnet. The field at
the surface of the earth is tiny, a bit less than one Gauss,
but the Earth is quite big. Even just the magnetic part,
the metallic core, is by far the biggest magnet around.
The biggest (at least in size) magnet I know of is the
superconducting solenoidal magnet of the CMS
experiment on the Large Hadron Collider at CERN in
Geneva, Switzerland. Here's a short press release about
134 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
its construction being started in the late 1990's. It has
been finished and has already been delivered to CERN.
VI. INDIAN CONTRIBUTION
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, which is the
state-owned centre of India, announced that it was
developing the largest magnet of the world. This largest
magnet would weigh 50000 tons.
The magnet is said to be much bigger than the one
which is found at Compact Muon Solenoid detector at
CERN in Geneva. This magnet will play a crucial role
in the India-based Neutrino Observatory which will
come up almost 4300 feet below the cave in the
mountain in Tamil Nadu.
The Head of the atomic research centre's nuclear
physics division announced that the magnet to be
developed by the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
would be the largest in the world in terms of its
dimensions.The magnet will be iron-based and will
weigh 50000 tons. The weight of the magnet at CERN
ranges somewhere between 4000 and 5000 tons.
V. CONCLUSION
CMS (Compact Muon Solenoid) and study about
the different Layers of CMS.CERN's main function is
to provide the particle accelerators and other
infrastructure needed for high-energy physics research-
as a result, numerous experiments have been
constructed at CERN following international
collaborations. It is also the birthplace of the
World Wide Web.
CMS is designed as a general-purpose detector,
capable of studying many aspects of proton collisions at
14 TeV, the center-of-mass energy of the LHC particle
accelerator.
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[29] State”. CERN press release. CERN. Retrieved 5 October 2012.
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Unleashes Rampaging Zombies". Retrieved 22 November 2012
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Fabrication & Characterization

of Graphite/ Epoxy Composites
Meenakshi Arya1, Harish Kumar2, M.G.H. Zaidi3 and Alkesh Chauhan3
1
Department of Physics, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, Haryana
2
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, India
3
Department of Chemistry, Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
Pantnagar, Uttarakhand
E-mail: 1meenu3388@gmail.com, 2mgh_zaidi@yahoo.com, 3chauhan.a89@gmail.com

Abstract—In this paper the Graphite epoxy
composites which is formed by very large number of
stacked graphene monolayer & through ultrasonic
assisted dispersion of graphite nanoparticles (500 nm) at
various concentrations ranging 1.5 to 4.5wt% into
commercially available epoxy resin (DGEBA(CY-230)),
under heating at 900C and curing with commercially
available amine hardener HY-951 (10wt%) at 400C. The
fabricated nano composites were characterized by UV-
visible spectroscopy in N-methyl pyrolidone
suspension/dispersion, scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) and four probes electrical conductivity at room
temperature. A UV-vis spectrum reveals a common
absorption at 277 nm that gets intensified with increase in
concentration of the graphite nanoparticles, indicating the
physical attachment of graphite with epoxy matrix. SEM
data reveals the formation of a uniformly dispersed
graphite nanoparticles into epoxy at 1.5wt% and onwards.
Graphene has shown proven result as an emblematic
protagonist, seeming to answer many need, characterized
by superior electrical & mechanical performance.
Keywords: Graphite; epoxy resin; hardener HY-951; N-
Methyl-2-pyrrolidone; Graphite-epoxy composite electrode
I. INTRODUCTION
Graphite/epoxy composites are increasingly being
used for the fabrication of aircraft and spacecraft &
microwave applications because of their low density
and their exceptionally high strength and modulus.
They are replacing metals, such as aluminum (Al)
alloys, which have poorer mechanical properties and
higher densities. However, the replacement of metals in
many electrical applications has proven to be difficult
because the resistivity of graphite/epoxy composites is
typically three orders of magnitude higher than that of
the metals they replace [1]. Up to now, studies on
graphite/epoxy-based composites have been focused
mainly on some polymer matrices such as poly-methyl
methacrylate (PMMA) [2–4] and polystyrene [5–7].
Graphite fiber/polymer resin composites can
provide the required mechanical and physical properties
[8]. Epoxy resin has developed rapidly since it was
invented, and has been widely used in practical
applications. The most important and industrialized
epoxy is bisphenol A, which is derived from
epichlorohydrin and consists of glycidol and hydroxyl
groups with ether bond on the main chain. It is widely
used in adhesive, electronic and coating industries due
to the small volume shrinkage in curing and outstanding
electrical performance. In the aerospace industry,
bisphenol A is commonly used as a primer matrix on
aluminium alloy 2024-T3 for protecting the surface of
aircraft [3]. The incorporation of various reinforced
nanosized phases into the epoxy, such as graphite
nanofiber, carbon nanotubes, nanoclays, cellulose nano
fiber and nano alumina resin, is one of the most
effective ways to improve the properties of the epoxy
[9–11]. The efficiency of nano additives for UV
protection depends upon a number of parameters. Size
of the particles is one of the most important factors. On
incorporation of inorganic oxides into the epoxy matrix,
the UV absorption of nano sized particles was reported
to be much stronger than that of micro sized ones. In
addition, nanoparticles with smaller size lead to higher
transparency and better UV protection. A reduction of
the refractive index is also beneficial to UV protection.
While concentration and film thickness also affect the
transparency, the UV protection qualities of a number
of nano sized additive absorbers were compared [12]. It
is expected that the Graphite nanoparticles would
enhance the UV absorption properties of the resulting
nano composite thin films.
II. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
The synthesis of Graphite/Epoxy nano composite
was executed as follows:
For the synthesis of Graphite/Epoxy composites,
the graphite powder (1.5 ~ 4.5wt %) was sonicated with
the diglycidyl ether of Bisphenol A (Epoxy) for 30
minutes. Then the contents were heated at 900C
followed by cooling at 400C and then cured with tri-
ethylene tetra mine (HY-951) TETA in the form of
panels. Then the composites were post cured for 5 hours
at 60-700C in oven. Similarly Epoxy was cured with
TETA under identical reaction condition in absence of
graphite powder and treated as a control.

136 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2

 Fabrication & Characterization of Graphite/ Epoxy Composites

III. UV SPECTRA OF EPOXY/ GRAPHITE COMPOSITES natural graphite in epoxy resin was conducted by high
speed mixer through ultra-sonic bath sonicator with
The study of ultra-violet spectra of the
frequency above 18 kHz (18,000 cycles per second).
graphite/epoxy composites is described below. In this
The graphite epoxy adjournment was poured into the
experiment the graphite/epoxy composite powders at
mold and compression molding was conducted for
the different concentrations (1.5 ~ 4.5wt%) were
fabrication of graphite epoxy composites. The
sonicated with the N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone in an
conductivities of graphite/epoxy composites at different
ultrasonic probe which is used for speed dissolution, by
concentrations are shown in figure 2. Figure 3 shows
breaking intermolecular interactions between the
the I-V characteristics of the composites. Electrical
composite powder & N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone for 60
conductivity was measured by four point probe method.
minutes for achieving proper mixing and then the
Results reveal that non-conductive epoxy polymer
contents were prepared for ultra-violet spectra analysis.
becomes conductive on addition of graphite. The
UV spectra of graphite/epoxy composites are observed
electrical conductivity increases with increase in the
at the room temperature (250C) with UV/Visible
percentage of graphite in the epoxy resin. But, in this
Scanning Spectrophotometer which included single-
experiment it has been observed that graphite/epoxy
and six-cell cuvette holders which can accommodate
composite of 1.5wt% has threshold point at which there
10-mm square cuvettes. Firstly the solution (4µL) of
are sufficient electrons to make a low resistance
graphite/epoxy composite powder & N-Methyl-2-
conducting path. It means that the electrical
pyrrolidine was put into a single-position cell in the six-
conductivity increased for composition of composition
position cell holder of the UV/visible scanning
up to 1.5wt% after that it decreased and we discuss the
Spectrometer through the Micropipette. The ratio of
temperature dependence properties of two compositions
solution between the N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidine &
in the Sr-Fe-Co-O systems, named as SFC.
graphite/epoxy composite powder was 3:1 with
SFC ≈9.99349×3E-5 S/m of epoxy
different concentration of graphite (1.5 ~ 4.5wt %) in
SFC ≈9.99365×3E-5 S/m of 1.5wt%
the epoxy resin. The UV absorption peaks and the
SFC ≈9.99361×3E-5 S/m of 3.0wt%
absorption edges of the studied composites were
SFC ≈ 9.99356×3E-5 S/m of 4.5wt%
observed in the UV-Vis absorption spectra at room
temperature. In the following Figure: 1, a strong
absorbance peak located around 277 nm. In UV Spectra
analysis, the 4.5wt% graphite/epoxy composite has the
maximum absorbance edge & this shows that the
highest absorbance intensity peak is observed at highest
concentration of graphite.
TABLE 1
Polymer/ Wavelength(λ) Absorbance
Composites in nm Units
Epoxy 277 0.131 Fig. 2: Measurement of Electrical Conductivity
1.5wt% 277 0.141
3.0wt% 277 0.171
4.5wt% 277 0.252

Fig. 1: UV-visible Absorption Spectra

IV. MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

This study examines the electrical conductivity of
the graphite epoxy composites. The different
concentrations (1.5 ~ 4.5wt %) of graphite were added
into the epoxy resin (CY-230). The dispersion of Fig. 3: I-V Characteristics

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 137

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
V. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY OF GRAPHITE/
EPOXY COMPOSITES AT DIFFERENT PERCENTAGES
The distribution of graphite particles in the epoxy
resin were examined using a scanning electron
microscope (SEM). In the following SEM testing, the
fracture surfaces were examined using the JSM-
6610LV which is a scanning electron microscope
(SEM) to identify image and analyze a wide range of
conducting and non-conducting (Epoxy) samples. The
fracture surfaces were gold coated prior to SEM
investigation to avoid charging and were examined at
10 kV accelerating voltage. Since graphite is
conductive, the particles could also be examined at 10
kV accelerating voltage without gold coating. The
following images were observed at different
magnification (1000x, 2700x, 5500x) & different
resolution (2µm, 5µm, 10µm). In the following figure 4,
the SEM images reveal the formation of a uniformly
dispersed graphite nanoparticles at the different
concentration (1.5wt%, 3.0wt% & 4.5wt %) into epoxy
resin.
Fig. 4: SEM Micrographs Revealing Fracture Surfaces
with 1.5wt%, 3.0wt% and 4.5wt%
VI. CONCLUSION
Graphene nanoelectronics is emerging area of
research & many new applications in the area of
138 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
nanoelectronics, nanooptics and solid state physics the
various epoxy/graphite particulate composites were
prepared with different particulate fractions and were
characterized for the electrical conductivity, UV
spectra, and morphological properties. In electrical
conductivity experiment, it has been observed that the
graphite/epoxy composite of 1.5wt% has the maximum
conductivity at which there is sufficient electrons to
make a low resistance conducting path. It means that
highest conductivity is measured at 1.5wt%. In U V
Spectra analysis, the 4.5wt% graphite/epoxy composite
showed the maximum absorbance intensity. So it
demonstrates that, as the concentration of graphite
increases, the UV absorbance increases. SEM data
reveals the formation of a uniformly dispersed graphite
nanoparticles into epoxy. The SEM images reveal a
proper mixing of graphite at 1.5wt%, 3.0wt% & 4.5wt%
into epoxy resin.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors would like to thank for support from
providing facility (Dr. Jamil Akhtar Scientist G, Mr.
William Ringal Taube N. & Dr. Sanjeev kumar Gupta,)
CSIR-Central Electronics Engineering Research
Institute Pilani India
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Composites. MELD-200, Sci. Res. Counc. (British), June 1970.
[9] Shi H, Liu F, Yang L and Han E 2008 Prog. Org. Coat. 62 359
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 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

TRACK III
SIGNAL PROCESSING AND PATTERN RECOGNITION

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 1
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 2
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Signal Generation by Direct Digital Synthesis

for Testing Fast Response System for
Eddy Current Flowmeter
Poornapushpakala S.1, Gomathy C.2, Sylvia J.I.3 and Babu B.3
1
Research Scholar, Dept. of Electronics & Control Engg.,
Sathyabama University, Chennai, India
2
Prof. & Head, Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engg.,
SRM University, City Campus, Chennai, India
3
Fast Reactor Technology Group,
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam, India
e-mail: 1poornapushpakalas@gmail.com, 2cgomathy@yahoo.co.uk

Abstract—Eddy current flowmeters are developed for
measuring the sodium flow rate in the outlet of the
primary sodium pump used in sodium cooled fast breeder
reactor. A fast response system is developed for enhancing
the measurement of Eddy current flowmeter in
monitoring the flowrate. To characterize the performance
of the developed system various types of test signals are
generated which will resemble the actual signal from Eddy
current flowmeter. This paper deals with the generation of
the various types of such signals by direct digital synthesis
method using Programmable system on chip
microcontroller. In addition the performance of the
developed fast response system was tested using the
generated signals.
Keywords: Direct digital Synthesis; Eddy current;
PSoC; Signal generation; sinusoidal signal
I. INTRODUCTION
Signal generators generally have an electronic
oscillator which are capable of creating repetitive
waveforms such as
sinusoidal,triangular,sawtooth,square etc.,. Modern
devices use digital signal processors to synthesize such
waveforms followed by digital to analog converter to
produce the analog output. Arbitrary waveform
generators (AWG) are another type of signal generators
which produce arbitrary waveforms. AWGs are more
expensive than simple signal generators and also have
limited bandwidth.
Direct Digital Synthesizer (DDS) is a type of
frequency synthesizer used for creating arbitrary
waveforms by generating a time-varying signal in
digital form by the use of phase accumulator, storing it
in a ROM and then performing a digital-to-analog
conversion. Following this the signal is passed through
a filter for smoothing the generated signal [1-3]. DDS
uses Taylor series method or lookup table for
generation of signals [4,5].DDS are superior over
analog signal generators for their compactness and
lower power consumption. DDS are manufactured
using CMOS and FPGA implementation [6,7].
According to a survey conducted on DDS for
generating sine wave, each method requires specific
memory and significant additional circuitry [1]. In this
paper a method for producing sine wave and arbitrary
waves using PSoC microcontroller for a specific
application is discussed and it eliminates additional
circuitry.
II. DESCRIPTION OF EDDY CURRENT FLOWMETER
The Eddycurrent flowmeter (ECFM) consists of
one primary and two secondary coils placed
symmetrically one in upstream side and other in
downstream side of primary. The primary coil is excited
by a constant current of 200mA with a frequency of
400Hz [8,9]. All the three coils are wound over the
bobbin made of magnetic material and are encapsulated
in stainless steel pocket to maintain physical separation
of flowing fluid with primary and secondary coils.
ECFM works on the principle of change in the magnetic
field due to induced eddy currents as a result of sodium
flow [8-13].When ECFM sensor is placed in a pipe
filled with static sodium and if primary coil is excited,
then equal transformer voltage is generated in both the
secondary because of equal flux linkage due to
symmetry. If these two secondary coils are connected in
phase opposition, the resultant output voltage is zero. If
the primary excited ECFM is placed in flowing sodium,
then voltage is induced in both the secondary due to
motion of the flowing sodium in addition to the
transformer voltage [12-14]. The outputs of the ECFM
secondary signals are sinusoidal in nature at a frequency
of excitation (400Hz). Figure 1 shows the schematic of
ECFM sensor.
S2 = Etrans + Emotion (1)
S1 = Etrans - Emotion (2)
Etrans represents the component of voltage due to
transformer action and Emotion represents the component
of voltage due to motion induced voltage [13,15].

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 141

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
Equation (1) and (2) represents the secondary voltages
of ECFM sensor.
III. DESCRIPTION OF FAST RESPONSE SYSTEM
The fast response electronics has a signal
conditioning unit, Programmable System on Chip
(PSoC) microcontroller unit and display unit in addition
to a graphical monitoring system [16,17]. Figure 2
shows the Block diagram representation of the
developed fast response system for ECFM. The signal
conditioning unit has Instrumentation amplifier,
Isolation amplifier, bandpass filter and True RMS to
DC converter. Microcontroller unit has PSoC 3
processor whose hardware design includes 16 bit delta
sigma ADC, Multiplexer, Timer,key module,LCD
module and UART.In in addition the microcontroller
unit has decoder for the key interface.
IV. DESIGN REQUIREMENT
The nature of ECFM signal is sinusoidal at a
frequency of 400 Hz. The performance of the fast
response system at each stage of the signal conditioning
circuit can be determined by giving a sinusoidal signal
at 400Hz.The actual signal from the ECFM sensor
secondary coils are in the range of (0 to 100mV). So a
variable voltage sinusoidal signal needs to be generated
for testing the performance. Similarly the response time
of the system can be identified by giving a burst of
signal with varying amplitude. The following sections
describes the generation of different types of signals
using PSoC Microcontroller by the method of lookup
table.
Fig. 1: Schematic of ECFM Sensor
A. Hardware Design
The hardware consists of the PSoC 1 CY8C29466
processor and the 5 V power supply designed for
powering the processor. Using programming the circuit
142 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
is made to generate 2V signal. Figure 3 depicts the
circuit diagram of the signal generator including PSoC
processor. Since the original ECFM signal is in
millivolts range,,the generated 2V signal is fed to a
potential divider arrangement which converts this 2V
signal in to millivolts range. The output of the potential
dividers provides voltage ranges between (0 to 198mV)
and (0 to 360mV). These two signals that immitate the
secondary voltages of ECFM sensors, is given to each
channel of the signal conditioning circuit for testing.
B. Microcontroller Design
Figure 4 shows the hardware design of PSoC for
generating the test signal. The PSoC microcontroller
has programmable analog and digital blocks along with
programmable interconnect which enable the user to do
application specific design. This work uses 8 bit Digital
to Analog Converter (DAC) and 16-bit timer for
generating the test signal. The sinusoidal signal is
generated with an incremental angle of 15°.Since the
DAC maximum count is 255, the generation is made by
taking 128 as mid value. The corresponding calculation
for signal generation and lookup table is given in table
I. The phase angle values are rounded to integer and an
array of 24 values is created representing the phase
value of the signal [18], as shown in equation (3). The
signal should have a frequency of 400Hz; hence a timer
of 104µs is configured to produce a frequency of 400Hz
with 24 steps according to equation (4) & (5). The timer
period is set according to the equation (6).
Step value =
[128,161,192,218,238,251,254,251,238,218,192,161,12
8,95,64,38,18,5,0,5,18,38,64,95] (3)
= 24 × 400 = 9600 (4)
= = 104µs (5)
=
× (6)
Two switches are provided for selecting the type of
test signals. Based on the selection, the generations of
signal are made as per the algorithm described in
section V.
Signal from Signal Conditioning
Secondary S1 Circuit P
S
o
C Display
Signal from Signal Conditioning
Secondary S2 Circuit
Fig. 2: Schematic Representation of the Fast Response System for
Eddycurrent Flowmeter
 Signal Generation by Direct Digital Synthesis for Testing Fast Response System for Eddy Current Flowmeter

TABLE 1: LOOK UP TABLE

A = Angle sin(A) x=128*sin(A) y = x+128 A = Angle sin(A) x=128*sin(A) y = x+128
0 0 0 128 180 0 0 128
15 0.258 33.024 161.024 195 -0.258 -33.024 94.976
30 0.5 64 192 210 -0.5 -64 64
45 0.707 90.496 218.496 225 -0.707 -90.496 37.504
60 0.866 110.848 238.848 240 -0.866 -110.848 17.152
75 0.965 123.52 251.52 255 -0.956 -122.368 5.632
90 1 128 256 270 -1 -128 0
105 0.956 122.368 250.368 285 -0.956 -122.368 5.632
120 0.866 110.848 238.848 300 -0.866 -110.848 17.152
135 0.707 90.496 218.496 315 -0.707 -90.496 37.504
150 0.5 64 192 330 -0.5 -64 64
165 0.258 33.024 161.024 345 -0.258 -33.024 94.976

Fig. 3: Circuit Diagram of the Signal Generator

Fig. 4: Screenshot of PSoC Design

V. ALGORITHM • Repeat the loop continuously

A. Main Program B. Timer Interrupt Service Routine
• Enable Global Interrupt 1. Generation of Sinusoidal Signal (If Switch 1
• Enable Timer AND 2 ON)
• Start Timer • Initialize array with 24 steps
• Start DAC • Write array value to DAC repeatedly
• Scan Switch 1 and 2

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 143

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
2. Generation of Sinusoidal Burst of Signal (If
Switch 1 OR Switch 2 in ON)
• For the period of 100ms, a value of 180 is
passed to the DAC.
• For the period of next 100ms, the array
value is passed.
• These two value are passed alternately
3. Generation of Square Burst of Signal (If
Switch 1 AND Switch 2 is OFF)
• For the period of 100ms, a value of 0 is
passed to the DAC.
• For the period of next 100ms, a value of
254 is passed to the DAC.
• These two value are passed alternately
VI. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Figure 5 shows the output of the generated
sinusoidal signal. This signal is given to the signal
conditioning unit and the output at each stage of the
signal conditioning circuit is verified with the
theoretical output. Figure 6 and 7 shows the response of
the fast response system for the generated burst of
sinusoidal signal and burst of square signal respectively.
This depicts how fast the system respond to changes in
the magnitude which enables us to predict the
performance of the system for actual sodium flow in
terms of rise time and settling time.
Fig. 5: Generated Sinusoidal Signal using PSoC Microcontroller
Fig. 6: Response of Fast Response System for Sinusoidal
Burst of Signal
144 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
Fig. 7: Response of Fast Response System for Square Burst of Signal
VII. CONCLUSION
ECFM is developed for measuring the flow of
sodium in the outlet of the fuel subassemblies in
prototype fast breeder reactors. The fast response
system developed for enhancing the performance of
ECFM in monitoring the sodium flowrate involves
PSoC microcontroller for its processing. The signal
generated by the method of direct digital synthesis for
testing the developed fast response system also use
PSoC microcontroller for compatibility. The test signal
thus generated is given to the developed fast response
system and the output at each stage of the signal
conditioning circuit is compared with the theoretical
value and found to have close agreement. The signal
generation can be refined by increasing the number of
step value and with use of filter for smoothening.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by Indira Gandhi Centre
for Atomic Research, Department of Atomic Energy,
Kalpakkam, India. The Authors are thankful for the
support extended by the Director of IGCAR and all the
scientists of FRTG, IGCAR, Kalpakkam.
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[1] Kenneth A. Essenwanger, Victor S. Reinhardt “Sine Output
DDSs A Survey of the State of The Art”, IEEE International
Frequency Control Symposium (1998)
[2] Snigdha Madhab Ghosh, Anindya Sundar Dhar, Sunandan
Bhunia, Direct digital frequency synthesizer design with
modified parabolic method, International Journal of Soft
Computing and Engineering (IJSCE), ISSN: 2231-2307,
1(6),2012:149-152.
[3] Paul O’Leary and Franco Maloberti, A Direct digital synthesizer
with improved spectral performance, IEEE transactions on
communications, 39 (7)1991:1046-1048
[4] K. Hariharan, E. Benitta Hubert, K. V. O. Divyalakshmi, K.
Shamalla and V. Abhai Kumar Coherent Sinusoid Generation
using Novel DDFS Architecture, International Journal of Smart
Home,6(1),2012.
[5] Maher Jridi, Ayman Alfalou, ‘Direct Digital frequency
synthesizer with CORDIC algorithm and Taylor series
approximation for digital receivers,European Journal of
Scientific Research, ISSN 1450 – 216X,30(4),2009:542-553.
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[6] Daniel Rairigh, Xiaowen Liu, Chao Yang and Andrew J.
Mason, Sinusoid Signal Generator for On-chip Impedance
Spectroscopy IEEE, 978-1-4244-3828-0/09,Pg.No: 1961-1964
[7] Bindiya Kamboj and Rajesh Mehra, Efficient FPGA
Implementation of Direct Digital Frequency Synthesizer for
Software Radios, International Journal of Computer
Applications (0975 – 8887), Volume 37– No.10, January 2012
[8] Veerasamy.R,Asokane.C,Narayanan.K,Dhanasekaran.R,Swami
nathan.K and Prabhakar.R. Eddy current flowmeter for incore
flow measurement in fast reactors. 8th National seminar on
Physics Technology of sensors (NSTPS-8) in Feb.2001 at
IGCAR,Kalpakkam.
[9] Veerasamy R., Sureshkumar S., Asokane C., Sivakumar N.S,
Padmakumar G., Dash S.K., Sreedhar B.K., Chandramouli S.,
Gurumoorthi K. and Vaidyanathan G. - Eddy Current Flow
Sensor Development And Testing For LMFBR Sodium Pumps,
15th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering Nagoya,
Japan, April22-26,2007,ICONE15-10213.
[10] David E.Wiegand - Summary of an Analysis of the Eddy current
flowmeter. IEEE Transaction on Nuclear Sciences Vol 15,Issue
1 February 1968.doi:10.1109/TNS.1968.4324826
[11] David E. Wiegand & Charles W. Michels. Performance tests on
an eddy-current flowmeter’, IEEE Transactions on Nuclear
Science,16(1), 1969:192-195.doi: 10.1109/TNS.1969.4325106
[12] Prashant Sharma, S.K.Dash, B.K.Nashine, S. Suresh Kumar, R.
Veerasamy,B. Krishnakumar, P. Kalyanasundaram, G.
Vaidyanathan. Performance Prediction of Eddy Current
Flowmeter for Sodium. In Proceedings of the COMSOL
Conference 2009 Bangalore.
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[13] Prashant Sharma, S.Suresh Kumar, B.K.Nashine, R. Veerasamy,
B. Krishnakumar, P. Kalyanasundaram, G. Vaidyanathan.
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sodium of an eddy current flowmeter.,Annals of Nuclear Energy
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2009.12.009
[14] Poornapushpakala.S,Gomathy.C,
SylviaJ.I,Krishnakumar.B,Kalyanasundaram.P - Eddy Current
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[15] Dohi, A., Oda, M., Iida, S., 1976. Development of an in-core
flow meter for the LMFBR. In: Proceedings of International
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Pennsylvania, pp. 796–801.
[16] Poornapushpakala.S,Gomathy.C,SylviaJ.I,Krishnakumar.B,Kaly
anasundaram.P - Design of Fast Response Electronics for Eddy
Current Flowmeter. In the proceedings of 7th International
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Automation TIMA - 2011, January 6-8,2011,pp.299-303.
[17] Poornapushpakala.S,Gomathy.C- Design, development and
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International Journal on Intelligent Electronic Systems
(IJIES),6(1),2012,24-30.
[18] Designer’s Guide to the Cypress PSoC by Robert
Ashby,Newnes Publication,2005.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Harbinger Irregularities into AdaBoost for

Concentrated Realization on Noisy Data
Arjun Arora1, Suneet Kumar2, Ankit Choudhary3 and Rashi Malhotra4
1
Assistant Professor, DIT, Dehradun
2
Associate Professor, DIT, Dehradun
3
Graduate Engg Trainer, L&T Infotech, Bangalore
4
Research Scholars, RGEC, Meerut
e-mail: arjunarora06dit@gmail.com, 2suneetcit81@gmail.com,
1
3
ankitchoudhary90@hotmail.com, 4rashi7malhotra@gmail.com

Abstract—AdaBoost is a well-known ensemble
learningalgorithm that generates weak classifiers
sequentially and then combines them into a strong one.
Also it shows its resistance to overfitting in low noise data
cases, a lot of experiments [2,3,4] have shown that it is
quite sensitive on noisy data. Several modifications to
AdaBoost have been proposed to deal with noisy data.
Bagging and Random forests have shown their resistance
to noisy data which could be explained partially by their
irregularities. We study on introducing irregularities into
AdaBoost and propose a method called TRandom-
AdaBoost which domains AdaBoost on both low and high
noise dataset. We conjecture that the success of the
proposed method could be explained by regarding it as a
Random Forest with an ergodic sequence of weighted base
hypotheses where the weights are generated by the
technique used in AdaBoost.
Keywords-AdaBoost; Random forests; noise;
overfitting; concentrated; Artificial Intelligence; Machine
Learning; Computational Intelligence
I. INTRODUCTION
The goal of ensemble learning methods is to
construct a strong classifier (or hypothesis) which is a
collection of classifiers that generated sequentially.
Their effectiveness relies on the strength of the base
learning algorithm and the ability to generate
distribution based on the training set to simulate the real
instance space. AdaBoost [1] is a well-known ensemble
classifier learning algorithms. It generates weak
classifier in each iteration by calling the weak learning
algorithm with a training set weighted based on
previous classification errors. It increases the weights of
examples that the previous classifier did not classify
correctly. Due to its weight update technique, AdaBoost
tends to assign much higher weight to noisy instances,
which are inconsistent with the majority of examples,
and this is more serious in its later iterations [3].
Several previous studies have focused on exploring the
realization of ensemble methods in the presence of
noise. Opitz and Maclin [2] illustrated the overfitting
problem of AdaBoost by a simple experiment. Jiang [8]
has studied the theoretical aspects of boosting on noisy
data. Oza [9] proposed an approach called AveBoost2
to smooth noise. Kalai and Servedio [12] present a new
boosting algorithm and prove that it can attain arbitrary
accuracy when classification noise is present. An
algorithm, Smooth Boosting [13], is proven to tolerate a
combination of classification and feature noise. The
data distribution skewness is penalized in the learning
process to prevent several hardest examples from
spoiling decision boundaries in [7]. Some other works
focus on moving the noisy data from the training set
[10, 11].
II. RANDOM-ADABOOST
Bagging [6] works by making bootstrap replicate
randomly from the training set and using this as a new
sub-training set. Random forests [5] are a combination
of tree predictors such that each tree depends on the
values of a random vector sampled independently and
identically distributed for all trees in the forest. Bagging
and Random forests have shown their concentration to
noise which can be explained partially by the
irregularities in the weak classifier generating
procedure. In this paper we harbinger the idea of
irregularities into AdaBoost and propose a new
algorithm, which we call TRandom-AdaBoost.
Experiments show that the proposed method is superior
to AdaBoost on both low and high noise dataset and is
also resist to overfit. We state from an algorithm called
Random-AdaBoost, inwhich the sub-optimal classifier
is selected instead of thebest one as in the original
AdaBoost. The algorithm is proposed below.
• Given Training set (xm, ym), m=1,2,….,m. xi∈
X
yi∈ { -1, +1}
Set the Irregularities Level r.
Start with distribution Dl(i)= 1/m;
• For t= 1,….T:
Train weak learner using distribution D t and
get a hypothesis set {h t}
Get a hypothesis randomly from the best r
percent of the set: h t: X→R
Choose ∈ R.

146 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2

 Harbinger Irregularities into AdaBoost for Concentrated Realization on Noisy Data

Update:
() ( ( )
( )=
Where Zt is a normalization factor (chosen
such that Dt+1 will be distribution).
• Output the final hypothesis:
H(x)= sign(∑ ℎ ( ))
Algorithm I. Random Adaboost
The main difference between Random-AdaBoost
and the original AdaBoost is the new harbingerd
parameter r which is used to denote irregularities level.
In each iteration a hypothesis is selected randomly from
the best r percent of the hypothesis set. Later, this
Fig. 1: Test Error of Adaboost and Random-AdaBoost, Indicated by
parameter will be discussed jointly with noise level and Solid Line and Dashed Line Respectively, on Different Iteration
the number of the iterations. Numbers. The Horizontal Axis Indicates Noise Level Which Varies
Dietterich [3] harbingerd a method Randomization from 0 to 30 and the Vertical Axis Indicates the test Error. The
to grow the tree where at each node the split is selected Randomness Level is Fixed to 30
at random from among the K best splits. This method B. TRandom-AdaBoost
was used to improve the realization of the decision tree
algorithm C4.5 on noisy data. Their idea is similar to Random forests [5], proposed by Breiman, are a
ours but they didn’t harbinger the idea of irregularities combination of tree predictors in which a random
into AdaBoost. selection of features is used to split each node. Similar
to random forests, Random-AdaBoost selects weak
III. EXPERIMENTS classifier totally in random when irregularities level is
up to 100. But to the different, Random-AdaBoost still
In this part, experiments are implemented on remains the weighted ensemble technique to generate a
dataset “ionosphere” which is a binary problem with sequence of weightsw1,w2,…,wt on the hypotheses.
351 samples and 34 input variables. The Irregularities
Level, noise level and the number of iterations are
discussed jointly. As our goal in this paper is to explore
how this simple technique works, stump is used as the
weak learning algorithm. The dataset is divided into
training set and test set randomly on each running of the
algorithm and test errors with fixed parameters are
averaged on 100 running of the algorithm. The noisy
data is generated by reversing the labels of the instances
randomly under the noise level.
A. Experiments on Noisy Data
Figure I show the test error of AdaBoost and
Random-AdaBoost on noisy data where irregularities Fig. 2: Comparison of AdaBoost and Random-AdaBoost, Indicated
level isfixed to 30. When the iteration number is small, by Solid Line and Dashed Line Respectively, on Different
AdaBoostis generally better than Random-Adaboost. Randomness Level (Indicated by r). The Horizontal Axis Indicates
Noise Level and the Vertical Axis Indicates the Test Error. The
This is easilyunderstood that in such case the strength Iteration Number is Fixed to 500
of the selected weak classifiers play a big part in
classification ability and ones selected by AdaBoost are
stronger than Random-Adaboost. As the number of
iteration increases, the test error of AdaBoost tends to
decreases in low noise cases but increases in high noise
cases. Random-Adaboost shows similar trend but the
test error decreases faster and finally domains
AdaBoost on each noise level.

Fig. 3: Test Error of Random-AdaBoost on Randomness Level from 0

to 100 with Different Noise Level n=0,10,30 Indicated by Dotted
Line, Dashed Line and Solid Line Respectively. Iteration Number is
Fixed to 500

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 147

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
As Irregularities Level increases, the ability
ofRandom-AdaBoost to focus on the examples
incorrectly classified is getting down and when
irregularities level is 100,the weight update technique
used in the original AdaBoost no longer works and
totally random classifiers are selected instead of the
hardest ones. As the strength of the weak classifier
decreases we were expect that the test error of the
finally combined strong classifier to increase. But to
oursurprise, the test error gets even lower in such cases
as indicated by figure 2 where the gap between
AdaBoost and Random-AdaBoost becomes larger as r
increases on every noise levels and when the
irregularities level equals to 100, the Random-
AdaBoost domains AdaBost. This could be reveled
more clearly in figure 3 where the test error generally
decreases on different noise levels as the Irregularities
level increases to 100. Notice that When random level
equals zero, it is identical to the original AdaBoost.
A totally random version of Random-AdaBoost is
proposed below which we call Trandom-AdaBoost. To
explain its success, we conjecture that in such case,
r=100, the decrease of the test error could be explained
by regarding Random-Adaboost as an Random Forest
with an ergodic sequence of weighted base hypotheses
whose average converges to an optimal function. The
weights of the hypotheses w1, w2,…, wt are generated
based on the distribution alternating technique used by
the original AdaBoost.
• Given Training set (xm, ym), m=1,2,…..,m.
xi yi {-1,+1}
Start with distribution Dl(i)= 1/m;
• For t= 1,….,T:
A hypothesis is selected at random: ht: X→R.
The error rate of ht is compared based on Dt.
Choose based on the error rate.
Update:
() ( ( )
( )=
Where Zt is a normalization factor (chosen so
that Dt+1 will be a distribution).
• Output the final hypothesis:
H(x)= sign( ∑ ℎ ( ))
ALGORITHM II.TRandom-AdaBoost
C. Over Fitting
The TRandom-AdaBoost also shows its
concentratedness to overfit on different noise levels. In
figure 4, the algorithm runs up to 1000 iterations. As the
noise level increases, thetest error generally becomes
larger. With low noise data(n=0,10), the test error
decreases as the iteration numberincreases. As noise
level increases TRandom-AdaBoostseems tooverfit a
little bit. When n=40, the lowest error isobtained within
100 iterations, after that point, the curvegoes upward
slightly. But the test error doesn’t seem toincrease after
500 iterations.
148 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
Fig. 4: Test Error of TRandom-AdaBoost on Different Noise Levels
as Iteration Number Increases
IV. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we studied on introducing
irregularities into AdaBoost and proposed an algorithm
which we call TRandom-AdaBoost. Experiments show
that the proposed method is superior to AdaBoost on
both low and high noisy data and is also resist to
overfit. Notice that the TRandom-AdaBoost is also
extremely fast as only the test error of the selected
hypothesis is need to be calculated instead of all the
hypothesis generated by the weak learner. Also more
experiments should be implemented, we conjecture that
the success of the proposed method could be explained
by regarding it as a Random Forest with a sequence of
weighted base hypotheses whose average converges to
an optimal function and the weights is generated by the
technique used by AdaBoost.
REFERENCES
[1] Y. Freund, R. E. Schapire, Experiments with a new boosting
algorithm, Machine Learning: Proceedings of the Thirteenth
International Conference, pp. 148–156, 1996.
[2] D. Opitz, R. Maclin, Popular ensemble methods: An empirical
study, Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, vol. 211, pp.
169-198, 1999.
[3] T. Dietterich, An experimental comparison of three methods for
constructing ensembles of decision trees: bagging, boosting and
randomization, Machine Learning, vol. 40, pp. 139-158, 2000.
[4] P. Melville, N. Shah, L. Mihalkova, R. Mooney, Experiments on
Ensembles with Missing and Noisy Data, Multiple Classifier
Systems, vol. 3077, pp. 293-302, 2004.
[5] L. Breiman, Random forests, Machine Learning, vol. 45, page.
5-32, October 2001
[6] L. Breiman, Bagging predictors, Machine Learning, vol.40,
page. 123-140, 1996.
[7] Y. J. Sun, S. Todorovic, J.Li, Reducing the overfitting of
AdaBoost by controlling its data distribution skewness,
International journal of pattern recognition and artifical
intelligence, vol.20, pp. 1093-1116, Novemble 2006.
[8] W. Jiang, Some Theoritical aspects of Boosting in the presence
of noisy data, Eighteenth Proceeedings of International
Conference on Machine Learning, July, 2001.
[9] N. Oza, AveBoost2: Boosting for Noisy Data, Fifth
International Workshop on Multiple Classifier Systems, pp.31–
40, 2004.
[10] S. Verbaeten, A. Assche, Ensemble methods for noise
elimination in classification problems, Department of Computer
Science, K.U.Leuven, Report CW 358, Leuven, Belgium, 2004.
[11] V. Wheway, Using Boosting to Detect Noisy Data, PRICAI
Workshops, pp.123-132, 2000.
[12] Kalai, R. A. Servedio, Boosting in the presence of noise,
Proceedings of the thirty-Fifth Annual ACM Symposium on
Theory of Computing, 2003.
[13] R. A. Servedio, Smooth boosting and learning with malicious
noise, The Journal of Machine Learning Research, vol. 4, pp.
633–648, 2003.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
A Video Indexing System
Meghendra Singh
Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Ltd., New Delhi
e-mail: meghendrasingh_db@yahoo.co.in
Abstract—Multimedia technology has been applied to
many types of applications and the vast amount of
multimedia data needs to be indexed. The usage of digital
video data is very popular today. In particular, video
browsing is a necessary activity in all kinds of fields. For
effective and interactive exploration of large digital video
archives there is a need to index the videos using their
visual, audio and textual data. In this Paper, we focus on
the visual and textual content of video for indexing. By
this paper We have able to developed and designed a web-
enabled Video indexing system with the help of video
streaming based on a Windows 2003 streaming server
platform. To create a video-indexing system we first create
publishing points and playlists for each video clip that is to
be indexed. Information stored in the corresponding wsx
and asx files corresponds to the start and stop times of the
clip on the source video file resident on the server. A PHP
based back end on the web server accesses the video
database which is implemented in MySQL. Through the
web pages, users can submit keyword for search on the
database. Back end scripts then generate a prioritized list
(based on relevance search) for the users, who can then
directly click the links of interest to view clips relevant to
the search submitted.
I. INTRODUCTION
For browsing, searching, and manipulating video
documents, an index describing the video content is
required. It forms the crux for applications like digital
libraries storing multimedia data or filtering systems
which automatically identify relevant video documents
based on a user profile. To cater to these diverse
applications, the indexes should be rich and as complete
as possible. Until now, construction of an index is
mostly carried out by document lists when people
manually assign a limited number of keywords to the
video content. The specialist nature of the work makes
manual indexing of video documents an expensive and
time consuming task. Therefore, automatic video
indexing methods are necessary. Most solutions to
video indexing use a unimodal approach, i.e. only the
visual, auditory, or textual modality is used. Instead of
using only one modality, multimodal video indexing
strives to automatically classify (pieces of) a video
Documents based on multimodal analysis. In this
we put forward a unifying framework for multimodal
video indexing.
Streaming media adds engaging motion and sound
to the Web experience, increasing site stickiness,
interactivity, and retention. Streaming allows timely,
dynamic content to be seen by a larger, even global
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
audience, helping to cost-effectively disseminate
information, to address new markets, and to bring your
corporate culture closer to far-reaching constituencies.
Streaming in its truest form, can help to protect video
content from being “pirated” and misused. Streaming
media is no longer merely a promise. Streaming is here
today. This Primer won’t tell you everything about this
rapidly emerging technology, but it will give you an
overview of the opportunities and the pitfalls, the costs,
and the basics. You’ll find out what makes streaming
different, and how you can use compelling streaming
media content to make your Web sites more dynamic.
At the very least, you’ll learn enough to be an informed
member of a work group planning and executing
streaming implementations. But, even if you are a
complete beginner, you’ll find out how easy it can be to
edit, encode, and integrate streaming video into your
own Web site. And, if you are already creating video
productions, this Primer will introduce you to the state-
of-the-art streaming media technologies you can use to
extend
II. THE TECHNOLOGY BEHIND VIDEO STREAMING
Before creating digital video for streaming
purposes, the needs to be certain that several factors
exist. These include ensuring that we have (a) made the
video in the proper format, (b) access to a streaming
media server, and (c) adequate bandwidth to download
and upload the video file. The hardware for creating
video streaming materials requires much of the same
equipment for creating traditional digital video no
matter how the material is being used on the Web.
These hardware and software components include a
video camera (analog or digital), video editing program
(e.g., Adobe Premiere, Final Cut Pro), video encoding
software (e.g., Real Producer Plus, Discreet Cleaner), a
computer with a lot of storage space to store the video
files, and a high-speed network connection. Other
equipment considerations include (a) obtaining a tripod
for reducing the amount of movement that helps reduce
the amount of work the encoder will have to do to
compensate for the movement, (b) obtaining a
directional microphone that is windproof to help reduce
background noise, and (c) ensuring adequate lighting. It
is also important to make sure that the computer is
powerful enough to meet the demands of digital video
development. According to the Joint Information
Systems Committee in its Click-and-Go Video
149
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
Streaming guide, the computer should have the
following specifications to adequately manipulate
digital video for streaming purposes:
• A high end PC (Intel or AMD Processor) with
a processor speed at least 1.2Ghz+ for the PC.
• At least 256MB RAM with a recommended of
512 MB.
• A large and fast hard disk drive with a
recommended of 80GBs+ and an RPM of
7200+.
• A good quality graphics card with at least 32
MB of RAM.
Most streamed video comes in one of three popular
formats: (a) Real Networks’ Real Media (b) Microsoft
Windows Media (ASF or Advanced Streaming Format),
and (c) Apple QuickTime. These three formats are
proprietary in that media produced by one of the
formats. All three have specific advantages and support
the Real Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP). To stream
files created in these three formats, the video files must
be placed on a streaming media server that has the
server-side software to stream the video. In addition,
that server must have enough capacity and bandwidth to
support the number of simultaneous video streams by
multiple users. Other formats for streaming video
include MPEG-2, and more recently, MPEG-4. MPEG-
4 is a newer standard specifically developed to address
Web and mobile delivery. MPEG-4 is backward-
compatible with MPEG-2, a video compression.
A final consideration for creating streamed videos
is the server. The RealPlayer is free and available for all
major OS platforms. The RealNetworks’ Helix Servers
are available on Windows, Linux, and Unix-based
operating systems and support all major file formats,
including RealMedia, Windows Media, QuickTime,
MP3, MPEG- 4, and others. The Helix Basic Server is
free for up to five simultaneous streams. The paid
version of Helix Universal Server is a full-featured
server that allows 100 simultaneous streams. Windows
Media server and player are free, but they are only
available for Windows OS only. Also, both the
QuickTime server and player are free. The QuickTime
player is available for most OS platforms, but the
QuickTime server is supported natively in MAC OS. A
server is needed to store the media file and software that
can stream the data over the Web. The file must be
uploaded to the server and linked to a web site so that
students can watch the video. The user selects a file and
the streaming process begins by sending small packets
of information over the network to the client-side
computer. Once enough data has been received, the
player streams the video while the player acts like a
buffer and collects the data at an uneven rate from the
server. A generic streaming server would require the
following specifications to properly house and run the
videos: 1GHz+ processor, 1GB+ RAM, large hard disk
storage capacity, and fast network connectivity. If the
150 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
connection speed will not support the server, there is no
point of having a fast server. Thus, choosing the fastest
option available in terms of bandwidth is important
because if the server does not have enough bandwidth
to cope with the demands of the users, then students
will receive poor video quality feedback such as jerky
images, broken sound, and even loss of connection.
III. ADVANTAGES OF USING VIDEO STREAMING
There are many advantages of using streaming
video. Some of the advantages include (a) instant play,
(b) distributing live events, (c) delivering long-forms of
media, (d) multicasting to multiple viewers, and e) the
easy creation of streamed files. Other advantages that
streaming video files can offer educators are creating
visually driven materials that are more appealing to
learners, helping educators handle volatile or quickly
outdated materials (e.g., CD-ROMs, tape) that can be
stored into a searchable database, and create
synchronized presentations by having audio accompany
still images, graphics, or text. However, individual
control of pacing is the main advantage of incorporating
streamed videos into distance learning courses. With
streamed videos, students can access the material
asynchronously and independent of their location.
Students are no longer bounded by the traditional
classroom or the library to view visual materials
provided by the instructor. With streamed videos,
students can access the visual materials at home and at
any time. Another control element is the choice over
which material to observe on-demand. Finally, being in
charge of when to start, pause, skip, and review the
visual material is another way that students can contend
with the material. In short, the primary advantage of
streaming video is the ability for students to self-pace
their learning.
IV. LIMITATION TO CONSIDER VIDEO STREAMING
However, there are drawbacks of streaming video
that the instructor must consider. Inadequate bandwidth
to retrieve streamed files is one limitation. Video
streams can be bandwidth intensive. Depending upon
the Internet traffic, users who have 56K modems or
even cable/DSL connections may have difficulty in
terms of retrieving and playing streamed video. Internet
congestion can cause playback delays, and even living
on a particular road or street can influence the reception
of streamed video connection. In addition, competing
technologies to control standards is another obstacle for
video streaming. Finally, lack of training and technical
support can prevent effective video streaming use. If
support and training are not readily available, it is
difficult to sustain streaming video in academic
institutions because of limited access to technology and
knowledgeable experts who can assist in maintaining
and developing streamed video. Equipment

requirements, technical support, and network
infrastructures need to be firmly in place before any
quality video streaming projects can occur. Therefore, it
is vital that these resources are made available to take
advantage of what streaming video can offer to
education.
A. Cause to Study Video Indexing
Indexing video data is essential for providing
content based access. Indexing has typically been
viewed either from a manual annotation perspective or
from an image sequence processing perspective. The
indexing effort is directly proportional to the granularity
of video access. As applications demand finer grain
access to video, automation of the indexing process
becomes essential. Given the current state of art in
computer vision, pattern recognition and image
processing reliable and efficient automation is possible
for low level video indices like cuts and image motion
properties.
B. Problem Analysis
An analysis of existing systems enabled us to
determine the objectives of this project in more detail.
Our primary goal was to develop a system to enable the
collaborative indexing, browsing, annotation of video
content between multiple groups at remote locations. In
addition the system must support, High quality video–
MPEG-2 files, Automatic shot detection, Hierarchical
video segmentation, Flexibility–different domains,
communities and metadata application profiles,
International video metadata standards such as MPEG-
7,Indexing of segments, shots, frames and regions
within frames. Streaming Protocol Used to Access
Video File
A data transfer protocol is a standardized format for
transmitting data between two devices. The type of
protocol used can determine such variables as the error
checking method, the data compression method, and
end-of-file acknowledgements. If all networks were
constructed in the same manner and all networking
software and equipment behaved similarly, only one
protocol would be necessary to handle all of our data
transmission needs. In reality, the Internet is comprised
of millions of different networks running a wide array
of hardware and software combinations. As a result, the
ability to stream digital media content reliably to clients
depends on a set of several well-engineered protocols.
The protocols used to stream Windows Media-based
content are:
• Real Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP)
• Microsoft Media Server (MMS) protocol
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
Windows Media Services manages the use of these
protocols by using control protocol plug-ins. Windows
Media Services includes the WMS MMS Control
Protocol plug-in, the WMS RTSP Control Protocol
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 151
A Video Indexing System
plug-in, and the WMS HTTP Control Protocol plug-in.
With the exception of the WMS HTTP Control Protocol
plug-in, these plug-ins are enabled by default. The
control protocol plug-in receives the incoming client
request, determines what action is indicated by the
request (for example, to start or stop streaming),
translates the request into a command form, and then
passes the command to the server. Control protocol
plug-ins can also return notification information to
clients if there is an error condition or a change of
status. Basic networking protocols such as User
Datagram Protocol (UDP) and Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) are used to manage more fundamental
tasks such as network connectivity and packet error
correction. The MMS and RTSP protocols are used in
combination with both the UDP or TCP protocols.
V. STREAMING SERVER SYSTEM OVERVIEW
A streaming media system based on Windows
Media Technologies typically consists of a computer
running an encoder (such as Microsoft Windows Media
Encoder), a server running Windows Media Services,
and players. The encoder enables you to convert both
live and prerecorded audio, video, and computer screen
images to Windows Media Format. The server running
Windows Media Services, called a Windows Media
server, enables you to distribute the content over a
network. Users receive the content you distribute by
using a player, such as Windows Media Player.
Fig. 2.9: Streaming Media Server Overview
In a typical scenario, a user clicks a link on a Web
page to request content. The Web server redirects the
request to the Windows Media server and opens the
player on the user's computer. At this point, the Web
server no longer plays a role in the streaming media
process and the Windows Media server establishes a
direct connection with the player and begins streaming
the content directly to the user.
Proceedingss of National Co
onference on Tre
ends in Signal Processing
P & Co
ommunication (TSPC’13) 12th–
–14th April 2013
3

•to begin
b with jjust assign one media
file(GGHM101-1-1-1.wmv) to theet playlist.
3. If you openn the playlist ffile, you woulld see that it
has the folllowing structuure
<?wsx versionn="1.0"?>
<smil>
<media src= ="C:\WMPub\\WMRoot\GH HM101-1-1-
1.wm
mv"/>
</smil>
a) The meddia element can have a number of
attributess, one of which is the t source
destinatioon src. Theere are otheer attribute
also,one of which iss some thing clipBegin.
This attrribute causess the media file to be
timeshiftted by clipBeegin secondss when the
playlist iss played backk.
The Windows
W Meddia server caan receive coontent b) The com mplete of the attribute nam mes can be
from severral different soources. Prereccorded contennt can seen in Media
M Server ttoo.
be stored locally on thhe server or retrieved froom a • Clickk on a Publishhing Point
networked file server. Live events can be capptured • On the t right hand pane, You will w see the 5
using a diggital recordingg device and processed thrrough tabs((Moniter,Sourrce etc.
an encoderr before beinng sent to thee Windows MediaM • Cickk on source aand you shoulld see your
server for broadcast.
b Wiindows Mediaa Services cann also playlist file appeaaring in the lo ocation and
rebroadcasst content streeamed from a publishing point the elements
e of thhe playlist.
on a remotte Windows Media
M server. • If yoou click on G GHM101-1-1--1.wmv the
rightt hand pan off this widow willw display
VI. TIMEE BASED VIDEEO the playback
p detaails associated with this
With the help of the Windows 2003 Streaaming media file.
server we create
c the timee based video file means thhat we • Channging or editiing any of th he attributes
play and sttop the stream
m file by the usser choice,to create
c value here wouuld cause th he original
a time baseed video we need
n a playlisst file in whicch we playlist to get moodified. For example,
e in
set the tim
me of clipbeginn and clipend the whole prrocess this playlist detaiils window, if i we were
is followinng. assiggn a 10 seccond shift to o clipbegin
(assiigned as 00:00:10.0), we willw will see
A. Offlinee Indexing of Media
M File the following
f addeed in the playlist.
<?wsx versionn="1.0" encodding="utf-8"?>
1. Foor example, suppose
s we have
h a keywoord as
<smil>
H
Hindusm, and the
t lecture beegins 05 minuttes in
<media src= ="C:\WMPub\\WMRoot\GH HM101-1-1-
too the media file with the naame Gurnank..wmv
1.wm
mv"clipBegin= =”00:00:10.0””/>
annd last for 30 minutes.
m
</smil>
• Therefore the tuple foor this woulld be
4. On the other
o client side, the user still
s make a
Gurnank-G GHM101-1-1--1-00:05:00.0
call to thhe publishing point thus thee media file
(time is in hh:mm:ss.millisecond form mat)
is playedd as a stream fi file.
Also suppose that we have annother keyworrd as
Surdas, thee lecture for which
w it beginns at 36 minuttes in
VII. MYSQL
S PHP WEEB DATABASE:
to GHM1001-1-1-1.wmv((05 mins+30 mins of Gurnnank+
CREATE DA
ATABASE
01 mins for gap).
• Therefore the tuple foor this wouldd we Getting starteed with a dataabase means fiirst figuring
Surdas-GH HM102-1-1-1--00:36:00.0 out what
w you wannt to do. Ourr project we have create
2. Create on demaand Publishinng Point and assign a datab
base of the folllowing
thhe playlist • Courseunnit
• Assign a playlist file f to it (call • CourseunnitLecture
samplePlayylist.wsx). This step is done • Courses
automaticaally by the addd publishinggpoint • Serverinffo
wizard if you
y choose thhe option to create
c • Sessions
the playlsitt(and announccement). • Videoinddex
Table structurre for table `coourseUnit`

152 ‹ Bhag
gwant Institute of
o Technology, Muzaffarnagar,
M Uttar Pradesh, India

DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `courseUnit`;
CREATE TABLE `courseUnit` (
`courseid` varchar(6) NOT NULL default '',
`unitnumber` tinyint(1) NOT NULL default '0',
`unittitle` varchar(30) NOT NULL default '',
PRIMARY KEY (`courseid`,`unitnumber`)
) ENGINE= Inno DB DEFAULT CHARSET
=latin1;
-- Dumping data for table `courseUnit`
/*!40000 ALTER TABLE `courseUnit` DISABLE
KEYS */;
LOCK TABLES `courseUnit` WRITE;
INSERT INTO `course Unit` VALUES
('GHM101',1,' Unit1');
UNLOCK TABLES;
/*!40000 ALTER TABLE `courseUnit` ENABLE
KEYS */;
As we Create this database table for the Couse
Unit we also create database for each data which we
want to show on Web page.
VIII. RESULT
Media streaming is a technique for transferring
audio and video in a way such that it can be processed
as a steady and continuous stream. Streaming
technologies are becoming increasingly important with
the growth of the Internet because most users do not
have fast enough access to download large multimedia
files quickly. With streaming, the client browser or
plug-in can start displaying data before the entire file
has been transmitted. Streaming media enables real-
time or on-demand access to audio, video, and
multimedia content via the Internet or an intranet.
Although the developed system is completely
functional, the following enhancements are necessary:
1. Keyword search has to be implemented to
display results in order of relevance. For this
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 153
A Video Indexing System
purpose an appropriate relevance score has to
be defined and search has to be organized
accordingly.
2. The player and controls have to be embedded
in the Web page itself.
REFERENCES
[1] IBM MPEG-7 Annotation Tool.
http://www.alphaworks.ibm.com/tech/videoannex
[2] MPEG-7. http://www.mpeg-industry.com/.
[3] W3C Annotea Project. http://www.w3.org/2001/Annotea/
[4] Boullart, L., & Matar, M. (2002). Challenging streaming video
in e-learning. Retrieved November 6, 2005, from 2002 EDEN
Annual Conference Proceedings (Grenada, Spain) at
http://www.eden-online.org/papers/ publications/toc-gran.pdf
[5] Burnett, A., Maue, D., & McKaveney, E. (2002). Planning and
implementing instructional video. Syllabus, 15(11). Retrieved
November 4, 2005, from
http://www.syllabus.com/article.asp?id=6394
[6] College of Extended Education. (2003). How are instructors
using streaming media?
[7] Joint Information Systems Committee. (2002). Video streaming:
A guide for educational development. Manchester, UK: JISC
Click and Go Video Project.
[8] Kennedy, T. (2001b). Streaming basics: Editing video for
streaming. Streaming Media World. Retrieved November 4,
2005, from
[9] Klass, B. (2003). Streaming media in higher education:
Possibilities and pitfalls. Syllabus, 16(11). Retrieved November
4, 2005, from http://www.syllabus.com/article.asp?id=7769.
[10] Schmerbeck, A. (2000). Streaming video. Retrieved November
4, 2005, from
http://www.edb.utexas.edu/multimedia/Streaming%20Video.pdf
[11] Segal, N. (2001). Creating quality streaming video. Streaming
Media World. Retrieved November 4, 2005, from
http://smw.internet.com/ video/tutor/videotips/index3.html.
[12] Weiser, C. (2002). Video streaming. Media & Methods, 38(4),
10-14.
[13] H. Zhang, A. Kankanhalli, and S. W. Smoliar. Automatic
Partitioning of full-motion Video. Multimedia Systems, 1(1):
10-28, 1993.
[14] J. Ayers et al. Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language
(SMIL) 2.0. World Wide Web Consortium Recommendation,
Aug. 2001.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

VHDL Implementation of Data Compression

Techniques based on Statistical Code
Soumya Singh1 and Neeraj Jain2
1
Electronics and Communication Department
IMS Engineering College, Ghaziabad, India
2
Electronics and Communication Department
IMS Engineering College, Ghaziabad, India
e-mail: 1winsoumya@gmail.com, 2erneerajjain@gmail.com

Abstract—This paper aims at optimization of
parameters which influence the compression ratio and size
of decoder. To achieve that various compression and
decompression techniques for data compression based on
statistical codes are used, which are stored on the tester
and then applied to each core in system-on-chip.
In this paper we emphasized on four compression and
decompression techniques based on statistical codes,
which are Huffman coding, Selective Huffman coding,
Optimal selective Huffman coding, Selected Selective
Huffman coding. In case of Huffman coding, when we
increase the block size we get better compression ratio
with increase in decoder size which depends on block size,
for different benchmark circuits For reducing decoder size
and increasing compression ratio selected selective
Huffman coding is preferred over other techniques.
Keywords: IP core based SoC, ATE, Huffman code,
Test data compression, Optimal selective Huffman,
techniques, which is based on statistical codes which
reduces amount of test data stored on ATE and
transferred to SOC.
Transferring compressed amount of test data will
take less time in comparison of the transferring full test
vector at given channel capacity of tester. In case of
decompression a very small decoder circuitry are
required on chip without loss of any actual test set. In
this paper we presented compression and
decompression scheme that can generate deterministic
scan vectors and also sent the actual sequence of scan
vector to CUT. It does not require any prior knowledge
of CUT, so it is suitable for testing intellectual property
cores where core supplier does not provide any
information about internal structure of core.

I. INTRODUCTION
Test data compression involves compression of test
data both (stimulus and response) which is stored on the
ATE. Before going to scan chain some additional on-
chip hardware is added for decompression of
compressed data set which comes from ATE and output
response is compressed and applied to ATE again.
Since Tester has limited speed, channel capacity and
memory, cost of testing and test application time will
increase considerably. To solve this problem a various
compression techniques are adopted in SOC era. These Fig. 1: Block Diagram for Illustrating Scheme for a Slower
techniques are–Linear decompression based scheme, Tester Clock
broad-scan-based scheme[1],and code-based
As Fig 1 shows that data comes from tester are
scheme[2],[8]. Code based scheme is appropriate to
compressed and before going to scan chain additional
compress the pre-computed test set without requiring on chip hardware is required to decompress the data
any structural information of IP cores. Its different from then apply to the scan chain then output response
BIST and hybrid BIST because whatever test vector is obtained by scan chain is again compressed by
applied to CUT that are exactly same as before decompresser. Advantage of test data compression is
compression [5]. So with the help of test data generate the complete set of test set patterns applied to
compression memory required for ATE is reduces and the CUT and this test pattern is optimizable for desired
also test time reduces because fewer amounts of data is fault coverage.
transmitted between ATE and chip [4]. This paper Compression ratio=(1-(compression bits) (Mintest
presents various compression and decompression bits))*100 eq.1

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 154

 VHDL Implementation of Data Compression Techniques based on Statistical Code
II. METHOD FOR DON’T CARE BIT
FILLING TECHNIQUE
A large amount of don't care bits is generated by
ATPG which gives the test data for CUT[2]. So when
we manipulated these don’t care bits then it increase
compression of test data For the statistical codes, test
data is divided into equal size blocks of B bits. To
improve the test data compression, the no. of distinct
blocks in a given test set should be reduced and
frequency of occurrence for each distinct block should
be increased. In this, an algorithms to fill don't care bits
which has less computational complexity are present.
A. Hamming Distance based Approach
In this approach, test data set are divided in to
blocks of size B bits. These blocks may be completely
specified or partially specified i.e. with don't care bits.
For coding process, for each distinct block, the
corresponding frequency of occurrence is calculated. At
first we search the most frequently occurring block and
then compare with next most frequently occurring block
if there is no conflict in any bit position then hamming
distance between these two blocks is zero The
Hamming distance is 1 if the bits on the same position
of two blocks are opposite, i.e. '1' and '0'. The Hamming
distance between two blocks is summation of such bits
with opposite values. The Hamming distance between
00XX (F1) and 0X1X (F2) is 0.So F1 is merged with F2
and result is 001X. If the Hamming distance between
B1 and B2 is more than 0, the Hamming distance with
next block with descending order of frequency will be
calculated. Two blocks for which the Hamming
distance is 0, will be merged and a new block F1 will
come into existence. The next block in the sequence
will be than compared with merged block F1. This
process is repeated until further merging is not possible.
The process is repeated with the next highest frequently
occurring still unmerged block. The merging has
increased the number of specified bits. Still there is a
chance that few bits are unspecified. Such bits are
replaced with zeroes
III. COMPRESSION TECHNIQUES
In this section we will discuss about various
compression techniques based on statistical codes. In
statistical codes variable codeword length are used to
represent fixed block of bits in test data. At first test set
is divided in to symbols of bits then each fixed block is
represented by variable codeword which depend on the
occurrence of frequency of symbol.
A. Huffman Coding
A Huffman code [4] is an optimal statistical code
that is proven to provide the shortest average codeword
length among all uniquely decodable variable length
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 155
codes.At first test vector T divided into [T]/l blocks of
length ‘l' then we get k distinct
blocks,b1,b2…………..bk. with occurrence of
frequency p1,p2,………=pk. In order to generate the
Huffman code, a binary tree is constructed beginning
with leaves and moving towards the root. For every
distinct block bi, a leaf node is generated, and a weight
equal to pi is assigned to it (pi is the occurrence
frequency of block bi). The pair of nodes with the
smallest weights is selected first and a parent node is
generated with weight equal to the sum of the weights
of these two nodes. This step is repeated iteratively until
only a single node is left unselected, the root (we note
that each node can be selected only once). Then,
starting from the root, all nodes are visited once and the
logic 0 (logic 1) value is assigned to each left (right)-
child edge.
TABLE 1.1: TEST SET DATA PARTITIONING AND OCCURRENCE FREQ
Test Set Distinct Block FREQ.
1010 0000 1010 1111 1010 9/20
1111 0000 1010 0001 0000 5/20
1010 0000 0010 1010 1111 3/20
0000 1010 0000 1010 0001 2/20
1010 1111 1010 0001 0010 1/20
Consider at test set of 80 bit data which is given in
Table 1.1 is partitioned into 4 bit fixed block so we get
20 occurrences of frequency for 5 distinct blocks. When
we encoded that data with the help of Huffman coding
scheme then compressed bit is 40 given in Table 1.2
then compression ratio is 50% for test set but area
required for decompression is large because it depends
on the block size as block size increases decoder size
become more complex.
TABLE 1.2: COMPRESSED TEST SET
Compressed Test Set
0100111
111100
01011000
100100
011101101
B. Selective Huffman Coding
So for reducing the decoder complexity problem
we implement selective Huffman coding. In this at first
test set divided into k distinct blocks b1,b2……..bk..
After that distinct blocks which have most occurrence
of frequency is encoded b1…..bm(m<k) and remaining
blocks are unencoded(bm…..bk).For distinguish
between coded and unencoded blocks each codeword is
preceded by a bit (1) and (0) with unencoded blocks. So
for previous table if there is m=3 encoded blocks
compression ratio is 28.0%), (Table1.3).
Demerit of selective Huffman coding is it required
extra bit equally lengthens all data in compressed test
set (encoded or unencoded), irrespective there
occurrence of frequency but its decoder circuitry is less
complex in comparison of Huffman coding.
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
Fig. 2: Selective Huffman Coding
C. Optimal Selective Huffman Coding
According to this algo. m+1 Huffman codewords
are used m for encoding the most frequently occurring
blocks and 1 for unencoded blocks. The occurrence
frequency of the latter codeword is equal to the sum of
the occurrence frequencies of all the unencoded distinct
blocks. Consider the test set of table 1.1and m=3 that is,
0001 and0010 are unencoded blocks. The sum of the
occurrence frequencies of 0001 and 0010 is equal to
2/20 + 1/20 = 3/20. The proposed Selective Huffman
encoding as well as the compressed test set are given in
Fig 1.3. We observe that now, for encoding distinct
blocks 1010 and 0000, only 1 and 2 bits are respectively
required, while the cost for distinct block 1111 remains
constant (3 bits). Only before the unencoded data
blocks, a 3-bit codeword, instead of a single bit, is
utilized. The compression ratio in this case is equal to
38.8 percent, which is significantly higher than that of
selective Huffman coding.
Fig. 3: Optimal Selective Huffman Coding
156 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
D. Selected Selective Huffman Coding
In selected selective Huffman coding consider test
set of table 1.1 is divided into k distinct blocks then
m=3 blocks are encoded and rest are unencoded. For
transmitting data on chip there is one E/N’ is used to
show the status of test data shifting. If E/N’ is 1 then
encoded test data is transferred and if E/N is 0 then
unencoded data is transferred. So from analysis of this
coding scheme compression ratio for test set which is
given in table 1.1 is 52% which is greater than selective
Huffman coding and optimal selective Huffman coding.
At last comparison of these four techniques for two
ISCAS89 circuits are given in Table1.4
IV. ON CHIP DECODER ARCHITECTURE
With the help of various compression techniques
test set are compressed and stored on ATE. After that
compressed data applied to the decoder on chip which
is decompress the compressed data and apply to the
CUT. For any compression scheme on chip decoder
size is directly proportional to the decoder FSM state of
particular coding technique. So, for Huffman coding for
given table1.1 FSM states 2b-1 are required where b is
block size.
In case of selective Huffman coding and optimal
selective huffman coding m+b states are required where
m is encoded block and b is block size. At last for
selected selective Huffman coding one more channel
from ATE indicates the status of bit stream either it is
encoded or unencoded. So for that on 2 to 1 Mux is
used in chip, one input is Din and another input is E/N
to Mux. If E/N is 1 then Din is encoded and it apply to
decoder and if E/N is ‘0’ then Din is unencoded and
apply to serializer
Note-: Here it is clarify that data compression
depends upon the frequency distribution of the symbol
and no of encoded symbol selected. And if no of
encoded block is change then FSM will also change. So
conclusion is that:
1. Decoder size is directly proportional to the
decoder FSM states in any type of Huffman
coding.
2. So for FSM states decoder depends on the
frequency distribution of symbol of given test
set.
 VHDL Implementation of Data Compression Techniques based on Statistical Code

TABLE 1.3: EXAMPLE FOR HUFFMAN, SELECTIVE, OPTIMAL, SELECTED SELECTIVE HUFFMAN CODE
Distinct Pattern Freq. Huffman Code Selective Optimal Selective Huffman Selected Selective
Huffman Code Code Huffman Code n-4
n=3 n=3 n=3
blocks 4 4 4 4 4 E/N
S0-1010 9/20 0 10 0 0 ‘1’
S1-0000 5/20 10 110 10 10 ‘1’
S2-1111 3/20 111 111 110 11 ‘1’
0001 2/20 1101 00001 1110001 0001 0
0010 1/20 100 00010 1110010 0010 0
Test set 80 40 57 49 37
Compression (%) 50% 28.7% 38.75% 53.75%
TABLE 1.4: COMPARISON OF TEST DATA COMPRESSION RATIO
Circuit Mintest Huffman Selective Optimal Selected
N=8 encoded block N=8 encoded block N=8 encoded
block
block size=4 block size=4 block size=4 block size=4
S5378 23754 48.257 29.14 46.37 54.14
S9234 39273 52.385 30.1 51.4 55.5
TABLE 1.5: COMPARISON OF SYNTHESIS RESULT FOR DECODER OF HUFFMAN, SELECTIVE, OPTIMAL, AND SELECTED SELECTIVE HUFFMAN CODE
ISCAS5378 Huffman Selective Optimal Selected
States 15 12 12 7
Transitions 26 18 18 17
Register utilization 8 12 14 7
No of slices 8 out of 960(0%) 16 out of 960(1%) 16 out 960(1%) 6 out of 960(0%)
Slice F/F 8 out of 1920(0%) 12 out of 1920 13 out 1920(0%) 7 out of 1920(0%)
( 0%)
4 input LUTS 17 out of 1920(0%) 31 out of 1920 (1%) 31 out 1920(1%) 12 out of1920(0%)
I/Os 7 out 66(10%) 7 out of 66 (10%) 7 out 66(10%) 8 out of 66(12%)
Clock frequency 319.183MHz 217.486MHz 216.82 MHz 342.58MHz

V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS B. Decoder Size

For any data compression and decompression
technique two main parameters are data compression
ratio and decoder size In this paper there are four data
compression/decompression techniques which is
implemented on test data of full scan ISCAS89
benchmark circuits.
A. Compression Ratio
Proposed data compression techniques are
implemented using MATLAB 6.0 language. The
experiments are conducted on a workstation with a 3.0
GHz Pentium IV processor and 1GB of memory. For
the validation purpose, the two largest ISCAS89 full-
scan benchmark circuits are used. In table1.5
Compression ratio for Huffman coding, selective,
optimal and selected selective code are given.
Comparison of these techniques show that Huffman
coding scheme have greater compression ratio in
comparison to selective and optimal selective Huffman
coding but selected selective coding technique have
greater compression ratio than Huffman coding
technique. So in compression point of view Huffman
and selected selective modified technique is
best. Compression ratio for two ISCAS89 circuits are
given in.
As in previous section we have seen that decoder
size depends upon the FSM state of decoder. Decoder
FSM state implemented using VHDL. The EDA tools
used are Mentor graphics HDL designer for design
entry, Modelism for simulation and synthesis on Xilinx
for a target device of xa3s100e-4-vqg100.After
synthesis of test data for block size 4 and encoded
blocks 8, we analyze that states required in selected
selective Huffman code is less, transition is also less.
Also execution speed of selected selective Huffman
coding is greater in comparison of all techniques. So
conclusion is decoder area is directly proportional to
decoder FSM, from above synthesis result show that
decoder is smaller in selected selective Huffman
coding.
VI. CONCLUSION
In this paper various coding techniques which is
based on statistical based code data compression
techniques are described. These techniques are analyzed
for compression ratio and decoder circuitry.
Compression ratio is calculated for all four scheme
and result shows that selected selective Huffman coding
have highest compression ratio among all given
techniques.

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 157

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
As we are implemented all four techniques for
decoder in VHDL and simulate at modelsim, Synthesis
shows that decoder size of selected selective Huffman
coding technique is less complicated than other and this
technique requires minimum FSM states for same
encoded blocks for all techniques
REFERENCES
[1] K. J. Lee, J. J. Chen, C. H. Huang, ”Broadcasting test patterns to
multiple circuits,”IEEE Trans. Computer-Aided Des.Integra
Circuits and Syst., vol. 18, no. 12, pp. 1793-1802, Dec. 1999.
[2] H. Ichihara, Y. Setohara, Y. Nakashima, and T. Inoue, “Test
Compression/decompression based on JPEG VLC algorithm, in
Proc. Asian Test Symposium., Oct. 2007, pp. 87-90.
[3] A. Wurtenberger, C.S. Tautermann, and S. Hellebrand, Data
Compression for multiple scan chains using dictionaries with
Corrections,” in Proc. Int’l Test Conf. (ITC 2004), pp. 926-935,
Oct. 2004.
158 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
[4] F.G. Wolff, C. Papachristou, “Multiscan-based test compression
and hardware decompression using LZ77,” in Proc. Int’l Test
Conf., Oct. 2002, pp. 331-339.
[5] V. Iyengar, K. Chakrabarty, and B.T. Murray, ”Huffman
encoding of test sets for sequential circuits,” IEEE Trans
Instrumentation and Measurement, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 21-25,
Feb. 1998.
[6] X. Kavousianos, E. Kalligeros, D. Nikolos, “Test Data
Compression Based on Variable-to-Variable Huffman Encoding
With Codeword Reusability,” IEEE Trans Comput.-Aided Des.
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[7] L. Lingappan, S. Ravi, A. Raghunathan, N.K. Jha, and S.T.
Chakradhar, “Test-Volume Reduction in Systems-on-a-Chip
Using Heterogeneous and Multilevel Compression Techniques,”
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 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

TRACK IV
NETWORK AND COMMUNICATION

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 3
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Prediction of Mobile
User behavior using Clustering
Sandhya Avasthi1 and Avinash Dwivedi2
1
Computer Science Department, Krishna Engineering College, Ghaziabad, India
2
Computer Science Department, Krishna Engineering College, Ghaziabad, India
e-mail: 1sandhya_avasthi@yahoo.com, 2avinash_dwivedi@rediffmail.com
Abstract—The services which are provided to the
wireless mobile devices (such as PDAs, Cellular Phones,
and Laptops) from anywhere, at any time using ISAP
(Information Service and Application Provider) are
increased by mining and prediction of mobile user
behaviors. But these discovery may not be always be good
enough for predictions since the differentiated mobile
behaviors among users and temporal periods are not
considered simultaneously in the previous works. User
relations and temporal property are used simultaneously
in this work. Here CTMSP-Mine (Cluster-based Temporal
Mobile Sequential Pattern-Mine) algorithm is used to
mine CTMSPs. In CTMSP-Mine requires user clusters,
which are constructed by Cluster-Object-based Smart
Cluster Affinity Search Technique (CO-Smart-CAST) and
similarities between users are evaluated by Location-
Based Service Alignment (LBS-Alignment) to construct
the user groups. The temporal property is used by time
segmenting the logs using time intervals. The specific time
intervals to segment the huge data logs are found using
Genetic Algorithm based method called GetNTSP (Get
Number of Time Segmenting Points). The user cluster
information resulting from CO-Smart-CAST and the time
segmentation table are provided as input to CTMSP-Mine
technique, which creates CTMSPs. The prediction
strategy uses these patterns to predict the mobile user next
behavior.
Keywords: Mining methods and algorithms, mobile
environments, Location Based Services, mobile sequential
patterns
I. INTRODUCTION
Due to the popularity of mobile devices, mobile
users can requests services through their mobile devices
via Information Service and Application Provider
(ISAP) from anywhere anytime [1].The advancement of
wireless communication techniques and the popularity
of mobile devices such as mobile phones, PDA, and
GPS-enabled cellular phones, have contributed to a new
business model. This business model is known as
Mobile Commerce (MC) [2] that provides Location-
Based Services (LBS) through mobile phones. MC is
expected to be as popular as e-commerce in the future
and it is based on the cellular network composed of
several base stations. The communication coverage of
each base station is called a cell as a location area. The
average distance between two base stations is hundreds
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
of meters and the number of base stations are usually
more than 10,000 in a city. When users move within the
mobile network, their locations and service requests are
stored in a centralized mobile transaction database [2],
[3]. Obviously, the behavior pattern, in which the
location and the service are inherently coexistent, of
mobile users becomes more complex than that of the
traditional web systems [4].
Fig. 1 shows an MC scenario, where a user moves
in the mobile network and requests services in the
corresponding cell through the mobile devices. Fig. 1a
shows a moving sequence [2] of a user, where cells are
underlined if services are requested there. Fig. 1b shows
the record of service transactions, where the service s1
was requested when this user moved to the location A at
time 5. In fact, there exists insightful information in
these data, such as movement and transaction behaviors
of mobile users. Mining mobile transaction data can
provide insights for various applications, such as
prediction of subsequent locations visited by user and
user’s service requests and service recommendations
[5].
A mobile transaction database is complicated since
a huge amount of mobile transaction logs is produced
based on the user’s mobile behaviors. Data mining is a
widely used technique for discovering valuable
information in a complex data set and a number of
studies have discussed the issue of mobile behavior
mining. To achieve a quick response from the system,
data mining, which has been used successfully in many
applications, is one of the most promising technologies
used to fulfill a dynamic service request. Previous
works addressed the problem of mining associated
service patterns in mobile web network [4]. Previous
works also proposed methods to efficiently mine users’
sequential mobile access patterns, based on the FP-
Tree.
Path traversal patterns for mining mobile web user
behaviors have been proposed. To increase the accuracy
of predictions, the moving path was taken into
consideration in the above studies. However, mobile
behaviors vary among different user clusters or at
various time intervals. The prediction of mobile
behavior will be more precise if it is possible to find the
corresponding mobile patterns in each user cluster and
161
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

time interval. This is the first work on mining and and a time interval table are generated, respectively.
prediction of mobile behaviors associated with user Third, the CTMSP-Mine algorithm is used to mine the
clusters and temporal relations [6]. CTMSPs from the mobile transaction database
according to the user cluster table and the time interval
II. ANALYSIS table which are essential in discovering the complete
information concerning personal mobile behaviors. The
A. Existing System entire procedure of CTMSP-Mine algorithm can be
In a mobile network consisting of cells with a base divided into three main steps: 1) Frequent-Transaction
station for each, users of wireless mobile devices move Mining, 2) Mobile Transaction Database
from one location to another in a random manner. The Transformation and 3) CTMSP Mining.
mobile users are served by ISPs and ISAP to access the There are three prediction strategies for selecting
World Wide Web, to get necessary information in their the appropriate CTMSP to predict the mobile behaviors
daily life. When user’s movement and their service of users: 1) the patterns are selected only from the
requests are predicted in advance, it helps to provide corresponding cluster a user belongs to; 2) the patterns
customized and efficient service to the users [3]. To are selected only from the time interval corresponding
help the user get desired information in a short time is to current time; and 3) the patterns are selected only
one of the promising applications, especially in the from the ones that match the user’s recent mobile
mobile environments, where the users do not have behaviors. If there exist more than one pattern that
much time to surf the web pages. Efficiency is satisfies the above conditions, we select the one with
increased to help mobile users experience the usage of the maximal support.
web applications and web pages as if they access from a
PC. The Existing system for prediction uses the moving
paths of users or the time a user requests for a service.
This system does not consider groups of users in
mining, but it considers only individual users. This did
not provide efficient Prediction of mobile user behavior
and it consumes more time to predict and also it lacks in
accuracy. Therefore a new system is proposed to solve
the problems in prediction.
B. Limitations of Existing System
• Most of prediction systems only consider
location as prediction parameter.
• The prediction results are inefficient.
Fig. 1: Mobile Transactions (a) Moving Sequences,
• Prediction process consumes more time. (b) Mobile Transaction Table. [6]
• No precise prediction of mobile user behavior.
D. Proposed System Benefits
C. Proposed System
• It is very precise and efficient
A novel method, named Cluster-based Temporal • It consumes less time.
Mobile Sequential Pattern Mine (CTMSP-Mine)[6], for • Considering User clusters and time
discovering CTMSPs in LBS environment is proposed. segmentation simultaneously, complete
In addition, novel prediction strategies are proposed to information concerning personal mobile
predict the subsequent user mobile behaviors using the behaviors is predicted.
discovered CTMSPs. When mobile users move within
the mobile network, the information which includes
time, locations, and service requests will be stored in
the mobile transaction database. In the data mining
mechanism, two techniques and the CTMSP-Mine
algorithm are designed to discover the knowledge. First,
the CO-Smart-CAST algorithm is proposed to cluster
the mobile transaction sequences. In this algorithm, the
LBS-Alignment is used to evaluate the similarity [7] of
mobile transaction sequences. Second, a Genetic
Algorithm based time segmentation method called
GetNTSP (Get Number of Time Segmenting Points) to
find the most suitable time intervals [8] is introduced.
After clustering and segmentation, a user cluster table Fig. 2: Overall Proposed System [6]

162 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India


E. System Features
The system helps to predict the mobile user’s
behavior. This prediction helps the mobile service
providers to enhance their services. The prediction
method uses temporal periods and user clusters
simultaneously. This methodology provides efficient
and precise results.
Such Prediction helps in the following:
1. Related Services can be efficiently
recommended [9] to users to help them receive
desired information in a short time.
2. Related items can also be prefetched to reduce
the search cost for increasing the access
efficiency of Web service servers.
3. The organization of the services provided by
the web can be restructured to fit the mobile
user’s interest.
III. MOBILE BEHAVIOR PREDICTION SYSTEM
The objective is to predict the mobile user behavior
in the near future, to improve the quality of service
provided by the Information Service and Application
Provider (ISAP) to the wireless mobile devices[5].
A. System Implementation
The implementation consists of four modules. The
Mobile transactions and behavior generation module
logs the complete transactions of mobile users. The
clustering and segmentation modules generate the
required patterns. The final module uses the new
mining technique to predict the future behavior of the
mobile users. The modules are described below.
1) Mobile transactions and behavior generation
A mobile network of cells is created with a base
station in each cell. Multiple mobile users are created in
several cells. The mobile users move in random from
one location to another and access more services from
the Web through ISAP [1]. The user’s movement from
one cell to another, their requested services and the
current time are monitored and logged into huge
databases. Such logs make the Mobile transaction
database and it is used in the next two modules.
2) Usage of clustering method
Users in the different user groups may have
different mobile transaction behaviors. Location-Based
Service Alignment (LBS-Alignment) technique
measures the similarity] among multiple users and
provides it to CO-Smart-CAST technique. Clustering
method named Cluster Object-based Smart Cluster
Affinity [11] to Search Technique (CO-Smart-CAST)
builds a cluster model [14].
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 163
Prediction of Mobile User behavior using Clustering
3) Usage of segmentation method
In a mobile transaction database, similar mobile
behaviors exist under some certain time segments [8].
To discriminate the different time segments, where the
user’s behaviors are found to be similar, Get Number of
Time Segmenting Points (GetNTSP) algorithm is used.
It is a Genetic- Algorithm based method[9].
The segmented time intervals and the
corresponding users’ mobile transactions are made as
entries in the time segmentation table. The output of
this module and the second module are provided as
input for the fourth module.
4) Applying CTMSP-mine technique
User cluster from the second module and time
interval table from the third module are used as input in
this module. User clustering and temporal property are
considered simultaneously, such that the complete
mobile sequential patterns are discovered. This module
generates patterns called CTMSPs. The patterns and
recent behavior of users with current time are provided
to the Prediction Strategy. The prediction methods
provide the mobile user’s behavior in the near future.
The Cluster Temporal Mobile Sequential Pattern-Mine
algorithm can be divided into three main steps:
• Frequent-Transaction Mining,
• Transaction Database Transformation
• CTMSP Mining.
5) Prediction Technique
The CTMSPs are selected from the corresponding
user cluster and time interval.
Three prediction strategies are proposed for
selecting the appropriate CTMSP to predict the mobile
behaviors of users: 1) the patterns are selected only
from the corresponding cluster a user belongs to; 2) the
patterns are selected only from the time interval
corresponding to current time; and 3) the patterns are
selected only from the ones that match the user’s recent
mobile behaviors.
Whenever a user submits a service request at some
place, the user’s information including current location,
currently requested service and the recent behavior
(sequential movement associated with requested
services) are input to the prediction component.
B. Algorithm Description
The techniques used for the implementation of the
proposed system, like Location-Based Service
Alignment (LBS-Alignment), Cluster Object-based
Smart Cluster Affinity to Search Technique (CO-Smart-
CAST), Get Number of Time Segmenting Points
(GetNTSP) algorithm, Cluster Temporal Mobile
Sequential Pattern-Mine (CTMSP-Mine) algorithm are
described below.
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
1) LBS alignment algorithm
Input data include two mobile transaction
sequences [5]. Output data are the similarity between
two mobile transaction sequences, with the degrees in
the range from 0 to 1. The base similarity score is set as
0.5.Use dynamic programming to calculate Mi, j where
Mi, j indicates the value of matrix M in column i and row
j, where M is the score matrix of LBS-Alignment. If the
locations of two transactions are the same, both the time
penalty and the service reward are calculated to
measure the similarity score. Otherwise the location
penalty is generated to decrease the similarity score.
Finally, Ms: length; s0: length is returned as the
similarity score of the two mobile transaction
sequences.
2) The CO-Smart-CAST algorithm
The input data are an N-by-N similarity matrix S.
The output data are the clustering result. CO-Smart-
CAST can automatically cluster the data according to
the similarity matrix without any user-input parameter.
First, the CAST method [9] that takes a parameter
named affinity threshold t is used as the basic clustering
method. Second, use a quality validation method, called
Hubert’s Γ Statistics, to find the best clustering result.
Third, use a hierarchical concept to reduce the sparse
clusters. For a clustering result, use Hubert’s Γ
Statistics to measure its quality by taking the similarity
matrix and the clustering result as the input. In each
clustering result, calculate its Γobj and Γclu which
represent the clustering qualities measured by the
original object similarity matrix S and the last cluster
similarity matrix S0, respectively. The initial values of
S0 and S are the same since let every object be an
independent cluster.
Use the F1 score which is the harmonic mean to
combine Γobj and Γclu as ΓCO. A higher value of ΓCO
represents the better clustering quality. To determine
the most suitable t, the easiest way is varying t with a
fixed increment and iterating the executions of CAST to
find the best clustering result with the highest ΓCO.
The main drawback of this way is that many
iterations of computation are required. For this reason,
try to reduce the number of computations by
eliminating unnecessary executions, and then, obtain a
“near-optimal” clustering result. That is, try to perform
a minimal number of CAST executions.
3) The Get NTSP algorithm
The input data are a mobile transaction database D
and its time length T. The output data are the number of
time segmenting points. For each item, accumulate the
total number of occurrences at each time point. Draw a
curve of count distribution. Count occurrences of all
these time points, and find out the satisfied time points
whose counts are larger than or equal to the average of
all occurrences from these ones, and then, take these
164 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
satisfied ones as a set of the time point sequence. In the
time point sequence, calculate the average time distance
a between two neighboring time points, calculate the
number of neighboring time point pairs, in which the
time distance is higher than a. The result represents the
time segmentation count.
4) CTMSP mining
User cluster from the second module and time
interval table from the third module are used as input in
this module. User clustering and temporal property are
considered simultaneously, such that the complete
mobile sequential patterns are discovered. This module
generates patterns called CTMSPs. The patterns and
recent behavior of users with current time are provided
to the Prediction Strategy. The prediction methods
provide the mobile user’s behavior in the near future.
There are three prediction strategies for selecting
the appropriate CTMSP to predict the mobile behaviors
of users: 1) the patterns are selected only from the
corresponding cluster a user belongs to; 2) the patterns
are selected only from the time interval corresponding
to current time; and 3) the patterns are selected only
from the ones that match the user’s recent mobile
behaviors. The Cluster Temporal Mobile Sequential
Pattern-Mine algorithm can be divided into three main
steps:
• Frequent-Transaction Mining,
• Mobile Transaction Database Transformation,
• CTMSP Mining.
The Frequent-Transaction mining finds the
frequent transactions that are similar. The mobile
transaction database is then transformed to remove the
noise and outliers. The CTMSP-Mine technique is used
to discover the Cluster Temporal Mobile Sequential
Patterns. This CTMSP-Mine[6] technique uses the
results of CO-Smart-CAST algorithm and GetNTSP
algorithm. The CO-Smart-CAST provides the user
clusters [8]. Each user cluster is made as an entry in the
User cluster table. The GetNTSP algorithm provides the
time intervals that have similar mobile user behavior.
Each time interval is made as an entry in the Time
interval table.
The User cluster table and the Time interval table
are provided as input to the CTMSP-Mine Technique.
The Cluster Temporal Mobile Sequential Patterns are
generated as output of the CTMSP-Mine technique.
The prediction strategy takes the mined patterns
CTMSPs and the current transaction of the specific user
(like current time, current location, current service) as
input. The results of Prediction Strategy provides the
future mobile behavior (like location, service) of the
specific user. To select the CTMSPs to provide as input
to the Prediction Strategy: The user clusters to which
the user belongs to, is considered. The CTMSPs that are

generated from such user cluster are used as input. The
CTMSPs that are generated from the time interval
which matches the current time are selected as the input
to the Prediction Strategy.
IV. OVERVIEW
A. Problem Definition
The problem we are addressing in the proposed
system is formulated as follows: Given a user’s current
mobile transaction sequence S and the current time tc,
the objective is to develop a framework to predict the
mobile subsequent behaviors. The aim is to predict the
subsequent mobile behaviors using not only S and tc but
also using all the mined CTMSPs.
The problem of CTMSPs mining is formulated as
follows: Given a mobile transaction database D
containing a large number of mobile transaction
sequences of users and a specified support threshold,
the problem is to discover all the CTMSPs existing in
the database. In this paper, the CTMSP-Mine algorithm
and the behavior prediction mechanism are introduced
for solving the problem of prediction.
B. Overview of the Project
The services which are provided to the wireless
mobile devices (such as PDAs, Cellular Phones, and
Laptops) from anywhere, at any time using ISAP
(Information Service and Application Provider) are
enhanced by mining and prediction of mobile user
behaviors [13]. This business model of mobile services
is referred as Mobile Commerce.
Mining and prediction of mobile movements and
associated transactions is the core of the project. The
project focuses on discovering mobile patterns from the
whole logs. But such discovery may not be precise
enough for predictions since the differentiated mobile
behaviors among users and temporal periods are not
considered simultaneously in the previous works. User
relations and temporal property are used simultaneously
in this work to provide more accuracy, and scalability.
Prediction strategy is used to predict the subsequent
mobile behavior [13]. Here CTMSP-Mine (Cluster-
based Temporal Mobile Sequential Pattern-Mine)
algorithm is used to mine CTMSPs. In CTMSP-Mine
requires user clusters, which are constructed by Cluster-
Object-based Smart Cluster Affinity Search Technique
(CO-Smart-CAST) and similarities [8] between users
are evaluated by Location-Based Service Alignment
(LBS-Alignment) to construct the user groups.
The temporal property is used by time segmenting
the logs using time intervals [7]. The specific time
intervals to segment the huge data logs are found using
Genetic Algorithm based method called GetNTSP (Get
Number of Time Segmenting Points). The time
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 165
Prediction of Mobile User behavior using Clustering
intervals will have mobile users with similar behavior.
For example, the users who access the information
about restaurants in the evening. This example have
similar users who access the restaurant information.
Such users fall in the same time interval. The GetNTSP
[7]technique uses the idea behind the genetic algorithm.
The user cluster information resulting from CO-Smart-
CAST and the time segmentation table are provided as
input to CTMSP-Mine technique, which creates
CTMSPs. The prediction strategy uses the patterns to
predict the mobile user behavior in the near future. The
mobile behavior prediction helps ISPs [1] to improve
their QoS given to mobile users.
V. SIMULATION
A. Simulation Tool for Prediction
The Data Mining Simulation tool matlab 10is used.
This simulation tool could be used in multiple
platforms. This tool could utilize data accesses such as
ODBC, Excel, plain ASCII files. The data
preprocessing methods used here are pick mix,
sampling, partitioning, field reordering, table fusion,
recoding numeric intervals. For clustering, K-Means
method is used. The association rules are mined using
Apriori [16] method. The visualization methods are
statistical graphics, 3D, animation, interactive and
hierarchical navigation. To implement different
algorithms Java API could be used.
VI. CONCLUSION
In this paper, a new method is proposed and named
as CTMSP-Mine, for discovering CTMSPs in LBS
environments. Further, prediction strategies to predict
the subsequent user mobile behaviors using the
discovered CTMSPs are introduced. In CTMSP-Mine
technique, transaction clustering algorithm named CO
Smart-CAST is used to form user clusters, based on the
mobile transactions using the proposed LBS-Alignment
similarity measurement. Then, GetNTSP method is
utilized to generate the most suitable time intervals.
Using temporal periods and user clusters
simultaneously for prediction, enhances the prediction
results. Such prediction results are used by the
corresponding mobile service providers to enhance their
services.
FUTURE WORK
Implementing prioritization, make it possible to
provide priorities for selected users among the complex
user behavior. Many users utilize the mobile services
every day but their interest and priorities are different
from other user. Such users are prioritized over other
mobile users. These prioritized services help to satisfy
the needs of mobile users completely when resources
are limited.
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
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 Procee
edings of Nation
nal Conference on Trends in Siignal Processing & Communica
ation (TSPC’13)), 12th–14th April 2013

A Stuudy of Securrity Modes

M and T
Threatss
in Bluettooth Devic
D ces
Rani Kumaari1 and Saurrabh Singh2
1
Assistant Proffessor, Departtment of Comp
A puter Science & Engineerinng,
Babu Banarsi
B Das Institute
I of Tecchnology, Ghaaziabad
2
S
Student, Depaartment of Com mputer Sciencce,
Bhhagwant University, Ajmer, Rajasthan, Inndia
e-mail: 1raniichoudhary04@ @gmail.com, 2saurabh21833@gmail.com m

Abstract—Bluetooth is an open standards for short-

s comm munication than wired ccommunication n. Because
range radiio frequency (RF) commun nication. Blueetooth wireless RF com mmunication can suffer from these
technology,, which is useed primarily too establish wiireless threaats, additionaal countermeeasures are needed to
personal area networks (WPANs), has been integgrated proteect against them.
t The bbasic Bluetoo oth security
into manyy types of bu usiness and consumer deevices;
examples include cell phones, laptops, automoobiles,
conffiguration is done
d by the uuser who deccides how a
medical deevices, printerrs, keyboards, computer mouse m Blueetooth device will implemeent its connecctability and
devices, and headsets. Blluetooth technology enables users discooverability opptions. The ddifferent comb binations of
to establishh ad hoc netw works supporting voice and d data connnectability and discoverability capabilitties can be
communicaations between n a wide variiety of devicess that divid
ded into threee categories, oor security levvels: Silent,
can be con nveniently inteerconnected wiithout the neeed for Privaate and In Bluuetooth a trussted relationshhip between
cables or wired conn nections. Blu uetooth techn nology two devices calleed 'pairing' aree formed by exchanging
becomes widespread;
w vulnerabilitiess in its seccurity shareed secret coddes referred to as PINs. A 'master'
protocols are increasin ng which caan be poten ntially device has the opttion of pairingg with up to seven
s 'slave'
dangerous to the privacy of a user’s peersonal information.
The securitty issues of Blu uetooth have been
b an activee area
devices establishinng a network called a picon net. Two or
of researchh for the last feew years. Thiss paper presen nts the moree piconets toggether form a scatternet, wh hich can be
security thrreats and coun ntermeasures with
w their solu
utions used
d to eliminate Bluetooth
B rannge restrictionss.
of this techn
nology. It also presents somee tips that end--users
can implem ment immediaately to become more cau utious
about theirr private inform mation. The paper also conccludes
with som me recommen ndations for future seccurity
enhancemeents that can be b implementeed in the Blueetooth
standard.
Keywords: Bluetooth h architecturee, security serrvices,
security threeats, Security Modes,
M Bluetoooth encryption.

I. INTTRODUCTION
Bluetoooth is a technology for shhort range wirreless
data and real time two-way auddio/video traansfer
providing data rates up to 24 Mbps.. It operates at a 2.4
GHz frequuency in the free Industriial, Scientific, and
Medical (ISM) bannd. Bluetootth devices that
communicaate with each other form a Pico P net.
The deevice that inittiates a connecction is the piconet
master andd all other devices
d withinn that piconeet are
slaves. Thee radio frequency (RF) waaves can peneetrate
obstacles, because of thist reason thhe use of wirreless Fiig. 1: No Mobile Carrier Fees Reqquired, no Interneet Required
communicaation systemss have grownn rapidly in recent r
A scatternet is formed w when the dev vices act as
years.
'master' or 'slave'' devices in m multiple picoonets at the
The wireless
w devicces can comm municate witth no
samee time. The PINs
P often coontain only foour decimal
direct linee-ofsight betw ween them. This makess RF
digitts, the strengtth of the resuulting keys is not enough
communicaation easier to use than wiredor inffrared
for protection against passsive eavesdro opping on
communicaation, but it also
a makes avvesdropping easier.
e
Commmunication.
Moreover, it is easier to t disrupt andd jam wirelesss RF

ISBN: 978-9
93-82880-20-2 167
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
II. BLUETOOTH ARCHITECTURE
Bluetooth permits devices to establish ad hoc
networks. Ad hoc networks allow easy connection
establishment between devices in the same physical
area (e.g., the same room) without the use of any
infrastructure devices. A Bluetooth client is simply a
device with a Bluetooth radio and software
incorporating the Bluetooth protocol stack and
interfaces.
The Bluetooth specification provides separation of
duties for performing stack functions between a host
and a controller. The host is responsible for the higher
layer protocols, such as Logical Link Control and
Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) and Service Discovery
Protocol (SDP). The host functions are performed by a
computing device like a laptop or smart phone. The
controller is responsible for the lower layers, including
the Radio, Base band, and Link Control/Management.
The controller functions are performed by an integrated
or external (e.g., USB) Bluetooth adapter. The host and
controller send information to each other using
standardized communications over the Host Controller
Interface (HCI). This standardized HCI allows hosts
and controllers from different product vendors to
interoperate. In some cases, the host and controller
functions are integrated into a single device; Bluetooth
headsets are a prime example.
Figure depicts the basic Bluetooth network
topology. In a piconet one device serves as the master,
with all other devices in the piconet acting as slaves.
BR/EDR piconets can scale to include up to 7 active
slave devices and up to 255 inactive slave devices. The
new Bluetooth LE technology allows an unlimited
number of slaves.
The master device controls and establishes the
network, including defining the network’s frequency
hopping scheme. Although only one device can serve as
the master for each piconet, time division multiplexing
(TDM) allows a slave in one piconet to act as the
master for another piconet simultaneously, thus creating
a chain of networks. This chain, called a scatternet,
allows networking of several devices over an extended
distance in a dynamic topology that can change during
any given session. As a device moves toward or away
from the master device the topology may change, along
with the relationships of the devices in the immediate
network.
Fig. 2: Piconet (Information Sharing)
168 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
The Bluetooth core protocols provide no multi-hop
network routing capabilities for devices involved in
scatternets.
Scatternets are only available to BR/EDR devices,
because Bluetooth LE technology does not support that
feature.
III. SECURITY SERVICES IN BLUETOOTH DEVICES
The Bluetooth specifications provide for three
basic security services:
A. Authentication
Verifying the identity of communicating devices
based on their Bluetooth device address. Bluetooth does
not provide native user authentication. The Bluetooth
device authentication procedure is in the form of a
challenge–response scheme. Each device interacting in
an authentication procedure is referred to as either the
claimant or the verifier. The claimant is the device
attempting to prove its identity, and the verifier is the
device validating the identity of the claimant. The
challenge–response protocol validates devices by
verifying the knowledge of a secret key-the Bluetooth
link key. Figure3 conceptually depicts the challenge
response verification scheme.
Fig. 3: Bluetooth Authentication Process
The steps in the authentication process are as
follows:
Step 1: The verifier transmits a 128-bit random
challenge (AU_RAND) to the claimant.
Step 2: The claimant uses the E1 algorithm11 to
compute an authentication response using
his or her unique 48-bit Bluetooth device
address (BD_ADDR), the link key, and
AU_RAND as inputs. The verifier
performs the same computation. Only the
32 most significant bits of the E1 output
are used for authentication purposes. The
remaining 96 bits of the 128-bit output are
known as the Authenticated Ciphering
Offset (ACO) value, which will be used
later as input to create the Bluetooth
encryption key.

Step 3: The claimant returns the most significant
32 bits of the E1 output as the computed
response, the Signed Response (SRES), to
the verifier.
Step 4: The verifier compares the SRES from the
claimant with the value that it computed.
Step 5: If the two 32-bit values are equal, the
authentication is considered successful. If
the two 32-bit values are not equal, the
authentication fails.
Performing these steps once accomplishes one-way
authentication. The Bluetooth standard allows both one-
way and mutual authentication to be performed. For
mutual authentication, the above process is repeated
with the verifier and claimant switching roles.
If authentication fails, a Bluetooth device waits an
interval of time before making a new attempt. This time
interval increases exponentially to prevent an adversary
from attempting to gain access by defeating the
authentication scheme through trial-and-error with
different link keys.
B. Confidentiality
Protecting information from eavesdropping by
ensuring that only authorized devices can access and
view transmitted data. In addition to the Security Modes
for pairing and authentication, Bluetooth provides a
separate confidentiality service to thwart attempts to
eavesdrop on the payloads of the packets exchanged
between Bluetooth devices. Bluetooth has three
Encryption Modes, but only two of them actually
provide confidentiality. The modes are as follows:
Encryption Mode 1: No encryption is performed on
any traffic.
Encryption Mode 2: Individually addressed traffic
is encrypted using encryption keys based on individual
link keys; broadcast traffic is not encrypted.
Encryption Mode 3: All traffic is encrypted using
an encryption key based on the master link key.
Encryption Modes 2 and 3 use the same encryption
mechanism.
Security Mode 4 introduced in Bluetooth 2.1 +
EDR requires that encryption be used for all data traffic,
except for service discovery. As shown in Figure4, the
encryption key provided to the encryption algorithm is
produced using an internal key generator (KG). The KG
produces stream cipher keys based on the 128-bit link
key, which is a secret that is held in the Bluetooth
devices; a 128-bit random number (EN_RAND); and
the 96-bit ACO value. The ACO is produced during the
authentication procedure, The Bluetooth encryption
procedure is based on a stream cipher, E0. A key stream
output is exclusive-OR-ed with the payload bits and sent
to the receiving device. This key stream is produced
using a cryptographic algorithm based on linear
feedback shift registers (LFSRs).12 The encryption
function takes the following as inputs: the master device
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 169
A Study of Security Modes and Threats in Bluetooth Devices
address (BD_ADDR), the 128-bit random number
(EN_RAND), a slot number based on the Pico net
clock, and an encryption key, which when combined
initialize the LFSRs before the transmission of each
packet, if encryption is enabled.
Fig. 4: Bluetooth Encryption Process
The encryption key (KC) is derived from the
current link key and may vary in length in single byte
increments from 1 byte to 16 bytes in length, as set
during a negotiation process that occurs between the
master and slave devices. During this negotiation, a
master device makes a key size suggestion for the slave.
The initial key size suggested by the master is
programmed into the controller by the manufacturer and
is not always 16 bytes. In product implementations, a
“minimum acceptable” key size parameter can be set to
prevent a malicious user from driving the key size down
to the minimum of 1 byte, which would make the link
less secure.
C. Authorization
Allowing the control of resources by ensuring that
a device is authorized to use a service before permitting
it to do so.
Bluetooth does not provide for other security
services such as audit, integrity, and non-repudiation;
these services should be implemented by other means if
they are needed.
IV. SECURITY MODES IN BLUETOOTH DEVICES
The family of Bluetooth BR/EDR/HS
specifications defines four security modes. Each
Bluetooth device must operate in one of these modes,
called Security Modes 1 through 4. These modes dictate
when a Bluetooth device initiates security,
A. Security Mode 1
Describes devices that have no capabilities for
security authentication and encryption, leaving the
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
devices and connections vulnerable to attackers. These
devices do not prevent other Bluetooth-enabled devices
from establishing connections, and they can respond to
security requests such as for authentication or
encryption that are initiated by a remote device. All
v2.0 and earlier devices can support Security Mode 1,
and v2.1 and later devices can use Security Mode 1 for
backward compatibility with older devices.
B. Security Mode 2
Is a service level-enforced security mode; security
procedures may be initiated after link establishment but
before logical channel establishment. A local security
manager, controls access to specific services. The
centralized security manager maintains policies for
access control and interfaces with other protocols and
device users. Varying security policies and trust levels
to restrict access can be defined for applications with
different security requirements operating in parallel. It
is possible to grant access to some services without
providing access to other services. This mode provides
for authorization to determine whether a specific device
is allowed to have access to a specific service.
Bluetooth service discovery can be performed prior to
any security challenges for authentication, encryption,
and/or authorization. The authentication and encryption
mechanisms used for Security Mode 2 are implemented
in the controller. All v2.0 and earlier devices can
support Security Mode 2, but v2.1 and later devices can
only support it for backward compatibility with v2.0 or
earlier devices.
C. Security Mode 3
Requires Bluetooth devices to initiate security
procedures before the physical network link is fully
established. Bluetooth devices operating in Security
Mode 3 mandate authentication and encryption for all
connections to and from the device. Service discovery
cannot be performed until after authentication,
encryption, and authorization have been performed.
Once a device has been authenticated, service-level
authorization is not typically performed by a Security
Mode 3 device. All v2.0 and earlier devices can support
Security Mode 3, but v2.1 and later devices can only
support it for backward compatibility purposes.
D. Security Mode 4
Is a service level-enforced security mode in which
security procedures are initiated after physical and
logical links are established. Security Mode 4 uses
Secure Simple Pairing (SSP), in which Elliptic Curve
Diffie-Hellman (ECDH) key agreement replaces legacy
key agreement for link key generation. The device
Authentication and encryption algorithms are identical
to the algorithms in Bluetooth v2.0 + EDR and earlier
versions. Security requirements for services protected
by Security Mode 4 must be classified as requiring
authenticated link key, requiring unauthenticated link
key, or requiring no security.
170 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
V. SECURITY THREATS IN BLUETOOTH DEVICES
There are now billions of Bluetooth devices in use,
malicious security violations are common events now
and it is expected to increase in the near future. On the
contrary, the increased usage of Bluetooth devices
makes security concerns even more alarming. Hence,
Bluetooth security architecture needs a constant
upgrading to prevent new unknown threats. Like any
other wireless communication system Bluetooth
transmission can be deliberately jammed or intercepted.
False or modified information could be passed to the
devices by the cyber criminals. Security threats in
Bluetooth can be divided into following major
categories:
A. Disclosure Threat
The information can leak from the target system to
an eavesdropper that is not authorized to access the
information.
B. Integrity Threat
The information can be deliberately altered to
mislead the recipient.
C. Denial of Service Threat
The users can be blocked to get access to a service
by making it either unavailable or severely limiting its
availability to an authorized user.
D. Blue Bugging Threat
Blue bugging exploits a security flaw in the
firmware of some older Bluetooth devices to gain
access to the device and its commands. This attack uses
the commands of the device without informing the user,
allowing the attacker to access data, place phone calls,
eavesdrop on phone calls, send messages, and exploit
other services or features offered by the device.
E. Fuzzing Threat
Bluetooth fuzzing attacks consist of sending
malformed or otherwise non-standard data to a device’s
Bluetooth radio and observing how the device reacts. If
a device’s operation is slowed or stopped by these
attacks, a serious vulnerability potentially exists in the
protocol stack.
F. Secure Simple Pairing Threat
A number of techniques can force a remote device
to use Just Works SSP and then exploit its lack of
MITM protection (e.g., the attack device claims that it
has no input/output capabilities). Further, fixed
passkeys could allow an attacker to perform MITM
attacks
Security threats like disclosure and integrity attacks
typically compromise some sensitive

Information and therefore, can be very dangerous.
On the other hand, DoS attacks typically only annoy
Bluetooth network users and are considered to be less
dangerous.
VI. SOLUTION OF SECURITY THREATS
The threats can be prevented by the following
techniques:
A. Pairing and Link Key Generation
Essential to the authentication and encryption
mechanisms provided by Bluetooth is the generation of
a secret symmetric key, called the “link key.” Bluetooth
BR/EDR performs pairing (i.e., link key generation) in
one of two ways. Security Modes 2 and 3 initiate link
key establishment via a method called Personal
Identification Number (PIN) Pairing (i.e., Legacy or
Classic Pairing), while Security Mode 4 uses SSP. Both
methods are described below.
B. PIN/Legacy Pairing
For PIN/legacy pairing, two Bluetooth devices
simultaneously derive link keys when the user(s) enter
an identical secret PIN into one or both devices,
depending on the configuration and device type. The
PIN entry and key derivation are depicted conceptually
in Figure5. Note that if the PIN is less than 16 bytes, the
initiating device’s address (BD_ADDR) supplements
the PIN value to generate the initialization key. The Ex
boxes represent encryption algorithms that are used
during the Bluetooth link key derivation processes.
Fig. 5: Legacy Pairing
After link key generation is complete, the devices
complete pairing by mutually authenticating each other
to verify they have the same link key. The PIN code
used in Bluetooth pairing can vary between 1 and 16
bytes of binary or, more commonly, alphanumeric
characters. The typical four-digit PIN may be sufficient
for low-risk situations; a longer PIN (e.g., 8-character
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 171
A Study of Security Modes and Threats in Bluetooth Devices
alphanumeric) should be used for devices that require a
higher level of security.8
C. Secure Simple Pairing
SSP was introduced in Bluetooth v2.1 + EDR for
use with Security Mode 4. SSP simplifies the pairing
process by providing a number of association models
that are flexible in terms of device input/output
capability. SSP also improves security through the
addition of ECDH public key cryptography for
protection against passive eavesdropping and man-in-
the-middle attacks (MITM) during pairing.
VII. CONCLUSION
Bluetooth is a wireless technology which can do
much more than just replace data cables between
devices. With the release of the Bluetooth version 4.0
specification supporting higher data rates, greater range
and safer security measures, Bluetooth is clearly a good
choice for Wireless Networks. This paper shows a
unique way of utilizing this amazing technology to
achieve efficient ways of communication. The use of
Bluetooth communication has always been at a personal
level but never before at a public environment with high
user density. It has also been shown in this paper that a
careful design of such network can ensure effective
security. Some limitations of this network have also
been discussed which may have solutions in the future
through further ongoing research.
REFERENCES
[1] Jochen Schiller, “Mobile Communications” (second edition),
Addison Wesley Publications, 2003. pp. 290,292, 316
[2] C. Gehrmann, J. Persson, and B. Smeets, “Bluetooth Security”,
Computer Security Series, Artech House, 2004.
[3] Korzeniowski, Paul. 2005, “Bluetooth Security Threats Starting
to Sp read”, TechNewsWorld, February 02, 2005
[4] Paladugu, V., Cherukuru, N., & Pandula, S. (2001). Comparison
of security protocols for wireless communications.
[5] Slashdot. (2002, August 18). Wardriving from 1500ft Up.
[6] Stoneburner, G., Goguen, A., & Feringa, A. (2002, July). Risk
management guide for information technology systems. NIST
Special Publication 800-30.
[7] Wailgum, T. (2004, September 15). Living in wireless denial.
CIO Magazine.Jochen Schiller, “Mobile Communications”,
Second Edition, Addison Wesley Publications, 2003,
pp. 290-292.
[8] Bluetooth Version 4.0 Released. Bluetooth SIG, available
at:http://www.bluetooth.com/Pages/High-Speed.aspx
[9] Keijo Haataja, “Security Threats and Countermeasures in
Bluetooth Enabled Systems”, Kuopio University Library, 2009,
pp. 55-62
[10] “The BlueBug”, a Bluetooth virus, available
at:http://trifinite.org/trifinite_stuff_bluebug.html
[11] John Oates, “Virus attacks mobiles via Bluetooth”, available
at:http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/06/15/ symbian_virus/
[12] F-Secure Article on Lasco.A Worm, available at:http://www.f-
secure.com/v-descs/lasco_a.shtml
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Study of Wireless Traffic Positioning System

Sanjeev Kumar1 and Akshansh Bhardwaj2
1
M.Tech, Digital Communication, Candidate Rajasthan Technical, University, Kota, India
2
B.Tech, ECE Candidate, Mahamaya Technical University, Noida, India
e-mail: 1er.sanjeev_85@rediffmail.com, 2er.akshansh@rediffmail.com

Abstract—Transportation plays an important role in
human life. If we look back towards the history of human
being and development of civilization all it started after
the invention of wheel. Invention of wheel is first step for
making transportation easy. In this paper we also put
forward a technology which makes transportation more
reliable and safe and by using this system we can make an
auto-driving system. In this system there is no need of
manually driving for whole time however a driver can
take control when he wants. We can give a name for this
system wireless traffic positioning system (WTPS). This
Hi-tech system not only provides driver guidance message
but also internet services including text messages and
multimedia messages. In this system, vehicles are
equipped with positioning device and they can be
considered as mobile sensors on road. Goods carriers are
an important part of transport through which humans can
carry things at where they need. Generally super highway
concept work for both light four wheeler and heavy
vehicles but as concerned for heavy to heavy vehicles they
are difficult to drive manually and if they are caring some
valuable things then safety are a main challenging task.
Therefore in this paper we have tried to give a solution for
that. Further we can get an advantage of superhighway
that we can manage the traffic density at peak hours on
road by blocking the rush of vehicles on superhighways
before entering.
Keywords: Vehicles ad hoc network (VANET), Vehicle
to vehicle communication (V2V), vehicle to infrastructure
communication (V2I)
I. INTRODUCTION
Today developed and developing nations are
facing a serious problem of traffic congestion. So it is
necessary to make and improve intelligent
transportation system in which vehicles are equipped
with specific kind of sensors that can sense position of
vehicles and transmit the real time information to its
centralize node. Mainly technology Goals are Safety on
Roads (huge list of situations/applications considered),
Reducing accidents, Reduce traffic congestion,
Alleviating accident damages, Traffic Conditions,
Improve transport efficiency, Monitor traffic demand
Environment, Reduce pollution, Driving Comfort,
Driver assistance and other useful applications[4].
At present the system which are use to collect
information of traffic are infrared detectors, ultrasonic
detector video camera and Global Positioning System
but all of these systems are too much costly and much
complicated. Therefore we have to focus on another
type of technology i.e., wireless ad-hoc network. This is
a feasible system to improve the present traffic
problem. Here we are going to connect a road side
station with fast moving vehicles. This paper points out
about a prototype of WTPS. In it vehicles are equipped
with wireless communication devices and considered as
the moving sensors on the road. They can calculate the
actual value of traffic speed, traffic density and other
traffic information parameter. This make further study
of communication subsystem of wireless traffic
information service system focus on the end to end
delay, hop count, packet loss rate, throughput and
effective range of inter vehicle communication.
The paper is organised as follows. In fragment II
we are going to point out about some related work to
this paper that has been done before this paper. In
fragment III guiding system for vehicle on
superhighways, in fragment IV we are going to present
a prototype of wireless traffic positioning system. In
fragment V future research direction is given. In
fragment VI conclusion is given.
II. RELATED WORK
VANET work for short range communication
effectively by which we can avoid the collision of
vehicles by giving a threat against accidence acceptable
distance. VANET is also favourable to auto payment of
toll tax and parking rent. Many works have been done
to alive this technology some of important works that
comes in our knowledge are given below.
A project was done named “Application Level
Protocol for Accident Reconstruction in Vanet” in
university of south Carolina, in sep 2007.An another
project was done in swiss fedral institute of technology
zurich in 2004, the title name was “Enginnering and
Simulation of Mobile ADHOC Protocol for VANET on
Highways and in Cities”. Some other works are
“Increasing Broadcast Relibility in vehicular AD-HOC
Networks”, in 2006 at university of Michigan by Nath
an Balon, a Masters project “Optimizing Dissemination
of Alarm Messsage in Vehicular ADHOC Networks” in
2004 at university of Avignon france, an another
masters project “Provining Vanet Security through
Position Verification” by Gyanesh Kumar Choudhary in
sep 2007at university of old dominion, a project on
“Security Issue in Vanet” in april 2010 Brac university,
Dhaka, Bangladesh,.A Sample theory of C. Lochert, B.

172 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2


Sheuermann, M. Mauve. Probabilistic “Aggregation for
Data Dissemination in VANETs”, in 2007, and an
another industrial approach is done in Feb 2006 by
French motorways companies in which 51 partners are
supporting (belongs to 12 different European countries),
the cost of this project is near to 38 million Rs. First
workshop was held in 2004 on vehicular adhoc
“Broadcast Reception Rates and Effects of Priority
Access in 802.11-Based Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks”
Marc Torrent-Moreno, University of Karlsruhe Daniel
Jiang, Daimler Chrysler RTNA, Inc. Hannes
Hartenstein, University of Karlsruhe. Some realistic
highway movement patterns (Courtesy of DC
Germany), Realistic radio propagation model at
highway scenarios using Nakagami distribution
(Courtesy of DC Palo Alto), Verified ns-2 802.11 MAC
and PHY layer (Uni-Karlsruhe) adjusted toreal 802.11a
Atheros Chips (values courtesy of Atheros).[5,6,7,8]
III. GUIDING SYSTEM FOR VEHICLES ON
SUPERHIGHWAYS
This system is based on vehicular ad-hoc network.
Here all vehicles are connected via wireless link. So
information of traffic is shared between all the vehicles.
When a vehicle enters into the superhighway they have
to register in superhighway network, this process is
very much similar to a mobile cell phone when a cell
phone goes outside from its home location it has to
register in foreign network. If any vehicles that does not
want to recognise itself then road side station ask a
question to unauthorized vehicle who are you? This
question is not as such actually road side station send a
coded digital message in repeatedly manner up to a
limit. If vehicles give reply, that is registered and
system stores this information and assign a specific ID.
If that vehicle is not answering then that vehicle is
stopped by superhighway network and information will
be passed to traffic police. if a vehicle has register it has
to define its destination and its vehicle configuration
that is basically defined by the automatic device of the
vehicle that contains information about the maximum
speed of the vehicle, fuel tank information and many
other fundamental information that are required to drive
a vehicle on superhighway automatically. Now this
system can be compared with auto flying state mode on
airways in which a track is fixed and pre-computed.
This system is very useful for detection of stolen
vehicles.
As shown in fig (a) many link roads are connected
with superhighway. Superhighway may be one way or
two ways and there may be more than three lanes.
Speed is pre fixed according to the better results. At
near the junctions, minimum speed should be there and
as we go far to junction it increases and any one or two
lane should be reserve for maximum speed of
superhighway by using that lane people can save their
time. Before entering on superhighway, registration of
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 173
Study of Wireless Traffic Positioning System
vehicles and auto toll tax should be deposited
electronically by e- banking technology (or by the
plastic money). If any vehicles that are not registered
come into the superhighway, a warning message is
given to it and finally automatically it inform to police
station.
IV. RESEARCH ACHIEVEMENTS
Multiple access protocol use to coordinate access to
a shared link. ALOHA is first developed random access
method, at the University of Hawaii in 1970. It is
designed for LAN with a data rate 9600 bps. Since in
random access technique, each node has right to use
shared link any time without control of other nodes.
ALOHA has a problem that the packets of two nodes
can be collide on shared link if they want to send
packets simultaneously. The maximum success rate of
ALOHA protocol is 18.4 %for a fixed message length
[1].In 1972, S-ALOHA (slotted ALOHA) method was
proposed by Roberts Basically S- ALOHA was a type
of multiple access technique (discrete in time), in which
whole time was divided into discrete intervals, each
intervals corresponding to one frame. Hence it is
required to wait for the beginning of the next slot [9]. In
this probability of collision is just Pk=e-G(1-e-G)k-1 [9].
Therefore to overcome this problem, another technique
was developed i.e. CSMA (carrier sense multiple access
technique) that work on the principle of “Listen before
talk” means sense before transmission. Persistent and
non persistent are the two different strategies used in
CSMA. In case of persistent strategy, node Sense the
channel if it finds channel idle, transmits the frame and
if it finds channel busy sense carrier again.
Fig. (a): A Prototype of Superhighway
In case of non persistent technique, node sense
channel if it finds idle send the frame and if it finds
busy it wait for random period of time then sense again.
CSMA cannot remove the problem totally. Let us
suppose when two nodes sense the medium no body
transfer any packets so both nodes finds shared link
idle. Therefore both nodes will transfer their packets but
they create interference. Hence CSMA can reduce the
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

possibilities of collision but it cannot eliminate it. FDMA and receiver send a idle message to its
CSMA/CD (carrier sense multiple access with collision neighbour. In this protocol data signal and
detection) is another techniques that helps to overcome acknowledgement are transmitted through a different
the problem of collisions. First of all it sets a back off technique in which first of all FDMA technique is used
limit and uses persistence strategy and send frame if and further TDMA techique is used for same carrier
nodes does not get acknowledgement it means there is frequency bands. 3D fig(c) is shown this multiple
collision it sends a jam signal and increase a back off access technique in which whole frequency channel is
limit count if back off limit count exceeds it abort. If it devided into many small frequency band and further
does not exceed it wait for back off time and further use can be shared by many ad hoc user by dividing whole
persistence strategy to sense the shared link. There are time into small time slots. As shown in 3D fig(c), third
many other protocol like CSMA/CA that give an idea of axis repersent the power of signal.
channel access for multiple user.
Here we are using a new type of medium access
protocol which knows better to superhighway as
compare to any pre-existed protocol. The name of this
protocol is NMAPS (new multiple access protocol for
superhighway). In this protocol, we are using different
techniques TDMA, FDMA & CDMA for
communication among the nodes and road side station.
Both TDMA & FDMA is for sending the data from
node to another node (V2V) and from node to road side
station. However CDMA is for signalling that tells to its Fig. (b)
neighbour node that this node is either transmitting or
Power is an important parameter because it shows
receiving data. As we know, main problem of adhoc
the ability of signal how it can go far. For request
network is fast changing topology of nodes and to get
message and reply message, it use CDMA technique, in
new paths for adhoc network and as far as concerned to
which transmitt power is reduced to less than of
vehicular adhoc network vehicles moving with very fast
interference limit however the power is enough to
speed. Therefore network topology changing
maintain the required signal to noise ratio for
probability is high on normal city highway but here (on
satisfactory communication. Since a CDMA signal is
superhighway) this is not a big issue because we can
transmitted on existed frequency band Hence it is
adjust vehicles as we want (vehicles are being drive
treated as noise for other demodultion techniques (Since
automatically). As shown in fig whenever a node wants
power level of CDMA signal is kept less than 20% of
to transmitt a data packet. It has to send a CDMA
other modulated signals like AM & FM) and due to
transmission request message towards the destination. If
this, CDMA signal is not disturbed to data and
any by pass node comes in the route of this request
acknowledge signal. Maximun capacity can be achieved
message that helps to forward this message towards
when signal to noise ratio of every signal is kept at the
destination. As this message comes on destination node.
minimum level.
Status of destination node (receiver node) is checked
(However status of node will determine by a prior node
to final destination) if it finds busy then further
communication is restricted and a CDMA reply send to
transmitter node and as this message arrive at
transmitter node it generate a idle mssage that sends to
its neighbour nodes.After a random period of time it
transmit again a CDMA request message to destination
node (after sending a CDMA transmitting message to
its neighbour). If destination node finds idle. It send a
different CDMA reply message towards transmitter Fig. (c): 3D Representation of Power Divides with Frequency
as Well as Time
node. As this CDMA reply message arrive at
transmitter node. It starts to send data packets towards
V. FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
destination and wait for acknowledegement upto a limit
beyond this limit it transmit again a duplicate copy of In future we can make a software model of this
this message. After complition of communication both research work and further more we will study about the
transmitter and receiver both transmitter and receiver end to end delay, hop count, packet loss and other
send a idle message to its neighbour. In this protocol communication parameters for equipped vehicles. There
data signal and acknowledgement are transmitted are various software available that can help this
through a different technique in which first of all research Opnet, Qualnet, NS2, NS3 and Matlab etc.

174 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India


VI. CONCLUSION
In this paper, an idea of auto-driven superhighway
is discussed and clear technical aspect as much as
possible after that a new type of protocol is discussed
named as NMAP that can accelerate new research in
many fields. Future work suggestions are also given
that can motivate new researchers.
REFERENCES
[1] Hamid Menouar and Fethi Filali, Eurecom Massimiliano
lenardi, Hitachi Europe, “A Survey and Qualitative Analysis OF
MAC Protocols for Vehicular AD HOC Networks” IEEE
Wireless Communications October 2006
[2] R. Jurdak, C. Videria Lopes, and P. Baldi, “A Survey,
Classification and Comparative Analysis of Medium Access
Control Protocols for Ad Hoc Networks,” IEEE Commun.
Surveys, 2004.
[3] Qi Chen, Daniel Jiang, Vikas Taliwal, Luca Delgrossi Daimler
Chrysler Research and Technology North America, Inc “IEEE
802.11 based Vehicular Communication Simulation Design for
NS-2” VANET’06, September 29, 2006, Los Angeles,
California, USA. Copyright 2006 ACM 1.
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 175
Study of Wireless Traffic Positioning System
[4] VANETs Marc Torrent-Moreno, Prof. Hannes Hartenstein
Decentralized Systems and Network Services Institute for
Telematics, University of Karlsruhe April 15th 2005
[5] Maythem Kamal Abbas1, Azween B. Abdullah, Department of
Computer and Information sciences University Technology
PETRONAS, Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia.
“Vehicles Speed Control via VANET”
[6] C. Farkas, Y. Kopylova, “Application Level Protocol for
Accident Reconstruction in VANETs”,Master’s Propsal,
University of South Carolina, September 2007
[7] R. Baumann, “Vehicular Ad hoc Networks (VANET)
Engineering and simulation of mobile ad hoc routing protocols
for VANET on highways and in cities”, Master’s Thesis in
Computer Science, ETH Zurich 2004
[8] Balon, N.; “Increasing Broadcast Reliability In Vehicular Ad-
Hoc Networks”, Master’s thesis, University of Michigan, 2006.
[9] Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer networks: 4th ed. Pearson
education Asia.2003.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Botnet Forensics: Survey
and Research Challenges
Meenakshi Thapliyal1, Neha Garg2 and Anchit Bijalwan3
1,2
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Graphic Era University, Dehradun, India
3
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Uttarakhand Technical University, Dehardun, India
e-mail: 1itsmemeenu123@gmail.com, 2nehagarg.february@gmail.com, 3anchit_bijalwan2000@yahoo.com
Abstract—Botnet has recently been recognized as
one of the most significant security threats/worms of the
Internet. Latest attacks are increasingly complex, and
utilize many strategies in order to perform their intended
malicious/hazardous task. Attackers have developed the
ability of controlling vast area of infected hosts,
characterized by complex executable command set, each
involved in cooperative and coordinated attacks. So we
will propose the advanced approach related botnet
detection and analysis in the near future. This paper
demonstrates a novel approach of botnet investigations
and defense mechanisms.
Keywords: Bot, Botnet, C&C, Analysis
I. INTRODUCTION
Currently, Computer networks and hosts have
always been under attack by computer-generated
problems. Bot, malicious software has been a global
crisis. A network of bots constitutes a botnet which is a
potent general purpose distributed supercomputer.
Botnet represent a very serious threat to the Internet
security because they can be used to initiate massive
attacks against which there are no effective mitigation
strategies. The Botnet is a network of large number of
the infected end host called Bots which is controlled by
a remote human operator called “Botmaster”. A bot is
installed in a compromised machine and botmaster
operates the bots via command and control(C&C). The
term ‘bot’ is used to denote a computer that is infected
by malicious code which often exploits software
vulnerabilities on the computer to allow a malicious
get-together commonly denoted as ‘botherder’ to
control the computer from a remote location without the
user’s knowledge and consent [1].
Once infected with a bot, the victim host will join a
botnet, which is a network of compromised machines
that are under the control of a malicious entity,
typically referred to as the botmaster. Botnets are the
primary means for cyber-criminals to carry out their
nefarious tasks, such as sending spam mails, launching
denial-of-service attacks, or stealing personal data such
as mail accounts or bank credentials. This reflects
the shift from an environment in which malware was
developed for fun, to the current situation, where
malware is spread for financial profit. Denial-of-service
(DoS) attacks, phishing, spamming, key logging, click
176
fraud, identity theft and information exhilaration is
main hazardous behavior which is associated with the
botnet. Botnets apply a self-propagating function to
infected hosts. Given the importance of the problem,
significant research effort has been invested, to gain a
better understanding of the botnet phenomenon.
Botnet detection: It is the technique of detecting a
bots from the network. Botnet detection strategies are
broadly divided into two types:
• Host based approach: Detecting bots
activities on a single machine.
• Network based approach: Detecting bots
activities on a network.
One approach to study botnets is to perform
passive analysis of secondary effects that are caused by
the activity of compromised machines [2]. For
example, researchers have collected spam mails that
were likely sent by bots. It is collecting the data
through monitoring activities which can be tracked
without interfering with the environment or tampering
with the evidence. Other researchers analyzed IRC
traffic, capable of identifying botnet related activities.
A more active approach to study botnets is via
infiltration. It contains approaches that involve
interaction with the information sources being
monitored. Infiltration of botnets can be divided into:
software and hardware based techniques. The first
covers research on the bot executable and monitored
traffic to achieve control and conduct measurements.
The latter can be applied if access to the command-and-
control server is possible and may be used to wiretap
the communication. According to the command and
control (C&C) models, botnets are separated into two
groups, centralized (e.g., IRC and HTTP) and
distributed (e.g., P2P). Centralized botnet utilize two
mechanisms to get the command from the server,
which is push and pull. In the push system, bots are
associated to the C&C server (e.g., IRC server) and
wait for the commands from the botmaster. In
contrast, in the pull mechanism, the botmaster sets the
commands in a file at C&C server (e.g., HTTP server),
and the bot often connect to the server to read the most
recent commands. While in centralized structure all
bots receive the commands from a definite server, in
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2

distributed structure the command files will be mutual
over P2P networks by botmaster and bots can
use explicit search keys to find the available command
files [3].
Botnet Analysis is to determine the path from a
victim network or system through any intermediate
systems and communication pathways, back to the point
of attack.
• Static Analysis: Static analysis /White box
testing is the process of understanding the
behavior of a program without executing it.
The analysis checks the presence of viruses in
file system such as firewall logs.
• Dynamic Analysis: Dynamic Analysis/ Black
box testing differs from static analysis is that
the bot is executed, usually in a controlled
environment.
How, what and where is done by bots, that is
botnet forensics Analysis. Forensic is a discipline based
on science & technology to investigate and establish
facts in criminal & civil courts. It deals with
collecting, analyzing and helps in presenting evidences
in a court of law. Network forensics is the science that
deals with capture, recording, and analysis of network
traffic for detecting intrusions and investigating
them [4].
The rest of paper is organized as following.
Section 2 introduces the botnet life cycle and structure,
Section 3 research related studies, botnet defense
technique which is required by mitigation of botnet
is detail in Section 4, and some researchers
challenges in Section 5, at last, we discuss conclusion
and future directions in Section 6.
II. BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION
Bot, botmaster and C&C are the basic elements of
the botnet. These elements play a significant role in
survival of the botnet.There are five phases involved in
a botnet life cycle [5].
Primary infection is the First phase of botnet life
cycle, where a host is infected and becomes a possible
bot. This phase is characterized by a expected computer
infection procedure, which may be passed away in
different behavior as a typical virus infection through
unwanted downloads of malware from websites,
infected removable disks, infected files attached to
email messages, etc.
Second phase is defined as the secondary
injection.After the first phase be successfully
completed, the infected host runs a program that
searches for malware binaries in a given network
database. When downloaded and executed, these
binaries make the host behave as a zombie.
Downloading bot binaries is usually performed by FTP,
HTTP or P2P protocols.
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 177
Botnet Forensics: Survey and Research Challenges
Fig. 1: Botnet Life Cycle
Third phase is scheduled every time the host is
restarted to ensure the botmaster that the bot is taking
element in the botnet and is capable to receive
commands to perform malicious activities. After
establishing the command and control channel the bot
waits for commands to perform malicious activities.
Fourth phase is ready to perform an attack.
Malicious/ Hazardous activities includes a wide range
as information theft, performing DDoS attacks,
extortion, monitoring network traffic, spreading
malware, stealing computer resources, and unprotected
computers, identity theft, phishing, spamming,
manipulating games and surveys, etc.
Fifth phase is maintenance and up gradation which
is the most important phase of botnet life cycle.
Maintenance is necessary if the botmaster wants to keep
his army of zombies. It may be necessary to update
codes for many reasons, including evading detection
techniques, adding new features or migrating to another
C&C. This phase usually measures a susceptible step.
As the botmaster intends to broadcast updates as soon
as possible, some behavioral patterns of the stations
belonging to the network may emerge and make the
botnet detectable. Changes in behavior are typically
observed, for instance, in DNS queries and file sharing,
and among other areas. After bots are updated, they
must establish new connections with the C&C
infrastructure.
Botnets, networks of malware infected machines
controlled by an adversary, are the root cause of a large
number of Internet security problems.
A. Proliferation and Cooperation Botnet
Botnet infected system can infect other machines
connected to it. System used to conduct packet floods,
attackers install their malicious software on victim’s
hosts has evolved significantly over time [6].
Modification that happened once is the move from a
single propagation vector, that might have required a
manual installation process by the attacker, to multiple
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
automated propagation vectors. For example, The
Slammer worm used a single vulnerability to infect
hosts while more modern bots have many distinct,
completely automated propagation vectors/ SDBot
(rBot) propagates using a number of different
mechanisms including open files shares, P2P networks,
backdoors left by previous worms, and using exploits of
numerous common Windows vulnerabilities.
B. C& C (Command and Control)
Communication is the next major problem of the
botnet attacker. Most attackers would communicate to
bots but do not interact to the exposed bots. Botnet has
three potential topologies:
Centralized:
A centralized topology is characterized by a central
point that communicates among clients. Malicious IRC
botnet/ HTTP botnet is typical Centralized botnet [7].
They can be easily detected as many Clients connect the
same point, and it can stop the activity of botnet with
blocking C&C. Usually consisting of a central node
distributing messages between network clients. They
are characterized by:
• Low latency due to the small number of hops
required to transmit the orders from the
botmaster.
• Direct connection to order distribution nodes,
which can compromise the security of the
network in case of accidental detection of a
node.
• Implemented using different communication
protocols, most typically IRC and HTPP.
Fig. 2: Centralized Botnet Structure
1) Peer-to-peer
P2P topology does not have Command & Control
server. In a peer to peer architecture a node can act as
both client and server and there is lack of centralized
point for command and control.
178 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
A P2P botnet do not requires formal coordination
and even if a node is taken offline by the defender, the
network still remains under the control of the attacker.
A botmaster transfer command to a bot peer, a
command spreads all zombie peers by communicating
with each other. They have the advantage of being more
difficult to destabilize as they do not have a unique core
which issues orders and/or sharing resources and
information, making use of the facilities of traditional
P2P networks allow a high connection and
disconnection ratios. Each node has greater structural
complexity because all of them can act as both, client
and server, being more difficult to intercept and study.
P2P botnets aim at removing the failure point
which is the main limitation and vulnerability of
centralized networks [6,7] P2P communication system is
much strong, complex and does not guarantees message
delivery or latency. Transferring command of P2P
botnet is slow to compare with centralized botnet.
This means that the compromise of a single bot does
not necessarily mean the loss of the entire botnet. e.g.,
Peacomm, Mega-D, Waledac etc.
Fig. 3: Peer to Peer Botnet Structure
2) Hybrid
A hybrid peer-to-peer botnet based on the
unstructured P2P protocols[8]. A hybrid botnet will be
divided into servent and client bot. The servent bot
receives the commands from the bot master, and
forwards it to the client. Example is the Nugache
botnet (2006). The hybrid P2P botnet is equivalent to a
C&C botnet where servent bots take the role of C&C
servers, the number of C&C servers (servent bots) is
greatly enlarged, and they interconnect with each other.
In hybrid P2P Botnet, in comparision to current botnet,
it is harder to shut down,monitored and hijacked.

3) Attacks and Theft
The next core problem for botnet attackers is how
to extract value from a bot infected node. Botnets used
to initiate simple DoS (denial of service) attacks
quickly evolved into multi-host distributed DDoS
attacks involving large numbers of computers. SDBot
and Agobot both have remotely accessible commands
for initiating DDoS attacks. Botmaster find out the
information stored on infected computers/the networks.
Attackers can use stolen credit card/ social security
numbers, and other personal information for identity
theft and to commit industrial intelligence. Example
like advanced key logging techniques to collect
private information is SDBot. However, one of most
important use of bots is to send Spam. Sending Spam
requires large numbers of new mail servers and bot-
infected hosts proved to be the perfect tool. For
example, the Storm botnet has a remotely controllable
interface for conducting Spam campaigns and a large
number of hosts in the Storm botnet were used to send
millions of Spam messages. Finally, botnets are also
used in a flexible platforms to run arbitrary network
services such as for phishing attacks.
III. STATE-OF-ART
Botnets have recently gained high interest by the
scientific area, media and industry. In recent year there
have been many approaches to analyze botnet behaviors.
Kugisaki et al. [9] studied on the behavior of IRC
which connected to an IRC server. By this novel
approach, they provide a healthy view regarding the
judgments of bots more than past viruses and bots
detection by computerization. Further works are
investigation of more objects(problem of verification
and generality),duration of detection by concrete
visible and Measures against bots that does not use
IRC.
Mused et al. [10] proposed a multiple log-file
based temporal correlation technique for detecting C&C
traffic. Main assumption is that bots respond much faster
than humans. They applied log files technique produced
by tcpdump and exedump, which recall all incoming
and outgoing network packets and the start times of
application execution at the host machine. The naval
idea of correlating multiple log files and applying data
mining for detecting botnet C&C traffic. They
implement a prototype system and evaluate its
performance through different classifiers as Support
Vector machine, decision tree, ByesNets, Boosted
decision tree and Naivy.
Botmaster command categories can be used to
detect control and command traffic and show the C&C
payloads are not directly available.
Kalakota et al. [11] proposed Dynamic Early
Filtering of Internet Traffic (DEFT), a novel approach
which encodes unwanted traffic filtering rules. They
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 179
Botnet Forensics: Survey and Research Challenges
implemented Quagga routing software which consists
four major components, namely rule generation
component, rule dissemination component, rule
management component, and rule security component.
The experimental results show that DEFT can
effectively mitigate the impacts of malicious unwanted
traffic to ensure efficient network utilization by the
legitimate traffic. DEFT is designed to be a
comprehensive and sustainable framework that
coordinates the routers in the Internet to achieve early
filtering of malicious unwanted packets in Internet
traffic. It is expected that the DEFT framework can
have the offending unwanted traffic filtered early and
can bring the benefits of reduced latency and increased
throughput for legitimate traffic. However, the
benefits are not always guaranteed along with the
deployment of DEFT. If the DEFT is not appropriately
configured, the benefits may be relatively small. This
is mainly due to the cost of filtering: a router’s
action of filtering packets against a rule will incur extra
packet processing overhead, and all the packets, no
matter unwanted packets or good packets, need to be
matched against the installed rules.
Li et al. [12] proposed ADSIR model based on the
difference of propagation capacity using the real traffic
data of conficker. Conficker is a worm outbreak
recently which forms a large botnet and became a huge
threat to the security of the internet. The redirect
technology of domain name was used to monitor the
conficker. They built a propagation model of botnet
based on conficker monitoring. Botnet and worm’s
propagation follow the strategy of the nearest priority
model must similarly improve considering propagation
in different time zone and divide each country into
different time zone.
Wei et al. [3] proposed BotCop, advanced generic
online botnet traffic classification system. Setting up and
installing honeypots on the Internet is very helpful to
capture malware and understand the basic behavior of
botnets, and, as a result, makes it possible to create
bot binaries or botnet signatures.
BotCop into different application communities by
using payload signatures /a novel decision tree model,
and then on each obtained application community,
the temporal-frequent characteristic of flows is studied
and analyzed to differentiate the malicious
communication traffic created by bots from normal
traffic generated by human beings. The major
contributions of this paper include: (1)Propose a novel
application discovery approach for automatically
classifying network applications on a large scale WiFi
ISP network; and (2) Develop a generic algorithm to
discriminate general botnet behavior from the normal
network traffic on a specific application community,
which is based on n-gram (frequent characteristics ) of
flow payload over a time period(temporal
characteristics).
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
Li et al. [13] focused on all phases of botnets as
Spreading, Forming, Waiting for Commands. Network
traffic and honeypots is novel approach to monitor and
analysis of P2P lifetime. The network traffic monitoring
and analysis approach is useful to identify the existence
of botnet in the networks. Kademlia, a new botnet
protocol is designed which is a realistic method to deal
with index poisoning in this protocol.
The new botnet over this protocol is called Overbot.
Simulation tests were operated to evaluate the
performance of index poisoning attack. To simulate a
P2P botnet with 4000 nodes, time in the simulated
network is moving 60 times faster than normal, by
using index poisoning technique. It is at least more
effectively to mitigate P2P botnets than before.
Dae-il et al. [7] studied the malicious HTTP2P
botnet. Malicious botnet is evolving very quickly and
use many ways to evade detection system. The change
of protocol is the most important part of the malicious
botnet’s evolution and evasion techniques. The initial
malicious botnet was using the IRC protocol for
communication between the command and control
server and the zombie system. After that they used
HTTP protocol on the firewall-friendly and the P2P
protocol to escape Client/Server architecture.
Investigation of waledac was to find out more about the
actual size of botnet.
Igor Kotenko et al. [14] proposed an approach of
botnet simulation and defence in the Internet. It is
examined by interaction of different agents teams.
Environment for the agent-oriented simulation was
developed on the basis of OMNeT++ INET Framework.
Botnet defence can be considered in two main
categories botnet detection/response techniques and
measurement. Agent- based simulation of cyber attacks
and cyber–defense mechanisms which combines
discrete-event simulation, multi-agent approach and
packet- level simulation of network protocols. The
investigation of attack and defence scenarios has been
finished on the basis of analysis of two main classes of
parameter: the amount of incoming attack traffic before
and after the filter team, which network is the attack
victim, false positive and false negative rates of attack
detection. This paper shows the best result on blocking
the attack traffic. This software simulation environment
has been used to investigate various cooperative
distributed defence mechanisms.
Borgaonkar et al. [1] studied the design and
structure of the Asprox botnet. They investigated the C
& C structure used by Asprox botnet, the
communication protocols, the drive-by download
technique for spreading malicious content and the
advanced fast-flux service network. The main features
of the Asprox botnet are the use of centralized
command and control structure, HTTP based
communication, use of advanced double fast-flux
service networks, use of SQL injection attacks for
180 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
recruiting new bots and social engineering tricks to
spread malware binaries. Hydra fast-flux network, use
of SQL injection attack tool is advanced features of
Asprox. This paper introduced the botnet advanced
features such as hydra fast-flux network.
AsSadhan et al. [15] discovered a bots by looking
for periodic behavior in the Command and Control
communication traffic in the monitored network. They
extract from a bot’s Command and Control
communication traffic the packet count sequence to
evaluate its periodogram.
Riccardi et al. [16] proposed the framework aimed
to manage the whole workflow of identifying,
analyzing, and mitigating a financial botnet, ranging
from an initial malware analysis to the creation of
specific feedback and knowledge shared with interested
parties cooperating to fight cybercrime.
This paper presents a work-in-progress research
aimed at creating a system able to mitigate the financial
botnet problem. The proposed system is based on a
novel architecture that has been validated by one of the
biggest savings banks in Spain.
Goel et al. [17] focused on a practical host-based
methodology to the collect evidentiary information from
a Bot- infected machine. They studied on the analysis of
BotNet behaviors, propagation, and method to detect
and stop their proliferation. There approach collects
digital traces from both the network and physical
memory of the infected local host, and correlates the
information to identify the resident BotNet malware
involved. Bot-herders are constantly evolving and
adapting the structure of their BotNets at the network
level to create ever more robust control mechanisms,
and to avoid current detection techniques.
Binsalleeh et al. [18] focused on reverse
engineering results for the Zeus crimeware toolkit, one
of the recent and powerful crime ware tools that
emerged in the Internet underground community to
control botnets. The Zeus crimeware toolkit is an
advanced tool used to generate very effective malware
that facilitates criminal activities. They have also
designed a tool to automate the recovery of the
encryption key and the extraction of the configuration
information from the binary bot executables. Analyze
and extract the Zeus C&C servers use encryption input
system.
Flaglien et al. [19] proposed on the design
framework for discovering and correlating evidence
from multiple components in a particular computer.
To combine multiple evidence sources, all the data
must be represented in the same format, designed a
common representation format for evidence from
multiple sources. The correlation method supports
forensic investigations using link mining techniques.
Stone-Gross et al. [2] focused on efforts to control
of the Torpig botnet. It is large and targets a variety of
applications, gathers a rich and diverse set of data from

the infected victims. Analyzing a cyber-warfare
scenario, the possibility of taking over botnet control
may also be considered to conduct counter- attack
actions. They describe their experience in actively
seizing control of the Torpig botnet for ten days. Torpig
introduces Mebroot only when necessary to understand
Torpig’s behavior. These primarily focus on the Master
Boot Record (MBR) overwriting rootkit technique
employed by Mebroot.
Balzarotti et al. [20] focused on infection data
from major botnets: Conficker, MegaD, and Srizbi. In
this analysis, they examine commonly-infected
networks which appear to be extremely prone to
malware infection. They provide an in- depth passive
and active measurement study. CAIDA provides basic
information about the victim distribution of the
Conficker botnet in terms of their IP address space and
physical location. They have proposed and verified
cross-botnet prediction techniques to predict unknown
victims of one botnet from the information of the other
botnet if they have similar infection vectors. In future
work, they will study new approaches to explain
relationships between geopolitical locations and
malware infection more clearly with some realistic
examples.
IV. BOTNET DEFENSE TECHNIHUES
Defense techniques against bots focused on two
main activities: propagation and bot communication.
Combating bot/worm spread directly affects the
number of compromised machines in a botnet, thus
reducing the network power and utility to the
botmaster. Conversely, considering already infected
machines, another form of defense is to stop the
communication between bots and C&C servers. The
two defense approaches mentioned in main areas:
prevention, treatment and containment. For the
defense to be effective there must be actions
performed by users, network administrators, and
Internet Service Providers (ISPs). For propagation, the
most important features for worm spreading are the
number of vulnerable machines, infection duration, and
infection rate. Prevention techniques thus aimed to
reduce the vulnerable population, limit the worm
spread, and reduce the botnet size. Preventive actions
are related to secure software development, updated
system maintenance, vulnerability removal, antivirus
program use, training, and user social economic power.
Mechanisms employed in malware control are also
effective in combating botnets, but that action alone is
not enough to stop these threats. Treatment is related to
disinfecting zombies to reduce the number of bots and
perform system updates to reduce vulnerable hosts and
the worm spread rate. The main reasons for using
containment and blocking strategies include the
following: Blocking can be automated after bot
detection, without depending on human action. These
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 181
Botnet Forensics: Survey and Research Challenges
strategies may be implemented directly on the network
without an overall solution to all hosts on the Internet.
Containment mechanisms must be considered in three
aspects as follows: Detection and reaction time,
Strategy used to identify and contain Solution topology
and scope. Two techniques were used to gather such
information:
mwcollectd developed a software, honeypot [21].
The honeypots compromised and joined a botnet.
Behaving as normal bots in the botnet, these honey pot
spies provide valuable information about the monitored
botnet activities. The software was designed to be
infected and automate the information gathering tasks.
It acts like a low-interact-tive honeypot, emulating
services and vulnerabilities. Such emulations increase
the likelihood that the botmaster would realize that it is
a monitoring device and evade the system. After botnet
infiltration, the authors propose a way to turn the botnet
off, changing the DNS server configuration. If the name
resolution is redirected to private addresses, bots could
not connect to the C&C server anymore, and the
botnet itself would be disarticulated. This approach
requires the cooperation of the DNS provider. With the
involvement of the DNS provider, one may also take
control of the entire network by simply configuring a
C&C server. Network forensics involves monitoring
network traffic and determining if there is an anomaly
in the traffic and ascertaining whether it indicates an
attack. If an attack is detected, then the nature of the
attack is also determined. Botnet forensic techniques
enable investigators to track back the attackers. The
ultimate goal is to provide sufficient evidence to allow
the perpetrator to be prosecuted. Botnet forensics can
be used to analyze how the attack occurred, who was
involved in that attack, duration of the exploit, and the
methodology used in the attack. Botnet security
protects system against attack while botnet forensics
focuses on recording evidence of the attack. Botnet
security products are generalized and look for possible
harmful behaviors. This monitoring is a Botnet process
and is performed all through the day. But, network
forensics involves postmortem investigation of the
attack and is initiated notitia criminis (after crime
notification). It is case specific as each crime scenario
is different and the process is time bound. Botnet
security as the data for forensic analysis are collected
from security products like firewalls and intrusion
detection systems. The results of this data analysis are
utilized for investigating the attacks. However, there
may be certain crimes which do not breach. Botnet
security policies may be legally prosecutable. These
crimes can be handled only by botnet forensics, so
botnet defences can be organized by phase (Avoidance,
detection, and reply) and by role (agent or target).
Defenses for each of the resulting six situations (three
phases and two roles for each) are presented in Table I
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

TABLE 1: BOTNET DEFENSE

Avoidance Detection Reply
Possible Agent Possible Target Agent Action Target Action Agent Response Target Response
1. Remote Establishing 1. Botnet 1. Apply 1. A trap and 1. Try filtering if small set of
users Distributed denial of network is regular trace source IPs are detected.
Protection service defenses as observe for Detection system is 2. Change the target’s IP address
2. Execute & appropriate (traffic system technique separated. and black whole the attack traffic
observe filtering, multiple behaviour 2. Defined 2. Judge must be upstream
perimeter internet connection,IP 2. Monitor distribute strict for 3. When attacks, apply
security switching ability,) transfers d source. preserving following strategy:
3. Apply e-mail suspect evidence a) Identify the attack traffic and
4. handling email file 3. Preserve the block it upstream.
security and IDs data and b) Add bandwidth (depends on the
System systems relevant attack size)
maintenance 3. Anomalous system locks c) Supply only significant services
5. Users activity (firewalls, d) User rate-limiting
education is discuss mail servers,
on traffic IDs, DHCP
profiles Server,
Webproxy
locks etc.)
4. Disconnect
the network.

V. RESEARCH CHALLENGES the admissibility criteria in a court of law. Investigate

A. Collection and Detection
The first step in Botnet forensic analysis involves
collection of bots and detection of attacks. Routinely
hackers develop new bots (Grum, TDL-4) which
challenges detection of bots. The bots involve IDS
and firewall logs, logs generated by network
services and applications, packet captures. A data
process will be sufficient for discovery of malicious
behavior and a full capture is required for
reconstruction of attack behavior. A botnet is an army
of compromised machines, also known as zombies, that
are under the command and control of a single
botmaster.
B. Botnet Size
Waledac Botnet size estimation is difficult because
botnet itself was capable of sending about 1.5 billion
spam messages a day, or about 1% of the total global
spam volume. It will be difficult to operate on a new
botnet, especially on the encrypted botnet.
C. Analysis
Passive anomaly analysisis usually independent of
the traffic content and has the potential to find different
types of botnets (e.g., HTTP, IRC and P2P). This
approach is, however, limited to a specific botnet
structure (e.g.centralized only). Honeypot due to the
difficulty in setup and the active analysis required, the
value of honeypots on large-scale networks is rather
limited.
D. Investigation
The investigation must enable attribution of an
attack to a host or a network. The results must meet
robust botnet unwanted traffic detection algorithms and
how to filter botnet command and control (C&C)
traffic early.
E. Temporal Correlation Technique
This technique utilize between DNS queries and
entropy- based correlation between domain names, for
speedier detection. It is difficult to applied a more
system level logs such as Process/service executions,
memory/CPU utilization, disk reads/writes. It is a
biggest challenges server failure based DNS failures,
or failures related to the name servers, as a means
for detecting botnets which exhibit double fast flux.
Cryptography: Asprox botnet does not suitable
strong for Cryptography.In the botnet architecture,
authenticity and integrity of the bot commands is
important.
VI. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
The main problem of the botnet system
infection that non technical person is not be alert of
this malware infection. So this infection direct
influence the daily humans life. On the other hand
hackers take the unwanted profit of this infection. The
BotNets can include viruses, Trojan backdoors and
remote controls, hacker tools such as tools to hide
from the operating system, as well as non malicious
tools that are useful. The botherder remotely access the
botclient and perfume its malicious operation without
the knowledge of victim (botclient). Bot clients
follow certain common steps that will help both
investigators and researchers in finding ways to
discover, defend against, and reduce the threat of
botnet technology. Similarly, studying the reasons
behind each of the botnet payload can reveal strategy

182 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Botnet Forensics: Survey and Research Challenges

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Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 183

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Study on TCP Congestion Control Mechanism
in Wireless Network
Himanshu Chanyal1, Hardwari Lal Mandoria2 and Pranavi Tayal3
1,2,3
Dept. of Information Technology, College of Technology, GBPUA&T Pantnagar (Uttarakhand), India
e-mail: 1himanshu.chanyal @gmail.com, 2drmandoria@gmail.com, 3diligent.virgos@gmail.com
Abstract: Wireless network are going to be pervasive,
and hence it is almost impossible to keep ourselves away
from this technology, but still wire network has its own
significance which can not be ignored due its reliability.
The major difference between both technologies is that
wireless has more error prone attitude to packet
transmission with respect to wired network. Among the
available transport level protocol, TCP is the most
prominent due to its characteristics and lay term use in
application. Rather than concentrating on new transport
layer protocol, we have improved the present TCP
congestion control mechanism so that it can be used
universally on wired and wireless technology. One of the
reasons behind the degradation of TCP congestion control
mechanism performance is considering packet loss due to
corruption in channel as network congestion. In this paper
we have discussed the TCP congestion control mechanisms
in Wireless Network.
Keywords: Modified TCP, TCP congestion control,
Adaptive window management.
I. INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT
A. TCP Congestion Control
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) [9, 10] used
in wired networks uses Adaptive Window Management
to control packets being offered to the network. This
algorithm allows the sender to adapt its sending rate to
the current traffic conditions in the path it is using for
the particular flow. The TCP protocol [3] incorporates
sender-receiver flow control through
acknowledgements being sent, from the destination to
the source node, for the packets received. Using these
acknowledgement packets, the congestion control
mechanism operates as follows: The source TCP uses a
Window parameter which is the maximum number of
unacknowledged packets that it can have at any given
time during the connection. This restricts the maximum
number of packets that the sender can offer to the
network without having received the acknowledgement
for any of them. Adaptive Window Control involves
adaptively changing the size of the transmission
window based on the acknowledgement packets that
the source has received [6].
Most of the TCP are not aware of network
condition such that they may not be able to control
congestion precisely and promptly resulting in unstable
184
bandwidth utilization. If two end hosts can obtain
network information from routers, they will be able to
execute congestion control more efficiently. With
respective to a path, congestion usually occurs in the
bottleneck point which has the minimum available
bandwidth. If the sender can adjust the data rate
dynamically according to the status of the bottleneck,
TCP induced congestion should be avoid or dissolved
efficiently. Therefore, Yao-Nan Lien et al. [11] propose
a new congestion control mechanism TCP Muzha,
which takes router-assisted approach to dynamically
adjust the size of congestion window (i.e. data rate)
according the router information, and to deal with
random loss.
B. Congestion Control in Wireless Networks
Adaptive Window based control as used by TCP
[2] was designed for use in wired networks. It becomes
imperative to ask whether the same mechanism will
also work in the case of wireless networks. In order to
be able to answer this question, we need to understand
the differences between wired and wireless networks.
The most dominant difference between wired and
wireless networks is the time- varying random
fluctuations in the wireless channel. Hence, it is not
clear whether mechanisms being used in wired
networks will perform comparably in wireless
networks as well. In TCP, the window size W is
reduced whenever packets are lost assuming that the
loss is due to traffic congestion along the path of the
flow under consideration. This assumption is not valid
in wireless networks since the channel may have been
in a poor state thereby causing the packet to be lost
at the physical layer (OSI Model) itself. The statistics
of this type of loss may be very different from a packet
dropping at a router queue due to traffic congestion [6].
Thus, we need to understand:
• Whether there is a need to distinguish between
traffic related losses and channel related
losses in wireless networks.
• If we agree to distinguish between the two,
we need to find efficient ways of achieving
this objective.
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
 Study on TCP Congestion Control Mechanism in Wireless Network
• Formulate strategies to take different
corrective actions for each of the above
causes.
Mukesh Kumar Dhariwal et al. [7] presented an
improved mechanism for TCP congestion control. It
considers the influences sending rate to TCP sender’s
packet only by the congestion. The drop rate for TCPM
is calculated according to total packet received and total
packet acknowledgment in network. So, there is less
packet drop in transmission.
Rejaie et al. present in [9] an adaptation scheme
called the rate adaptation protocol (RAP). Just as with
TCP, sent packets are acknowledged by the receivers
with losses indicated either by gaps in the sequence
numbers of the acknowledged packets or timeouts. The
sender estimates the round trip delay using the
acknowledgment packets. If no losses were detected,
the sender periodically increases its transmission rate
additively as a function of the estimated round trip
delay. After detecting a loss the rate is multiplicatively
reduced by half in a similar manner to TCP.
C. Problem Identification
Unfortunately present TCP mechanism [11, 10]
could not give expected result due to packet loss due to
corruption in channel. We know internet technology is
changing fast and wireless network is becoming
pervasive all around, and packet lost in wireless
network may not imply congestion in network because
it may happen due to weather condition, obstacles and
multipath interfaces, mobility of wireless end-devices
signal attenuation and fading. So our assumption upon
which network congestion window has been changing
in TCP congestion control mechanism is not
appropriate for wireless. The overall goal of congestion
control is to optimize the performance in a
communication network. This optimization means,
roughly that sending rates at the data source should be
as high as possible, without overloading the network.
The primary measure of network overload is packet
losses
When the arrival rate at a link exceeds capacity the
corresponding queue start to build up, and when the
queue is full, packet must be discarded the bottleneck
links in the network should be fully utilized. The
requirement of a small loss rate implies that the
average arrivals rate at each bottleneck link should
either match the link capacity exactly, or be very
slightly larger.
D. Packet Loss Rate
In wireless mobile networks [7], usually loss of
packets is because of congestion of data on the wireless
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 185
link. Wireless networks are characterized by large
error rates due to fading, noise, interference from
other sources and mobile host movement. Due to large
error rate, packet losses due to congestion in the
wireless link are more as compared to congestion
losses. The packet loss rate depends on lost packet it
will be occur due to congestion. Packet drop rate is
not adjusted when the congestion loss rate is low, but it
is required to decrease the drop rate rapidly to
improve the reliability when the congestion loss rate
becomes higher. Otherwise, there will be more lost
packets due to congestion and more packets will be
retransmission, responding the poor transmission
reliability and more energy consumption of mobile
hosts. Total drop rate is denoted by Td [8]. If sender
sends n packets in a time period T and m packets of
them be discard because one or more bits error caused
by wireless link congestion, the total drop rate is define
as
Td = Tr–Ta
II. MODIFIED TRANSPORT CONTROL PROTOCOL
Modified Transport Control Protocol (TCPM) is
the improved TCP congestion control mechanism for
wireless network [7]. It considers the influences to TCP
sender’s packet sending rate only by the congestion
but also by the link failure. It is a good reference to
apply the TCP to wireless networks.
A. Fast Retransmission and Fast Recovery
If the network congestion or heavy corruption, the
fast recovery algorithm will be taken. When the
network congestion, set ssthresh to one-half the flight
size or double of MSS (maximum segment size)
window.
B. Congestion Avoidance Algorithm
If the congestion window size (cwnd) is less than
or equal to the slow start threshold size (ssthresh),
TCPM is in slow start; otherwise TCPM is performing
congestion avoidance.
C. Slow-Start Algorithm
The slow start algorithm is used to start a
connection of TCPM and the periods after the value
of retransmission timer exceed the RTO
(retransmission timeout). In the start of TCPM, the size
of cwnd will be initialized to 1.
D. Initial Window
The initial sending window is calculated by
following formula [7]:
Iw= min (4 * SMSS, Max (2 * SMSS, 4380 byte));
Proceedingss of National Co
onference on Tre
ends in Signal Processing
P & Co
ommunication (TSPC’13) 12th–
–14th April 2013
3

III. VARIOUS
A PERFO
ORMANCE MATTRICES USED Fig 1 & 2 shows
s signal received wiith error of
IN TCCP CONGESTIO
ON CONTROL MECHANISM [7] diffeerent variants with pause tiime and numbber of node
in network
n [6]. It is observeed that TCPM M has less
a) Paccket loss is thhe measure of total discaarded
errorr signal thann other TCP P variants, because
b of
packket due to corruption or duue to packet drop.
optimmal routing path betweeen sender an nd receiver.
It caan be calculaate by subtraccting total received
Increement in thee no. of noodes causes congestion
packkets by serverr with total sennt packet by client.
c
conssequently signnal were distorrted.
b) Signnal received with error is i the measuure of
signnal received, but they havve error. The error
mayy be occurringg due to noisse or due to heavy h
trafffic.
c) Throoughput is thhe measure of o the number of
packkets successffully transmittted to their final
desttination per unnit time. It iss the ratio bettween
the numbers
n of seent packets vss. received pacckets.
d) Bytees received are
a the measuure of total packet
p
receeived by servver. The packkets may be drop
due to heavy traaffic. So received packetss may
be vary
v accordingg to traffic connditions.

IV. RESULT AND ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT

CONGESTIONN CONTROL MECHANISM
E
Fig. 3: TCP Window
W vs. Time (With Power Control)
These are the simulation
s reesult which was
performed in QUALNE ET simulator by
b Mukesh Kumar
K Fig no. 3 & 4 the simuulation for th he Adaptive
dhariwal and
a Sanjeev Sharma for the t Modified TCP winddow managemment to controol the packet has shown
congestionn control mechhanism. throu
ugh MATLAB B [7]. Graph shows the com mparison of
TCPP window vs Time
T and Chaannel data ratee vs Time.

Fig. 1

Fig. 4: Channel Data Rate vs. Tim

me (With Power Control)
C

V. CONCLU
USION

The adaptivee power contrrol algorithm m over TCP

certaainly improvves the perfformance in terms of
throuughput. Thuss using ‘purre’ TCP oveer wireless
work is sub--optimal. Thhe algorithm converges
netw
rapiddly and can be b a candidatte for jointly combating
fadinng and congestion in wirelless network. The ability
to dynamically
d c
control the trransmit poweer provides
anoth her control ovver the link prrices and hencce influence
the feedback
f for the TCP conttrol system. This
T in turns
imprroves the perfformance. Annother congesttion control
mech hanism of moodified TCP (T TCPM) is pro oposed with
Fig. 2 a calculation for packet drop and implemeents it in a

186 ‹ Bhag
gwant Institute of
o Technology, Muzaffarnagar,
M Uttar Pradesh, India
 Study on TCP Congestion Control Mechanism in Wireless Network
mobile adhoc network. The simulation shows that the
performance of TCPM is better than other TCP
variants. The performance of TCP variants are analyzed
on various parameter like pause time, size of network.
Result shows that the performance of TCPM is better in
high density nodes as in this circumstances sender can
get different paths through different nodes.
REFERENCES
[1] G. Holland and N. Vaidya, “Analysis of TCP performance over
mobile ad hoc networks,” in Proc. ACM/IEEE Int. Conf. on
Mobile Computing, Seattle, WA, USA, Sept. 1999,
pp. 219–230.
[2] W.G. Zeng and Lj. Trajkovic, “TCP packet control for wireless
networks,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. on Wireless and Mobile
Computing, Networking and Communications (WiMob 2005),
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[3] J. Postel, “Transmission control protocol,” RFC 793,
Sept.1981.
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 187
[4] H. Balakrishna, V.N. Padmanabhan, S. Srinivasan, and R.H.
Katz, A Comparison of Mechanisms for Improving TCP
Performance over Wireless Links, ACM SIGCOMM, August
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[5] S.H. Low, F. Paganini, and J.C. Doyle Internet Congestion
Control, IEEE Control Systems Magazine, Feb. 2002.
[6] Umesh D.Nimbhorkar, Mohit Garg, “Congestion control in
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[7] Mukesh Kumar Dhariwal, Sanjeev Sharma,” An improved
mechanism for congestion control in TCP for Adhoc
network”,IJCA(0975-8887) Volume 20, April 2011.
[8] Xu Chang-Biao, Long Ke-Ping, Yang Shi Zhong. Corruption-
based TCP rate adjustment in wireless networks. In: Chinese
Journal of Computers, 2002, 25(4): pp.438-444.
[9] R. Rejaie, M. Handley, and D. Estrin, “RAP: An end-to- end
rate-based congestion control mechanism form real time streams
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[10] Vicente E. Mujica V., Dorgham Sisalem, Vicente E. Mujica
V., Dorgham Sisalem, “TCP-Friendly Congestion Control over
Wireless Networks”, in Proc. of European Wireless 2004,
Barcelona, Spain, February 2004.
[11] Yao-Nan Lien and Ho-Cheng Hsiao, “A New TCP Congestion
Control Mechanism over Wireless Ad Hoc Networks by Router-
Assisted Approach”.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Detecting Network Intrusion using Apriori Algo

based on Data Mining
Kanika Malik
Deptt. of Computer Science, Bhagwant Institute of Technlogy, Muzaffarnagar

Abstract—Maintaining Network Security has become intrusion detection process [13], leveraging existing
an important issue in various government and Industrial RDBMS infrastructure can be both efficient and
sectors. Many Intruders involve to a great extent in the effective. The current paper presents slight change in
Computing Environment. Modern Intrusion detection the DAID
systems need to include various important characterstics
suc has reliability, extensibility, manageability, economic.
(Database-centric Architecture for Intrusion
Inspite of established intrusion detection systems based on Detection) which can be used for all types of databases,
data mining, still some issues exist in design and including Oracle Database. This RDBMS-centric
implementation. The Paper describes a Database Centric framework can be used to build, manage, deploy, score
Architecture that takes the advantage of Data Mining with and analyze data mining-based intrusion detection
RDBMS. By implementing such IDS’s various benefits are models.
achieved such as in terms of infrastructure, Security,
Scalability, Reliability. II. A DATABASE-CENTRIC ARCHITECTURE
I. INTRODUCTION DAID (Fig 1.) shares many aspects of the AMG
(Adaptive Model Generation) architecture [8]. As in
Intrusion detection is an area growing in relevance AMG, a database component plays a key role in the
asmore and more sensitive data are stored and architecture. Unlike AMG, where the database is only a
processed innetworked systems. The goal of intrusion centralized data repository, in DAID, all major
detectionsystem (IDS) is to provide another layer of operations take place in the database itself
defenceagainst malicious (or unauthorized) uses of
computer systems by sensing a misuse or a breach of a
securitypolicy and alerting operators to an ongoing (or,
at least, recent) attack. Data mining-based IDSs require
lessexpert knowledge yet must provide good
performance. Data mining-based intrusion detection
systems can be classified into misuse detection and
anomaly detection [19]. Misuse detection attempts to
match observedactivity to known intrusion patterns.
This is typically a classification problem. Anomaly
detection attempts to identify behaviour that does not
conform to normal behaviour. This approach has a
better chance of detecting novel attacks. IDSs can also
be distinguished on the basis of the audit data source
(e.g., network-based, host-based).
An effective production-quality IDS need an array
of diverse components and features, including: Fig. 1: Database-centric Architecture for Intrusion Detection
• Centralized view of data DAID also explicitly address data
• Data transformation capabilities transformations,an essential component in analytics.
• Data mining methods DAID has the following major components:
• Real-time detection and alert infrastructure • Sensors
• Reporting capabilities • Extraction, transformation and load (ETL)
• Data analysis • Centralized data warehousing
• System availability • Automated rule generation
This paper demonstrates that the Oracle Database, • Real-time and offline detection
with its capabilities for supporting mission critical • Report and analysis
applications, distributed processing, and integration of The activity in a computer network is monitored by
analytics, can be an appropriate platform for an an array of sensors producing a stream of audit data.
IDSimplementation. Given the data-centric nature of

188 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2

 Detecting Network Intrusion using Apriori Algo based on Data Mining

The audit data are processed and loaded in a evaluationprogram (IDEP)” in Lincoln Laboratory.
centralized data repository (ETL). The stored data are Since 1999, KDD’99 was built based on the data
used for rule generation. The rule generation data captured in DARPA’98. This dataset consists of three
mining methods are integrated in the database component and it contains a number of connection
infrastructure–no data movement is required. The records where each connection is a sequence of packets
incoming audit data will be checked by the rules to containing values of 41 features and labelled as either
detect the intrusions. The stored audit data can be also normal or attack.
further investigated using reporting and analysis tools.
The major benefits of using such an integrated TABLE 1: ATTARCK TYPES FOUND IN KDD’99 DARPA DATASET
approach are improved security, speed, data
management and access, and ease of implementation.
Rule generation A number of data mining
techniques have been found useful in the context of
misuse and anomaly detection. Among the most popular
techniques are association rules, clustering, support
vector machines (SVM), and decision trees [1, 15, 17,
10]. In this IDC prototype we have used association rule
mining technique. Association rule mining is one of the
important topics in data mining research. This approach
determines interesting relationships between large set of
data items. This technique was initially applied to the
so-called market basket analysis, which aims at finding
regularities in shopping behaviour of customers of
supermarkets [27]. Agrawal in [28] has proposed the
Apriori algorithm to find quickly Boolean association TABLE 2: NAME OF 41 ATTRIBUTES IN KDD DATESET
rules. In contrast to Boolean association rules, which
handle only simple item-based transactions, the next
generation of association rules faced quantitative
attributes which their values were elements of
continuous domains such as real number domain R.
But, the typical Apriori algorithm was not capable of
dealing directly with such attributes.
A. Apriori Algorithm
As mentioned before, Agrawal proposed the
Apriori algorithm that is known as a fundamental
algorithm for mining frequent item sets in a set of
transactions. He defined the formal statement for
association rules as follows: Let I= { i1, i2, i3,..., im} be
a set of items and D be a set of transactions, where each
transaction T is a set of items such that T I. A set of
items X I is called an Item set. It can be said that T
contains an item set X, if X I. An association rule is an
implication of the form X Y, where X I, Y I and X Y =. IV. CONCLUSION
The rule X Y has Support S (S = support (X Y)) in the
transaction set D, of S% of transactions in D contain X As we are using the database as the platform for the
Y and it has Confidence C (c = support(X implementation of the IDS, it’s easy to generate the data
Y)/support(X)) in the transaction set D, if C% of analysis results and reports. Collected audit data, rules
transactions in D that contain X also contain Y. Apriori generated, finding the intrusions, analysis and reports
algorithm works iteratively and has two steps: In the can be seen using crystal reports and visualization tools
first step, it finds all the large item sets and in the next in.NET.
step, it uses the large item sets to generate effective This allows the lengthy application development
association rules. A more detailed description of these process and provides a standardized and easily
two steps canbe found in [28, 29]. customized report generation. The IDC prototype
leverages the tools available in.NET.
III. INTRUSION DATABASE AND On the rule generation page (Figure 3) admin can
PREPROCESSING OF FEATURES generate the rules by double clicking on the training
In 1998, Defense Advanced Research Project data with a specific type of attacks and use this rules for
Agency (DARPA) funded an “intrusion detection finding the intrusions in the test data.

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 189

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
Fig. 3: IDC Prototype Showing Rule Generation Page
On the analysis page (Figure 4) users can monitor:
Number of intrusions
• Breakdown of the network activity into normal
and specific types of attacks.
• Break down of the network data into specific
types of protocols
• Break down of the network data into
specifictypes of services.
On the report generation page (Figure 5) users can
take the copy of the report generated showing the attack
types, protocol types and different types of services in
the network data that has been tested for intrusions.
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 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

AL-FEC Raptor Code Implementation

Over 3GPP eMBMS Network
Avani Pandya1 and Sameer Trapasiya2
1
PG Student, Department of Electronics & Communication Engg.,
G.H. Patel College of Engineering & Technology Vallabh Vidyanagar–388120, India
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engg.,
G.H. Patel College of Engineering & Technology, Vallabh Vidyanagar–388120, India
e-mail: 1avani.pandya03@gmail.com, 2sameertrapasiya@gmail.com

Abstract—Long Term Evolution (LTE) is the next
step beyond the third generation mobile networks based
on Third Generation Partnership Project. LTE includes
enhanced multimedia broadcast and multicast services
(MBMS), also called as Evolved multimedia broadcast and
multicast services (eMBMS) where the same content is
transmitted to multiple users in one specific area. eMBMS
is a new function defined in 3GPP Release 8 specification
that supports the delivery of content and streaming to
group users into LTE mobile networks. In LTE an
important point of demanding multimedia services is to
improve the robustness against packet losses. In this
direction, in order to support effective point-to-multipoint
download and streaming delivery, 3GPP has included an
Application Layer Forward Error Correction (AL-FEC)
scheme in the standard eMBMS. The standard AL-FEC
system is based on systematic, fountain Raptor codes.
Raptor coding is very useful in case of packet loss during
transmission as it recover the all video frame back from
insufficient data at receiver terminal.In our work, in
response to the emergence of an enhanced AL-FEC
scheme, a raptor code has been implemented and
performance is evaluated on image and the simulation
results are obtained.
Keywords: Long term evolution; multimedia broadcast
multicast services; forward error correction; raptor codes
I. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays there is a significant demand for
multimedia services over wireless networks due to the
explosive growth of the multimedia internet
applications and dramatic increase in mobile wireless
access. It is, therefore, foreseen that the wireless
systems will have to support applications with
increased complexity and tighter performance
requirements, such as real-time video streaming.
Furthermore, it is expected that popular content is
streamed not just to a single user, but to multiple users
attempting to access the same content at the same
time. This is addressed by standardization bodies
through introduction of a point-to-multipoint service -
enhanced Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service
(eMBMS), a resource-efficient transmission scheme
targeting simultaneous distribution of multimedia
content to many user devices within a serving area, over
a single set of Core Network and Radio resources. So,
Multimedia Broadcast and Multicast Service (MBMS)
has been standardized as a key feature in Third
Generation Partnership Project(3GPP) systems to
broadcast and multicast multimedia content to multiple
mobile subscribers via MBMS radio bearer
service.MBMS is a point-to-multipoint (PTM) Standard,
whose further evolvement and enrichment attracts
nowadays widespread interest.
Long Term Evolution (LTE) has been designed to
support only packet-switched services. Long Term
Evolution (LTE) provides both the transmission mode
single-cell MBMS, MBMS services which are
transmitted in a single cell and multi-cellular evolved
MBMS transmission mode, providing synchronous
MBMS transmission from multiple cells, also known as
multicast/ broadcast single frequency network mode of
transmission. To transmit the same data to multiple
recipients allows network resources to be shared.
MBMS extends the existing architecture with the
introduction of 3GPP MBMS bearer service and MBMS
user services. MBMS user services are constructed
above the MBMS bearer service. For the delivery of
MBMS-based services, 3GPP defines three functional
layers. The first layer, called Bearers, provides a
mechanism to data transmission over IP. Bearers based
on point-to-multipoint data transmission (MBMS
bearers), which can be used in conjunction with point-
to-point transmission. The second layer is called
delivery method which offers two modes of content
delivery: download method of discrete objects and the
streaming method providing continuous media. Delivery
also provides reliability with FEC. The third layer (User
Service/ Application) Enables applications to the end-
user and allows him to activate or deactivate the
service.
Generally an MBMS session includes the following
three phases.
A. User Service Discovery Phase
MBMS services are advertised to the end user
using 2-way point-to-point TCP-IP-based
communication or 1-way point-to-multipoint UDP-IP-
based transmission.

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 191

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
B. Delivery Phase
Multimedia content is delivered (either streaming
or download mode) using 1-way point-to-multipoint
UDP-IP transmission.
C . Phase after Delivery
A user can report on the quality of the content
received or request a repair service files (if the
download delivery method) using 2-way point-to-point
TCP- IP communication.
During the delivery, a UDP packet can be
eliminated by the physical layer, if bit errors cannot be
corrected, and can be lost due to, for example, network
congestion or hardware failure. As there is no feedback
channel in the delivery phase of eMBMS, ARQ-based
protocols cannot be as used.because in ARQ, receivers
use a back channel to the sender to send requests for
retransmission of lost packets.
Another approach is to use Forward Error
Correction (FEC) Codes. In order to analyze the
performance of Forward Error Correcting (FEC)
algorithms, we need to define a channel model. Binary
Erasure Channel (BEC) was first introduced by Peter
Elias of MIT in 1955[2]. It has been considered as too
theoretic to draw attention, until the last few years
when Internet became popular. Binary Erasure channel
is defined as “a symbol either arrives to the
destination, without any error or is erased and never
received”. Therefore, the receiver has no idea about
the bit transmitted with a certain probability p, and this
is exactly sure of the bit transmitted with a probability
1-p. According to Shannon, BEC capacity is 1-p, which
means that the size of the alphabet of 2k, where k is
the number of bits in the alphabet, no more than (1-p)
k bits/ symbols can be communicated reliably to the
binary erasure channel. Automatic Repeat Request
(ARQ) schemes have so long been used as a classical
approach to solve the reliable communication
problem [3]. In addition, any feedback from the
receiver to the sender will not increase the channel
capacity and reliable communication must be possible
at this rate. ARQ works well for point-to-point
transmission and has also been an effective tool for
reliable point-to-multipoint transmission. However,
when the number of receivers increases, ARQ reveals
its limits. A major limitation is the problem of feedback
implosion that occurs when too many receivers are
transmitting to the sender. Another problem is that,
for a loss rate of data packets, and a set of receivers
experiencing losses, the probability that each data
packet must be retransmitted rapidly approaching unity
as the number of receivers becomes large. In other
words, a high average number of transmissions
required per packet. However, an excessive number of
feedbacks are used in the case of erasures the wasting
of bandwidth, network overload and intolerable delays
occur.
192 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
Forward Error Correction (FEC) codes exist as
Reed- Solomon codes, which can recover the K source
symbols from the coded symbols of all K and N the
total number of symbols transmitted. However, the rate
R = K/N should be determined in accordance with the
erasure probability p, before transmission. If p changes
or p is less than or greater than expected, it will cause
problems at the decoder side or will result in a lower
transmission rate achievable. Another disadvantage of
fixed powerful FEC codes is the high cost of
calculating the decoding and encoding, for example, the
Reed-Solomon codes is K (N-K)log2N [1].
Next is Low density parity check codes which were
invented by Gallager in the 1960s. For each destination
node, the sum of the values of its neighboring variable
nodes must be zero. They consist of sparse generator
matrices with reduced costs decoding when
accompanied by Belief Propagation (BP). Some of
these codes are very close to Shannon limit. However,
they do not have a fast encoding algorithm, even if
some approaches have been proposed, often running in
linear time. The use of a code block, it is necessary to
estimate the probability p of the BEC and adjust the
encoder with this amount of redundancy.
Tornado codes have been developed for this
purpose as an extension of LDPC codes with reduced
complexity of encoding. [4] They can manage the
rate adjustment, but not yet effective especially when
the channel is subject to frequent changes.
Fountain Codes are a new class of codes designed
and ideally suited for reliable transmission of data over
an erasure channel with unknown erasure probability
[6]. A fountain code has properties similar to a water
Fountain which can be thought as an infinite supply
of water drops. Anyone who wants to collect the
water drops holds a bucket under the fountain. When
enough water is collected, the bucket is removed.
Similarly with a digital source, a client gets encoded
packets from one or more servers and packages once
enough are obtained, the client can reconstruct the
original file, which packets are obtained should not
matter. They are rateless in the sense that for a given
message, the encoder can produce potentially infinite
number of output symbols. Output symbols can be bits
or more general bit sequences. However, random linear
Fountain Codes have encoding complexity of O (N2)
and decoding complexity of O (N 3) which makes them
impractical for nowadays applications.
Luby Transform (LT) codes have been proposed
by Michael Luby [7] to reduce the encoding and
decoding complexity of random linear Fountain Codes
while maintaining the small overhead. With a good
choice of degree distribution, i.e. the distributions of
the edges in the Tanner graph, LT codes can come
arbitrarily close to channel capacity with certain
decoder reliability and logarithmically increasing
encoding and decoding costs. In order to reduce the
 AL-FEC Raptor Code Implementation Over 3GPP eMBMS Network
complexity even more, we can decrease the reliability
of the decoder. Thus, we would have a reduced degree
distribution resulting linear time encoding and decoding
complexity. However, the decoder cannot decode all
the input symbols with the lower degree distribution for
the same overhead constraint. Therefore, utilizing an
erasure correcting pre-code would then correct the
erasures arising from the weakened decoder. If the pre-
code is a linear time block code, like an LDPC code,
Raptor Codes provide marvelous encoding and
decoding speeds while providing near optimal
performance for the BEC [8].
Raptor codes are an extension of the other part of
LT codes combined with a system of pre-coding. The
design and degree distribution pre-coding is the heart
of Raptor codes. Instead, the media data is protected
using the application layer FEC with Raptor codes.
To systematically increase the reliability of the
transmission, an application layer FEC code can be
used.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: in
Section II we provide an overview of the 3GPP AL-
FEC eMBMS delivery framework and Section III
presents a detailed description of the examined AL-
FEC scheme. In Section IV we present the simulation
environment and the conducted experimental results.
Finally, in Section V we draw our conclusions and we
describe some possible future steps.
II. EMBMS PROTOCOL STACK
A. 3GPP AL-FEC eMBMS Delivery
The 3GPP standard multicast services, MBMS
mentioned [1], is a service of point-to-multipoint way
in which data is transmitted from a single source to a
group of several mobile terminals in an area of
specific service. 3GPP defines two delivery methods
namely, downloading and streaming. eMBMS user
plane stack of these delivery methods is illustrated in
Fig. 1.
1) MBMS streaming delivery protocols stack
The purpose of the MBMS streaming delivery
method is to deliver continuous multimedia data
(i.e. speech, audio, video) over an MBMS bearer.
MBMS makes use of the most advanced multimedia
codecs such as H.264 for video applications and
enhanced Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) for audio
applications. Real-time transport protocol (RTP) is the
transport protocol for MBMS streaming delivery.
Real- time transport protocol (RTP) is the transport
protocol for MBMS streaming delivery. RTP provides
means for sending real-time or streaming data over user
datagram protocol (UDP), the resulting UDP flows are
mapped to MBMS IP multicast bearers. Then IP
packets are processed in the Packet Data Convergence
Protocol (PDCP) layer where for example header
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 193
compression might be applied. In the Radio Link
Control (RLC) the resulting PDCP- Protocol Data Units
(PDUs), generally of arbitrary length, are mapped to
fixed length RLC-PDUs. The RLC layer operates in
unacknowledged mode as feedback links on the radio
access network are not available for point-to-multipoint
bearers. The RLC layer is responsible for mapping IP
packets to RLC SDUs.Functions provided at the RLC
layer are for example segmentation and reassembly,
concatenation, padding, sequence numbering,
reordering and out-of-sequence and duplication
detection. The Medium Access Control (MAC) layer
maps and multiplexes the RLC PDUs to the transport
channel and selects the transport format depending on
the instantaneous source rate. The MAC layer and
physical layer appropriately adapt the RLC-PDU to the
expected transmission conditions by applying, among
others; channel coding, power and resource assignment,
and modulation. [1]
2) MBMS download (file) delivery protocols stack
MBMS download delivery method aims to
distribute discrete objects (e.g. files) by means of a
MBMS download session. Download method uses the
File deLivery over Unidirectional Transport (FLUTE)
protocol when delivering content over MBMS bearers.
FLUTE is built on top of the Asynchronous Layered
Coding (ALC) protocol instantiation. ALC combines
the Layered Coding Transport (LCT) building block
and the FEC building block to provide reliable
asynchronous delivery of content to an unlimited
number of concurrent receivers from a single sender. A
detailed description of the FLUTE building block
structure can be found in [1]. Thereafter, FLUTE is
carried over UDP/IP, and is independent of the IP
version and is forwarded to the Packet Data
Convergence Protocol (PDCP) layer. The packets are
then sent to the Radio Link Control (RLC) layer.
The RLC
Fig. 1: eMBMS Protocol Stack
Layer functions in unacknowledged mode. The
RLC layer is responsible for mapping IP packets to
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
RLC SDUs. The Media Access Control (MAC) Layer
adds a 16 bit header to form a PDU, which is then sent
in a transport block on the physical layer.
III. AL-FEC SCHEME
In this section we provide a detailed description
of the 3GPP standardized Raptor code.
A. Raptor Codes
Raptor codes were introduced in [9]. The use of
Raptor codes in the application layer of eMBMS was
introduced to 3GPP aiming to improve service
robustness against packet losses. Raptor codes are
fountain codes, meaning that as many encoding
symbols as desired can be generated by the encoder on-
the-fly from the source symbols of a source block of
data. Raptor codes are one of the first known classes
of fountain codes with linear encoding and decoding
time [9]. The systematic Raptor Encoder is used to
generate repair symbols from a source block that
consists of K source symbols [10].In preparation of the
encoding; a certain amount of data is collected within a
FEC source block. The data of a source block are
further divided into k source symbols of a fixed
symbol size. The decoder is able to recover the whole
source block from any set of encoding symbols only
slightly more in number than the source symbols. The
Raptor code specified for MBMS is a systematic code
producing n encoding symbols E from k < n source
symbols C, so as the original source symbols are within
the stream of the transmitted symbols. This code can be
viewed as the concatenation of several codes. The
most inner code is a non-systematic Luby-Transform
(LT) code [7] with l input symbols F, which provides
the fountain property of the Raptor codes. This non-
systematic Raptor code is not constructed by encoding
the source symbols with the LT code, but by encoding
the intermediate symbols generated by some outer high-
rate block code. This means that the outer high rate
block code generates the F intermediate symbols using
k input symbols D. Finally, a systematic realization of
the code is obtained by applying some pre-processing
to the k source symbols C such that the input symbols
D to the non systematic Raptor code are obtained [11].
Considering the performance of Raptor codes the most
typical comparison is that to an ideal fountain code. An
ideal fountain code can produce from any number k of
source symbols any number m of repair symbols with
the property that any combination of k of the k+m
encoding symbols is sufficient for the recovery of the k
source symbols. That is the point of the most important
differentiation between an ideal fountain code and the
standardized Raptor code. While an ideal code has zero
reception overhead i.e., the number of received symbols
194 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
needed to decode the source symbols is exactly the
number of source symbols, the Raptor code has a
performance close to that property. The performance of
an AL-FEC code can be described by the decoding
failure probability of the code. The study presented in
[12] describes the decoding failure probability of
Raptor code as a function of the source block size and
the received symbols. In fact, the inefficiency of the
Raptor code can accurately be modeled by (1) [12]
(1)
In (1), pfR(n,k) denotes the decoding failure
probability of the Raptor code if the source block size
is k symbols and nencoding symbols have been
received. Failure probability decreases exponentially
when the number of received encoding symbols
increases. Moreover, a crucial point for the robustness
of an AL-FEC protected delivery session is the
transmission overhead. The transmission overhead is
defined as the amount of redundant information divided
by the amount of source data and is equal to the fraction
(N-K) /K in terms of percentage. In this fraction, N
denotes the number of transmitted packets and K
denotes the number of the source packets.
1) GPP raptor encoding process
Raptor codes [10] are serially concatenated codes
with a pre-code as the outer code and the LT code [1]
as the inner code. Pre-code itself is also a serially
concatenated code, which uses an LDPC code and a
code with dense parity (Gray code) check matrix as the
outer code and the inner code, respectively. For Raptor
Encoder source object is divided into Z>=1 number of
source blocks. Each source block has K source symbols
of size T bytes each. Each source block is encoded
independently from the next Block. The source block
construction is specified in 3GPP 26.346 [1]. The
systematic Raptor codes generate encoding symbols
which contain K source symbols plus repair symbols. In
this systematic Raptor code, K original input symbols
are first encoded to L=K+S+H intermediate symbols by
precode. Here, S and H are the amount of
redundancy added by the outer and the inner codes of
the pre-code, respectively. And then, we can generate
any number of encoding symbols as needed with those
intermediate symbols. The intermediate symbols are
related to the source symbols by a set of source symbol
triples. The encoding process is to produce repair
symbols by bit-wise XORing specific source symbols.
The whole process is divided in following steps.
Step 1: The first step in encoding can be performed
by generating an LxL encoding matrix, A to calculate
L intermediate symbols as [10].
 AL-FEC Raptor Code Implementation Over 3GPP eMBMS Network
Fig. 2: Block Diagram of Raptor Encoder and Decoder
(2)
Where, C represents column vector of the L
intermediate symbols, D represents column vector of
S+H zero symbols followed by the K source symbols.
The precode matrix A consists of several
submatrices as shown in figure 2. In this matrix A, the
top S+H rows represent the constraints of the pre-code
on C, and the bottom K rows, each corresponding to a
source symbol of D, represent the generator matrix of
the LT code. (GLDPC)S x K and (HHa1f) H x (S + K)
correspond to a LDPC check matrix and a high dense
parity check matrix, respectively. I_S be the S x S
identity matrix I_H be the H x H identity matrix 0_SxH
be the S x H zero matrix and (GLT) KxL is a LT
encoding matrix. (GLDPC)S X K and (HHa1f) H X (S+ K) are
known on the both encoder and decoder side.
Step 2: The second encoding step is to generate the
repair symbols from L intermediate symbols using LT
encoding process as LTEnc[K,C[0],C[1],…,C[L-
1],(d,a,b)] [10] where (d, a, b) represents triples for
each symbol.
At the end of step 2 final transmitted streams are
generated.
2) GPP raptor decoding process
The N received symbols are input to the decoder
where
N = K + R – Ls (3)
Where K defines the no. of source symbols, R
defines the repair symbols and Ls represent loss
symbols.
Matrix A of (M x L) can be formed similar to the
encoding process using received N symbols [10] where
M = S+H+N (4)
Where S is LDPC symbols, H Half Symbols and N
received symbols respectively. The matrix, A is a bit
matrix that satisfies A x C = E using matrix
multiplication in GF (2). Intermediate symbols C can
then be decoded if the bit matrix A is square (L x L)
and invertible. Since the number of received encoding
symbols, N > K in most cases, so following steps
should be taken for decoding.
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 195
Step 1: The first step in decoding is to convert
(M x L) matrix A to an (L x L) matrix using Gaussian
Elimination method [10].
Improved Gaussian elimination, consisting of
row/column exchange and row Ex-OR, is used in the
3GPP Raptor decoding algorithm. In the decoding
process, the original matrix A will be converted into
an identity matrix. Besides, vector C and D change
concurrently. Let （N ≥ K） be the number of
received encoding symbols and M=S+H+N. The vector
D=(D[0],…,D[M-1]) is the column vector of M
symbols with values known to the receiver, where
D[0]，… ,D[S+H-1] are zero-valued symbols that
correspond to LDPC and Half symbols, D[S+H]，
…, D[M-1] are the received encoding symbols for the
source symbols. When the original matrix A is
converted into identity matrix successfully, we can get
the intermediate symbols from D.
Before Gaussian elimination, we assume C[0]=0
，C[1]=1，…，C[L-1]=L-1and [0]=0，D[1]=1，…
，D[M-1]=M-1.initially. In the process of
Gaussian elimination, the vectors C and D change
concurrently with the changes of matrix A. The process
abides by the rules as follows:
• If the row i of A is exclusive-ORed into row
i', then symbol D[d[i]] is exclusive-ORed into
symbols D[d[i']];
• If the row i of A is exchanged with row i',
then the value d[i] is exchanged with the value
d [i'];
• If the column j of A is exchanged with column
j', then the value c[j] is exchanged with the
value c [j'].
It is clear that C[c[0]]，C[c[1]]，… ，C[c[L-1]]
=D[d[0]]， D[d[1] ]，… ，D[d[L-1] ] at the end of
successful decoding.
The process of converting A into identity matrix
consists of four phases:
Phase I: In the first phase of the Gaussian
elimination, the matrix A is partitioned into
submatrices, where I is an identity matrix i × i, O is a
matrix with all values zero, U is a matrix with u
columns. An efficient algorithm, suggested in 3GPP
MBMS standard, is helpful for choosing an appropriate
row to do Gaussian elimination. The algorithm defines
a graph structure of matrix V. Let the columns of V be
the set of nodes and let the rows that have exactly two
1's in V be the set of edges that connect the associated
nodes. We define component as follows: component in
the graph is a set of nodes and edges such that there is
a path between all pairs of nodes, the size of a
component is the number of nodes in the component.
When i+u=L, the first phase ends successfully and
the matrix V disappears. If there are non-zero rows in V
can be chosen in the first phase, we can use the efficient
3GPP standard as follows:
Proceedingss of National Co
onference on Tre
ends in Signal Processing
P & Co
ommunication (TSPC’13) 12th–
–14th April 2013
3

• Leet r represennts the minim mum integerr that Sym

mbol Size T=160 Bits/20 Bytes. beforee Encoding
att least one row w has exactly r 1's in V. When
W r Orig
ginal image waas as shown inn figure 4.
≠ 2, choose a rowr with exacctly r 1's in V with
m
minimum originnal degree ammong all such rows;
r
• When
W r=2, chooose any row w contained inn the
m
maximum sizze componennt of the graph g
deefined by V.
Then the first row is exchangedd with the chhosen
row of V and the arbitrrary column, contained 1 in i the
chosen roow, is exchaanged with the t first collumn.
Besides, thhe columns coontained remaaining (r-1) 1's are
exchangedd with the lasst columns off V. After thatt, the Fig. 4: The Original
O Image beefore Raptor Enco
oding
chosen row ws are exclusive-ORed innto the rows of A
below the chosen row thhat have a 1 in i the first coolumn The original image was appplied 7% paccket loss as
of V. Accoompanied by the process abbove, i is increeased show
wn in figure 5..
with 7% packet loss
by 1 and u is increaseed by (r-1). We carry ouut the
first phase again until it ends successffully.
Phasee II: In the seecond phase, the submatrixx U is
partitionedd into the firrst i rows, U_upper,
U andd the
remaining (M-i) rows, U_lower.
U If thhe rank of U_llower
is u, Gauussian eliminaation is perfo formed on it,, and
converts itt into a matrix where the first u row iss the
identity matrix.
m Besiddes, the lastt (M-L) rowss are
discarded.
Phasee III & IV: The task of the third andd the Fig. 5: The Original Image w
with 7% Packet Loss
L
fourth phaase is to convvert the U_uppper into a matrix m In this imagee when raptorr coding with
h 9% repair
with all vallues zero. symb
bols was appplied, the imaage is recoverred back as
Once the Gaussian Elimination is i complete thhe bit show
wn in figure 6..
matrix, A becomes {LxL} and invertible. The After Decodding
intermediate symbols C can then be obtainedo as
-11
C =A D (5)
Here D representss column vecctor of S+H zero
symbols followed
f by the N receivved symbols. The
intermediaate symbols, C is then passed to LT decooding
to regeneraate the K Sourrce symbols. [10] [

IV
V. RAPTOR CODE
O IMPLEMEN
NTATION
Fig. 6: The Recovered
R Image aafter Raptor Deco
oding
The performance of Raptor codes has been
evaluated as shown inn figure 3. The encoderr and
V. CON
NCLUSION & FU
UTURE WORK
K
decoder arre designed as specified in section IIII. A
program off random packket loss has allso been develloped In this work, w we have evalu uated the
to analyze the coding Raaptor yield. perfoormance of AL-FEC
A baseed on the Raaptor codes
provvided by IET TF RFC 50533 to providee reliability
againnst packet Loosses in Imaage. Thus, Raptor coding
signiificantly im mproves the image quality q by
recovvering the losst packets falliing on the tran
nsmission.
Some possiblle future actioons that may result from
this work may bee possible connsideration iss the design
and evaluation of an adapptive algoritthm which
calcuulates the opptimum FEC encoding pro ocess. This
mech hanism couldd be based onn a system of o feedback
reports on netwoork conditionns, as proposed in the
Fig. 3: Block Diagram
D of Raptorr Coding databbase and repoorts coding paarameters AL-FEC could
We have
h used im
mage as a soource where each be adjusted. Fiinally, recen tly appeared d AL-FEC
pixel of the image is considereed as a sym mbol. schemme, named RaptorQ
R couuld further enhance
e the
Simulationn Parameters are Symbolss K=1600, Each searcch field of relliable multicasst in mobile networks.
n

196 ‹ Bhag
gwant Institute of
o Technology, Muzaffarnagar,
M Uttar Pradesh, India
 AL-FEC Raptor Code Implementation Over 3GPP eMBMS Network
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to thank Yashesh Buch for
providing such an interesting topic. We are also grateful
to Santhi Chinnam for valuable discussions and friendly
support.
REFERENCES
[1] 3GPP TS 26.346 V10.4.0.,” Technical Specification Group
Services and System Aspects: MBMS, Protocols and codecs”,
(Release 10), 2012.
[2] P. Elias. Coding for two noisy channels. in Proc. 3rd London
Symposium on Information Theory, pages 61–76, 1955.
[3] Han Wang, “Hardware Design for LT Coding”, MSc Thesis,
University of Delft, Holland, 2006.
[4] Berlekamp, E.R.: “Algebraic coding theory”, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1968.
[5] M. Luby, M. Mitzenmacher, A. Shokrollahi, and D. Spielman,
“Efficient erasure correcting codes”, IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory,
vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 569–584, Feb. 2001
[6] David J. C. MacKay, “Fountain Codes”, Communications, IEEE
proceedings vol. 152, no. 6, Dec. 2005, pp. 1062 – 1068.
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 197
[7] M. Luby, “LT codes”, Proc. 43rd Ann. IEEE Symp. On
Foundations of Computer Science, Nov. 2002, pp. 271–282.
[8] A. Shokrollahi, “Raptor Codes”, in Proc. IEEE Int. Symp.
Information Theory, Chicago, IL, Jun. /Jul. 2004, p. 36.
[9] A. Shokrollahi, “Raptor codes,” Information Theory, IEEE
Transactions on, vol. 52, no. 6, pp. 2551–2567, June 2006.
[10] M. Luby, A. Shokrollahi, M. Watson, and T. Stockhammer,
“Raptor forward error correction scheme for object delivery,”
September 2007, Internet Engineering Task Force, RFC 5053.
Available at http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5053.
[11] Luby M, Watson M, Gasiba T, Stockhammer T, Xu W.”
Raptor codes for reliable download delivery in wireless
broadcast systems.” In Proc. of CCNC, 2006.
[12] T. Stockhammer, A. Shokrollahi, M. Watson, M. Luby, and T.
Gasiba,“Application Layer Forward Error Correction for mobile
multimedia broadcasting,” Handbook of Mobile Broadcasting:
DVB-H, DMB, ISDBT and Media Flo, CRC Press, pp. 239–280,
2008.
[13] Erol Hepsaydir,Emmanuel Witvoet,Nicola Binucci, Sachin
Jadhav, “Enchanced MBMS in UMTS Networks and Raptor
Codes”, The 18th Annual IEEE International Symposium on
Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications
(PIMRC'07)
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
A Routing Protocol MDVZRP
for Mobile Ad-Hoc Netwok
Sanjeev Kumar1 and Shantanu Chauhan2
1
M.Tech, Digital Communication Candidate Rajasthan Technical University, Kota, India
2
B.Tech, ECE Candidate Mahamaya Technical University, Noida, India
e-mail: 1er.sanjeev_85@rediffmail.com, 2shantanuchauhan103@gmail.com
Abstract—An ad-hoc network is one which is joined
by multi-hop wireless links called nodes they are allow to
move that’s why such type of network topology is known
as dynamic topology. In this topology, there is no
centralized infrastructure support. We can use both
reactive and proactive routing techniques to find the
routes.
In case of proactive routing technique, ad hoc
network maintain a routing table with routes to all other
nodes in the network. Routing table will occupy a large
amount of space if the network is large and fast changing
of node position lead to in efficient usage of network
resources however an advantage there, i.e., routes between
arbitrary source destination pair are readily available.
While Some algorithm like reactive techniques, suffer
from high latency hence more time consume to find the
route that search a route on demand usually by flooding
the network with route request packets and excessive
flooding can lead to network clogging (Blocking).
Besides reactive and proactive protocol MDVZRP
protocol can be used to reduce the latency. MDVZRP is a
hybrid protocol which is the extension of MDSDV
(Multipath destination sequenced distance vector). In
MDVZRP, all routes in the routing table are active and
useable. There is no need of periodic updates of routing
table or no need to find the route unless a broken link has
been discovered or a new node come into existence.
In this paper we are going to compare the
performance of MDVZRP, AODV and DSDV at different
parameter like CBR. These protocols can be simulated on
ns2 platform.
I. INTRODUCTION
We are using the wireless cellular systems since the
1980. After that we have seen the first, second and third
generation of wireless communication systems. Now a
day’s every person use wireless communication system
directly or indirectly. Majority of the message transfer
are based on the point to point communication however
some of them are based on multipoint communication.
In last decade wireless communication achieve great
achievement in the field of ad-hoc network. In ad hoc
network mobile nodes are present between source and
destination to maximize the utility of communication
network. In other words we can say mobile ad hoc
network is an autonomous network for mobile nodes
which are connected via wireless links.
198
There may be used many nodes to transfer a
message from sender to receiver and each node treat as
router and host at the same time. Where the
communication between the transmitting and receiving
node is take place by a special node, i.e., called access
point and it can be also pointed out the node which is
used to find out the path of the network is called routing
node or router (switches). Because its departure and
new arrival nodes of the routes change time to time
that’s why it is called dynamic network and there is one
another challenge is to face to maintain up to date
routing information of this dynamic network. For this, it
can be done by choosing any one of these: reactive and
proactive routing technique.
In the mobile ad-hoc network, routing protocols
(proactive and reactive) have to face many problems
such as fast changing node position, low transmission
power and asymmetric links. Here the routing protocols
prove it inefficient under these circumstances. To
overcome these problems we can use a hybrid multipath
routing protocol ‘MDVZRP’. It extends from the
MDSDV (multipath destination sequenced distance
vector).
In proactive protocols (table-driven) uses the
bandwidth to maintain routes information [1], if we
want some change in the network topology throughout
the whole network on the other hand the reactive
protocols involves the long request delay and it is also
prove inefficient for route determination in the entire
network. To overcome these problems ZRP extends a
hybrid protocol combines the best properties of both
proactive and reactive protocols but it is also access the
bandwidth in the same manner which is used in
proactive and reactive protocols. In MDVZRP, we
assume that all the nodes or routes are active, usable
and we can update it at only need when the message
packet is not able to reach at the destination due to the
broken link or non reachable link or a node received a
new routing information (new route), the source receive
a message to indicate it. Therefore, MDVZRP reduce
the proactive and reactive scope. It shows reactive
nature whenever an unknown route is to be found out.
The main goal of MDVZRP is to select the optimum
available path when it runs some filtering procedure at
entries. In it there is no need for periodic updates of the
routing table, hence control traffic also reduced.
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
 A Routing Protocol MDVZRP for Mobile Ad-Hoc Netwok

MDVZRP uses a topological map of the zone centred hybrid protocol that utilizes the best property of both
on a node. In the nodes route are immediately available reactive [2][3] and proactive approach. In MDVZRP
while outside the zone the route is to be found out. protocol all the routes are in active mode and can be
Unfortunately, up to now a full simulation tool for utilize whenever required. When a new node join the
the next generation networks has not been realised,So network, it send an update message and on the other
our research efforts have been focused on the hand when a node find a broken link, send an error
implementation of software modules for the network message hence partial updating is required only.
simulator (NS2) [6] Therefore it reduces the scope of proactive protocols. In
MDVZRP, a node has a flat view over the whole
II. NETWORK SIMULATOR network. Whenever a node joins to network that
completes its routing table from its nearest neighbour.
The three routing protocols AODV, DSDV and
In case of receiving a broken link message (error
MDVZRP are used in the radio propagation and the message) node does not send a route request every time
simulation model of these protocols can be made by while it utilize another optimum path stored in routing
using NS2.
table and saves time and bandwidth.
ABOUT NS2 NS is an object oriented simulator.
NS use two languages because the simulator works in
IV. COMPARISION OF MDVZRP TO PROACTIVE,
two different ways when needed. The two languages are
REACTIVE AND HYBRID ROUTING PROTOCOL
C++ and Otcl (object tool command language) which
are used in the NS. C++ is fast to run but it cannot DSDV (Destination sequenced distance vector)
change immediately. It is suitable for detailed protocol require a periodic updates that causing an excess
implementation. Otcl works opposite to the C++ flooding of route request messages. On the hand, In
languages because Otcl is slower to C++ but it can be MDVZRP, each node keeps all optimum paths in their
changed quickly and it is used for simulation zone radius without periodically updating the routing
configuration. table. Hence we can expect that MDVZRP will have
The otcl is also used to write the fronted program significantly fewer update messages then proactive
of NS2. While the backend of NS2 simulator is written protocols.
in the C++ language. CBR (constant bit rate) file and
scenario file also define the traffic and movement
pattern in separate files. A tcl program can be create in
the CBR file called cbrgen.tcl which is present in the
directory “ns2 /inded-utils/cmu-scen-gen/”. The setdest
present file is an.EXE file which is used to define the
movement in the folder “Ns2/ inded-utils/cmu-scen-
gen/setdest”.
To define the traffic and movement pattern in
separate files which named are CBR file and scenario
file. These files are generated by using the following
commands in the appropriate directory respectively
In this scenario, the traffic engineering (TE)
introduce about the multiprotocol label switching Fig. (a): An Example of 10 Node Network
(MPLS), but it is not able to give any QOS guarantee to TABLE 1: THE WAY TO SELECT SHORTEST PATH
MOIPS (multimedia application over IP). Traffic FROM SOURCE TO DESTINATION
engineering capabilities can be exploit new information
S.N. Route Node Number of Remark
as link bandwidth availability which is provided is Sequence Hoping
extensions of traditional routing protocols 1 1-2-4-3-8-9 5
Ex- OSPF, IS-IS and RSVP or (CR-LOP) like 2 1-3-8-9 3 Shortest path
3 1-4-7-8-9 4
constraint–based label distribution protocol traffic
4 1-2-4-7-8-9 5
engineering extensions (RSVP-T), allow the network to 5 1-2-4-3-7-8-9 6
provide a differentiated treatment in terms of QOS to 6 1-2-4-7-3-8-9 6
different connections. 7 1-2-5-4-3-8-9 6
8 1-2-5-4-7-8-9 6
9 1-2-5-4-7-3-8-9 7
III. MDVZRP MOTIVATION 10 1-2-5-4-3-7-8-9 7
11 1-3-4-7-8-9 5
Proactive protocol require extra bandwidth to
12 1-3-7-8-9 4
maintain the route map however Reactive protocol 13 1-4-7-3-8-9 5
involves long route request delays. MDVZRP is a 14 1-4-3-7-8-9 5

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 199

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

In reactive protocol like AODV [4], a route TABLE 3: ROUTES ARE OBTAINED FROM THE UPDATE
MESSAGE SENT BY NODE 4
discovery process is done at every time whenever a
specific destination is given. Each node put a signature Node 2:
on the route request reply message and node 1st Hop 2nd Hop Metric Destination
4 6 2 6
select a route which has lowest signature, means lowest
Node 3:
distance path. 1st Hop 2nd Hop Metric Destination
4 6 2 6
V. ROUTING INITIALIZATION Node 5:
1st Hop 2nd Hop Metric Destination
Whenever, a new node come into the existence in 6 - 1 6
the range of network, route initialization process is 4 6 2 6
going on. In this process, a beacon message or
An update message was sent by the node 5 to the
sometimes called a Hello message is sent to its nearest
1st hop neighbour is only node 4. Table (4) shows the
node to connect with network. This new node is
new entry that node 4 has obtained from node’s 5
completely dumped in initial state because it does not
update message.
have its own routing table. In next fig (b), we assume
that node 6 is a new node and all the nodes are TABLE 4: ROUTES ARE OBTAINED FROM THE UPDATE MESSAGE SENT
BY NODE 5
symmetrical means they have same range to capture
another neighbour node. Node 4:
1st Hop 2nd Hop Metric Destination
6 - 1 6
5 6 2 6

All nearest nodes sent a full dump to the new node,

it starts to build its routing table entry by entry and
there will not any similar, long and disjoint paths. The
following tables are routing tables of the entire network
nodes.
TABLE 5: ROUTING TABLE OF NODE 1
st
1 Hop 2nd Hop Metric Destination
1 - 0 1
2 - 1 2
3 - 1 3
2 4 2 4
Fig. b: Nodes with Different Routing Zone 3 4 2 4
2 4 3 5
Table (2) shows new routes to the node (6) added
by node 4 and 5 in their routing table respectively. TABLE 6: ROUTING TABLE OF NODE 2 AFTER RECEIVING
THE UPDATE MESSAGES
TABLE 2: ROUTES ARE PROVIDED AFTER RECEIVING
A HELLO MESSAGE 1st Hop 2nd Hop Metric Destination
1 - 1 1
Node 4:
2 - 0 2
1st Hop 2nd Hop Metric Destination
1 3 2 3
6 - 1 6
4 3 2 3
Node 5:
4 - 1 4
1st Hop 2nd Hop Metric Destination
4 5 2 5
6 - 1 6
4 6 2 6
In this case 1st hop neighbours node 2, 3 and 5 TABLE 7: ROUTING TABLE OF NODE 3 AFTER RECEIVING
received an update message from node 4 as shown in THE UPDATE MESSAGES
above figure, where these nodes are the 2nd hop 1st Hop 2nd Hop Metric Destination
neighbours of the new node. 1 - 1 1
The Hello message is discarded once metric = R 1 2 2 2
(Routing zone radius) and the metric is incremented by 4 2 2 2
1 as shown in table (3). The new node 2nd hop 3 - 0 3
4 - 1 4
neighbours add an entry in their routing table and
4 5 2 5
discard the Hello message, where the route destination 4 6 2 6
address is the address of the node that sent the Hello
message (node 6) and the 1st hop address is the address
of the node that sent the update message (node 4).

200 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 A Routing Protocol MDVZRP for Mobile Ad-Hoc Netwok

TABLE 8: ROUTING TABLE OF NODE 4 AFTER RECEIVING

THE UPDATE MESSAGES

1st Hop 2nd Hop Metric Destination

2 1 2 1
3 1 2 1
2 - 1 2
3 - 1 3
4 - 0 4
5 - 1 5
6 5 2 5
5 6 2 6
6 6 1 6
Fig. (c): Route on Demand
TABLE 9: ROUTING TABLE OF NODE 5 AFTER RECEIVING
THE UPDATE MESSAGES TABLE 11: ROUTING TABLE OF NODE 1 AFTER RREP MESSAGE
1st Hop 2nd Hop Metric Destination 1st Hop 2nd Hop Metric Destination
4 2 3 1 1 - 0 1
4 2 2 2 2 - 1 2
4 3 2 3 3 - 1 3
4 - 1 4 2 4 2 4
6 4 2 4 3 4 2 4
5 - 0 5 2 4 3 5
6 - 1 6 2 4 3 6
4 6 2 6
TABLE 10: ROUTING TABLE OF NODE 6 AFTER RECEIVING VII. MDVZRP: NODE MOVEMENT
THE FULL DUMP
One of the biggest challenges in MANET is node
1st Hop 2nd Hop Metric Destination movement, where due to broken links as mobile nodes
4 2 3 1
4 2 2 2
move from place to place. A node discovers a broken
4 3 2 3 links then a forwarded route error RERR sends to the
4 - 1 4 moveable node. In this fig (d), we assume that node 6 is
5 4 2 4 a moveable node, when the link between node 5 and
5 - 1 5 node 6 brakes due to movement of node 6, node 4 sends
4 5 2 5
a forwarded route error RERR to node 6 for
6 - 0 6
establishment a link between node 4 and 6 and we can
From the previous tables we can see that in the rebroadcasting the same error message RERR and so
network, each node has an entry or more to each on. The node discards the RERR message when the
destination, but node 1 has no route to node 6, due to its node has no route for carrying the same number.
outside of node 6 routing zone. For sending the data to
node 6 it has to initiate a route request.

VI. MDVZRP: ROUTE ON DEMAND

In any network any node wants to communicate
with another node but it has no route available in its
routing table to that node because it is outside its
routing zone, so there is no direct path available to
Fig. d: Route Error Message
communicate to the other node. We can understand this
process through this example we assume that node 1 TABLE 12: ROUTING TABLE OF NODE 5 AFTER DISCOVERING
THE BROKEN LINK
wants to communicate with node 6 for this node 1
broadcasts a route request message RREQ with the 1st Hop 2nd Hop metric destination
4 2 3 1
address of node 6 to find a route to the required 4 2 2 2
destination, as shown in figure. In this fig, Node 1 send 4 3 2 3
RREQ request to the neighbour nodes (2,3), node 3 has 4 - 1 4
6 4 infinite 4
a route to the node 4 and node 4 have two routes, first
5 - 0 5
through the node 5 and second a direct route to the node 6 - infinite 6
6 a directly route as shown in fig (c). 4 6 2 6

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 201

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

TABLE 13: ROUTING TABLE OF NODE 4 AFTER RECEIVING In the future work, we will evaluate and compare
THE RERR MESSAGE
MDVZRP to DSDV, AODV and ZRP. There are the
1st Hop 2nd Hop Metric Destination some metrics on the basis of these we can evaluate
2 1 2 1 MDSDV and we can simulate these on Ns2. where we
3 1 2 1 expect it will achieve:
2 - 1 2
3 - 1 3
1. Low overhead than the standard protocols:
4 - 0 4 • Latency is less than AODV by (N(c/b+t)-
5 - 1 5 tR).
6 5 infinite 5 Where:
5 6 infinite 6 N= number of nodes from hop
6 6 1 6
c/b= control packet size
TABLE 14: ROUTING TABLE OF NODE 6 AFTER RECEIVING t= route hunting time
THE RERR MESSAGE
R= radius
1st Hop 2nd Hop Metric Destination • Routing table size less than DSDV.
4 2 3 1 • Less control traffic than ZRP.
4 2 2 2
2. Network performance vs radius size regarding
4 3 2 3
4 - 1 4 to evaluation metrics data throughput, packet
5 4 2 4 delivery ratio, routing overhead and average
5 - 1 5 packet delay.
4 5 2 5
6 - 0 6
REFERENCES
VIII. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK [1] Perkins, C.E., Bhagwat, p., “highly dynamic destination
sequenced distance vector routing (DSDV) for mobile
In this paper, we studied a protocol named computers”, October 1994, computer communication pp. 234-
244.
MDVZRP (Multipath Distance Vector Zone Routing [2] Nick las Beijar: zone routing protocol (ZRP), networking
Protocol). MDVZRP is a hybrid routing protocol which laboratory, Helsinki university of technology P.O. box 3000,
extends proposed protocol Multipath Destination FIN -02015 HUT, Finland, Nicklas. Beijar @ hut.fi
Sequenced Distance Vector (MDSDV). This protocol [3] Haas, Zygmunt J., Pearlman, Marc R,: a new routing protocol
for the reconfigurable wireless networks, proceeding of 6th IEEE
can be broadly classified into three categories, namely, international conference on universal personal communication,
proactive, reactive and hybrid. There are the two IEEEICUPC ’97.San Diego, California, USA October 12 16
techniques to send the packets over symmetrical links- 1997
• Broadcast Technique [4] Peter J.B King, A. Etorban and Idris skloul Ibrahim: Multipath
Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (MDSDV), the 8th PG
• Unicast Technique Net, Liverpool john Moores University, UK 28-29 June 2007,
With the help of Hello message and Full dump, pp. 93-98
nodes create their routing tables for saving multi [5] Idris Skloul Ibrahim, A Etorban, Dr Peter J.B King School of
Mathematical and Computer Sciences (MACS) Heriot Watt
optimum paths. University at Edinburgh UK.
If a node wants to communicate with other node [6] The Network Simulator Version 2 (NS2) Home
but it has no route at this time MDVZRP will try to Page:http//www.isi.edu/nsnam/dist/
provide such a route. It provides an alternating
path when the primary path breaks. It also gives the
node ability to get information from any route pass
through it.

202 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
A Survey on Botnet Size Measurement
Shivani Pant1, Akanksha Bisaria2 and Ramesh Rawat3
1,2,3
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Graphic Era University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
e-mail: 1Shivanijoshi2409@gmail.com, 2bisaria.akanksha@gmail.com, 3rsrawat06@gmail.com
Abstract—Botnet is one of the malicious threats
known to academic community. It provides serious threat
to cyber security. Behavior of the threat has never been
methodically studied. It uses command and control
channels which operate over variety of network topologies
and communication mechanism to update and direct
themselves.This paper is a survey of botnet size
measurement techniques. The survey clarifies botnet
phenomenon and discusses botnet measurement techniques
with a brief comparison of techniques. The survey also
classifies botnet measurement techniques into two classes:
Active measurement and Passive measurement.
Keywords: Bot; Botnet; Botnet measurement techniques
I. INTRODUCTION
A compromised computer secretly controlled is
known as a bot and malicious people controlling the
compromised computer are known as botmaster. Like
the previous generations of viruses and worms, a bot is
a propagating application that infects vulnerable hosts
through illegal activities to expand for harmful purpose
[8]. Another definition defines bot as a malicious
programe installed on a victim machine; Collection of
these bot forms a network called botnet [2], commanded
to carry out attacks. There is a Control channel required
to send commands to bot obtaining result and status
messages. Through command and control (C&C)
botmaster controls bots. Botnet can be classified as IRC-
based, HTTP-based, DNS based or Peer to Peer (P2P)
botnets according to their C&C architecture [12]. Fig. 1
shows typical botnet architecture [2].
Fig. 1: Architecture of Botnet [2]
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
A centralized botnet has a central server. IRC
protocol was originally designed for large area to
allow for multiple forms of communication and data
scattered among large number of end-machines. The
traditional common control infrastructures were mostly
based on IRCs (Internet Relay Chat). A botmaster
establishes an IRC server and gives out commands
using a special channel. Another C&C based botnet
used depends on HTTP server for distributing
commands. In this case, the bots periodically contact
server to obtain new commands and act upon them.
Both IRC-based and HTTP-based C&C provides a
centralized mechanism [8].In a centralized C&C
infrastructure; there are usually command-and-control
servers, under the control of the botmaster. Because all
bots connect to these servers, botmasters are able to
communicate with the bots simultaneously and can
give out commands to all the bots that are connected to
the botnet [15]. These may be used for direct feedback;
easy monitoring of the botnet status for the botmaster
and giving information about fundamental properties
like number of active bots. IRC-based botnets are
intrinsically flexible and scalable [15].
Fig. 2: Centralized Botnet [15]
P2P Botnets are a new generation of botnet that
have certain characteristics better than previous class of
botnets which utilize peer-to-peer C&C structure. These
do not have a central point of failure, are consequently
more discoverable and robust than centralized botnet,
and bots are connected to each other acting as both
C&C server and client [15]. P2P botnets have shown
advantages over traditional centralized botnets; the
203
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
advantage of this technology being botnet architecture
which constitutes only control channel and no C&C
server, thus significantly improving the result. Fig. 3
shows peer to peer botnet.
Fig. 3: Peer-to-Peer Botnet [15]
II. BACKGROUND
A botnet can be understood by its life-cycle of
botnet [12], as how a botnet is created and infects
systems across infrastructure. This life-cycle is depicted
in Fig. 4.
• Infection phase: In the initial infection phase,
the attacker, scans a target subnet for a known
vulnerability, and infects victim machines
through different exploitation methods.
• Secondary phase: After initial infection, the
infected hosts’ written script, known as shell-
code, is executed in secondary phase. The
shell-code fetches the image of the actual bot
binary from the specific location via FTP,
HTTP, or P2P. The bot binary installs itself on
the target machine. After the installation of bot
program, the victim computer becomes a
“Zombie” and runs the malicious code. Each
time the zombie is rebooted, bot application
starts automatically.
• Connection phase: In connection phase, the bot
program establishes a command and control
(C&C) channel and connects the zombie to the
C&C server.
• Command & control phase: After connection
phase, the actual botnet C&C activities are
started. Zombie is a part of botnet during the
setup of control channel. The botmaster uses
the C&C channel to give out commands to his
bot army. Botmaster sends bot programs for
receiving and executing commands. The C&C
channel is used for sending the command and
bots are commanded to download the updated
binary.
• Maintenance & update: Bot controller may
update the bot binary to hide the detection of
204 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
bot or may be for some changes in the bot
army. Moreover, sometimes the updated
binary moves bots to a different C&C server.
This process is called server migration and it
is very useful for botmasters to keep their
botnet alive. Botmasters try to keep their
botnets invisible and portable by using
Dynamic DNS (DDNS) which is a resolution
service that facilitates frequent updates and
changes in server locations. In case authorities
interrupt a C&C server at a certain IP address,
the botmaster can easily set up another C&C
server instance with the same name at a
different IP address. IP address changes in
C&C servers propagate almost immediately to
bots using short time-to-live (TTL) values for
the domain names setup by DDNS providers.
Consequently, bots migrates to the new C&C
server location and stays alive.
Fig. 4: Botnet Life Cycle [12]
III. THREAT OF BOTNET
Some attacks of botnets are defined. A major threat
is obtaining a profit by stealing user data and password
from infected hosts. Key targets include passwords for
various services like e-mail accounts, web shops,
banking platforms or social networking platforms. This
process is often called identity theft. For example, an
e-mail login can reveal the owner‘s contacts through
inbox and address books.
Other more popular use of botnet is for
unsolicited mailing, also known as spamming [5, 15].
While classic spamming has been achieved with single
computers or comparatively small networks owned
directly by the spammers, botnets have enabled them to
perform a cost shift, in terms of computation power,
bandwidth and reputation, towards the owners of
compromised computers. Also, the ability of botnets to

use bot’s IP address to hide the true originator of the
spam email complicates countermeasures used such as
blacklisting of suspicious IP addresses. The primary
intention behind mailing is advertising. Commonly,
third parties buy a batch of spam mails for delivery
from botmasters in order to advertise their products. In
addition, spam mails can be used either as a malware
vector with attachments or as links to malicious
websites. Password fishing, known as phishing, is
another use of spam, in phishing intruder acts as an
authorized person.
In Click fraud [15], the attacker sets up an account
with an online advertiser, who pays for page visits or
for additional advertising links, for example, clicking
on a certain banner. Second, the attacker uses the
controlled bots to visit those pages and generating
clicks on target banners. This is possible because he
has full control of the victim‘s machine and may use
it to simulate behavior. In this case, the attacker gains
money directly from the advertising company.
Botnets usually consist of large number of remote
machines which enable botmasters to start attacks
against websites. By commanding bots to contact a
website frequently, the servers are rendered
unreachable as they cannot handle the incoming traffic.
This attack is called a Distributed Denial of Service
(DDoS) attack [15], as a large number of
geographically- distributed bots are involved in the
attack. These attacks happen regularly and the profit
comes from the fact that many companies depend on
web-based services, e.g. web shops, gambling websites.
Botnet size is one of the most important
characteristics to evaluate the threat of botnet [17]. In
general, botnet measurement is the process of botnet
estimation which counts number of bots. They are
botnet Footprints and Live Population. Botnet footprint
refers to the overall size of infected population of
botnet at any time in its lifetime. Botnet live population
is the number of live bots simultaneously present in C2
channel [3, 17]. Hence measurement is the process
which uses some technique to measure the size of
botnet. Botnet size measurement is very important to
detect and quantify the effect of the botnet oriented
attacks launched or the number of spams sent by the
botnet, the coverage area and region botnet has
activated [5]. Methodology of measurement
encompasses three logically distinct phases: (1)
malware collection, (2) binary analysis via gray-box
testing and, (3) longitudinal tracking of IRC botnets
through IRC and DNS trackers. The goal of the
malware collection phase is simply to collect as many
bot binaries as possible. However, developing a
scalable and robust infrastructure to achieve this goal is
a challenging problem in its own right, and has been the
subject of numerous research initiatives. In particular,
any malware in collection infrastructure must support a
wide array of data collection endpoints and should be
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 205
A Survey on Botnet Size Measurement
highly scalable. Additionally, special measures must be
implemented to prevent any part of the system from
participating in malfeasance [1].
IV. MOTIVATION
Botnets have become a serious threat, now-a-days.
A clear understanding of the network is required to
understand botnet. We focused on counting botnet
populations for a number of reasons:
• To understand the emerging threats such as
storm, nugache bot, etc.
• We wanted to understand the scale of the
resources we need to gather as we tackle a
botnet.
• Continuous measurement is vital in order to
understand what mechanisms are effective at
reducing the botnet’s population. If the
number ever drops to zero, we can call it a
victory.
• The main power of a botnet is in its
numbers: the bigger it is, the more it can do
because of the compounded bandwidth and
computing power of its members.
V. STATE OF THE ART
Rajeb et al. [1] attempted to clear the fog
surrounding botnets by constructing a multifaceted and
distributed measurement infrastructure. Their data
collection methodology encompasses three logically
distinct phases: (1) malware collection, (2) binary
analysis via gray-box testing and, (3) longitudinal
tracking of IRC botnets through IRC and DNS trackers.
Throughout a period of more than three months, they
used this infrastructure to track 192 unique IRC botnets
of size ranging from a few hundred to several thousand
infected end- hosts. Results show that botnets represent
a major contributor to unwanted Internet traffic—27%
of all malicious connection attempts observed from
distributed darknet can be directly attributed to botnet
related spreading activity. Furthermore, they
discovered evidence of botnet infections in 11% of
the 800,000 DNS domains examined indicating a high
diversity among botnet victims. They said that a
botnet’s footprint can become fairly large in size
(e.g., more than 15,000 bots).
Zhuge et al. [2] showed with the help of a
distributed and fully-automated botnet measurement
system, able to discover and track 3,290 botnets during
a period of almost twelve months. Based on the analysis
of the collected information, gave a broad overview of
the current botnet phenomenon and presented several
characteristics and features of IRC-based botnets
observed in the wild. This information can be used to
get a deeper understanding of the threat posed by these
networks. Furthermore, these results can also leverage
research in the area of botnet mitigation.
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
Rajeb et al. [3] provides a comprehensive list of
botnet size estimation techniques and highlights the
challenges associated with each. They denote a botnet’s
footprint as the overall size of the infected population
at any point in its lifetime. While this measure reflects
how wide spread a botnet infection is Second, they
consider the botnet’s live population as the number of
live bots simultaneously present in the command and
control channel. Therefore, unlike its footprint, the live
population of a particular botnet indicates the botnet’s
capacity to perform a malicious task posted as a
command message by the botmaster. This includes
techniques that directly count bots connecting to a
particular server. Two main techniques used are
infiltration and redirection.
Holz et al. [4] showed that measurement strategy
can be used as a way to disable the communication
within the Storm botnet to a large extent. As a side
effect, able to estimate the size of the Storm botnet,
they were first to introduce an active measurement
technique to actually enumerate the number of infected
machines, crawl the P2P network, keep track of all
peers, and distinguish an infected peer from a
regular one based on characteristic behavior of the bots.
Castle et al. [5] present a novel technique for the
automatic identification, analysis and measurement of
botnets used to deliver malicious email. This technique
has been very successful with the amount of spam
increasing by a significant percentage. In April 2008,
their research system, which processes around 50,000
legitimate emails per month, a figure which has been
constant over the last two years, recently reached a
level of 97% spam. This contrasts significantly with
April 2007, when the percentage of spam was at 85%
and in April 2006 where the spam percentage was
46%.A reference implementation of a system developed
to demonstrate these techniques. This system has been
deployed in a live environment, and has shown to be
highly effective in use, provides a technique that uses
purely passive analysis, requires relatively low amounts
of resource, The Plato Algorithm This algorithm
provides a representation of the template used to create
the emails.
Binbin et al. [6] proposed a novel method for
identifying Strom bots using an active crawler that
can collect location information from all participants.
Due to the flaws in the generation algorithm of the
global identifier of the Storm bots, the location
information of each Storm bot partly contributes to
the aliasing phenomena. After analyzing the
properties of aliasing phenomena, they deduce a Storm
bot measuring criteria to identify bots. The results show
that the size of Storm Worm botnet would estimate over
400,000 during the first two weeks of February 2008
with the counting of online bots between 16,500 and
23,000. The Storm Worm botnet utilizes the Overnet
protocol. Which is a Kademlia-based distributed hash
206 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
table (DHT) routing protocol, for the P2P networking.
A bot measuring criteria by analyzing the relationship
between the two aliasing, by which we can effectively
identify Storm bots. They developed an active crawler,
Glovnet, to crawl the whole Overnet network. Due to
the flaws in the Node-ID generation algorithm of the
Storm bots, we points out Storm bots partly leads to
the IP address aliasing and Node-ID aliasing
phenomena. After analyzing the relationship between
these two phenomena, they deduce a Storm bots
measuring. Kang et al. [8] applied enumeration for
the measurement in the peer-to-peer nature of the
Storm botnet requires each node to communicate with
other nodes in order to search or publish information,
using multi-hop P2P routing protocol. There are
different ways in trying to enumerate the number of
P2P bots in the Storm network.
Jun et al. [9] developed new techniques to measure
botnet size by using traces of emails from HUST
Mail Server. In this trace, they have successfully
identified the size of botnets through URL and
collaborative mail servers. They estimate the live
population of the botnet, including IRC botnet and P2P
botnet. A new method is proposed to measure the size
of the botnet. Email dataset collected from HUST Mail
Server is adopted for their analysis. They still cannot
fully determine the size of the botnet because many
home computers are connected to the internet through
ADSL, cable or other devices which make the user’s IP
changes daily or even hourly Zhuang has proposed an
effective method to estimate IP dynamics. After IP
dynamic treatment, they can count the number of
distinct machines, and then obtain the size of the
botnet.
Binbin et al. [10] considering that the C&C flows
related to a P2P-based bot exhibit stability on
statistical meaning due to the impartial position in
botnet and performing pre- programmed control
activities automatically, a novel detection approach
based on the control flow stability is proposed. The
measurement of control flow stability is firstly
derived from the P2P-based C&C case study and the
definition of control flow stability.
Plohmann et al. [15] described various botnet
measurement and detection approaches.
Xin Hu et al. [16] examined measuring and
analyzing global IP usage Patterns of domains, this
paper considers the global IP-usage patterns exhibited
by different types of malicious domains, with a focus
on single and double fast-flux domains. They have
developed and deployed a lightweight DNS probing
engine, called DIGGER, on 240 Planet Lab nodes
spanning 4 continents, Collecting DNS data for over
3.5 months enabled to measure the global IP usage.
Shangdong et al. [17] investigates the nature of
botnet size, upon which four issues are introduced. The
paper summarizes the existing solutions to the four

issues and analyzes the challenges to resolve them
deeply. (1), the measurement of botnet live population,
which is a problem of botnet detection in nature. (2),
the measurement of botnet footprints. (3), dynamic
tracing of botnet size. (4), area issue of botnet size. For:
(1), live population can be obtained by network
anomaly detections, but footprint contains offline bots
which cannot be detected by network anomaly
detections. They describe that local size is used to
estimate first then this size is used to estimation of
global size.
VI. TECHNIQUES
In active measuring area, most researchers use
honeynet to infiltrate the botnet getting some
information of peers and state of the network, by
running an instance of the botnet; and developing a
crawler using specific protocol queries, they can collect
some information, such as node IDs, IPs, and port
numbers. The advantage of this method is that it can
directly get the topology of the network and has a more
correct result, but the crawler needs a priori knowledge
of botnet such as captured bot binaries and the protocol
the botnet using, so it will be difficult to operate on a
new botnet, especially on the encrypted botnet [4, 8, 9].
In passive measurement area, the monitors are
fixed on the edge of the backbone or the core routers,
or the bound of the ISP; the monitors can get node
numbers, flow characters etc. Using these overview
flow information suitable methods can be adapted to
measure botnet. The advantage of this method is that it
does not require any prior knowledge, but has a high
false positive rate [1, 2, 3, 5].
The first category includes techniques that directly
count bots connecting to a particular server. Two main
variants are relevant here: infiltration and redirection
[4]. An obvious way to learn several aspects of a
botnet’s activity is to infiltrate the botnet by joining the
C&C channel. Botnet infiltration provides valuable
information about several malicious activities such as
DDoS attacks. Botnet infiltration technique is used to
provide in-depth analysis of several facets of botnets,
including inferring their membership by directly
counting the bots observed on individual C&C
channels. The tracker intelligently mimics the behavior
of actual bots and joins a number of botnets, all the
while recording any information observed on the
command and control channel. This information may
include the identities of all active bots. In this case, the
botnet’s footprint is simply the total number of unique
identities observed on the channel over the entire
tracking period. Similarly, the botnet’s live population
is measured by counting the number of bots
simultaneously present on the channel at a particular
time. In some cases, this estimate can also be derived
from the IRC server’s welcome message. Despite its
simplicity, this technique suffers from a number of
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 207
A Survey on Botnet Size Measurement
limitations. First, botmasters may suppress bot
identities from being transmitted to the channel and in
doing so render this technique useless. Second, even
when this information is available, counting can lead to
different estimates depending on whether we count the
fully qualified unique user IDs or the IP addresses—be
it cloaked or plain. Temporal population variations due
to bot cloning and temporary migration of bots
complicate this issue even further. What this means is
that it is difficult to provide an accurate bot count in
these cases, as distinguishing between actual bots and
temporary clones or migrants is nontrivial [3].
A. DNS Redirection
As an alternative to botnet infiltration, explored a
technique for counting infected bots by manipulating
the DNS entry associated with a botnet’s IRC server
and redirecting connections to a local sinkhole [9]. The
sinkhole completed the three-way TCP handshake with
bots attempting to connect to the (redirected) IRC
server and recorded the IP addresses of those victims.
Their results suggest the existence of large botnets
with populations up to 350,000 bots. Unfortunately,
although this approach allows us to observe the IP
addresses of different bots, it has a number of
limitations. First, this technique can only measure the
botnet’s footprint. The reason is that although the
sinkhole observes bot connection attempts, it is
impossible to know how many live bots are
simultaneously connected to the actual server channel.
Second, as the sinkhole does not host an actual IRC
server, there is no way of knowing if the bots are
connecting to the same C&C channel. Finally, it is
conceivable that botmasters can detect DNS
redirection and subsequently redirect their bots to
another IRC server thus distorting the estimate provided
by this technique.
B. DNS Cache Snooping
The measurement technique called DNS Cache
Snooping is based on the caching property
implemented and used by many DNS servers. If a DNS
server is queried for a domain for which it has no
entry defined, it will issue a query towards the
responsible authoritative name server on behalf of the
querying client and store the resulting data record
afterwards in a local cache. It is still possible to
estimate a botnet’s size by exploiting external
information. In this case, however, techniques that rely
on externally visible information can only provide an
estimate of a botnet’s footprint [15]. A natural source
of externally visible information about a botnet’s
prevalence is DNS. Use of DNS cache snooping is to
uncover a botnet’s footprint. In short, this approach
takes advantage of the fact that bots normally make a
DNS query to resolve the IP address of their IRC server
before joining the command and control channel. Our
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
technique estimates a botnet’s DNS footprint by
probing the caches of a large collection of DNS servers
and recording all cache hits. A cache hit implies that at
least one bot has queried its name server within the time
to live (TTL) interval of the DNS entry corresponding
to the botnet server. The total number of cache hits
provides an indication of the botnet’s DNS footprint.
That said, a botnet’s DNS footprint provides only a
lower bound of its actual footprint. For one, using DNS
to estimate size is only possible for DNS servers that
allow probes from arbitrary clients and reply to
queries for cached results. To yield an accurate
estimate, this technique requires a large list of such
servers. Moreover, botnet servers that have DNS names
with low TTL further complicates this technique
because, for such names, the probability of a cache hit
from an infected domain is low. Finally, a hit indicates
only the existence of at least one infected host
associated with that DNS server. Recently, suggested
another DNS-based technique. Their approach infers
bot counts by observing DNS lookups for hosts listed
in DNS-based black hole list. The rationale behind this
approach is that botmasters tend to query these lists to
detect if their bots are blacklisted and thereby unusable
for certain tasks (e.g., sending spam e-mails). This
approach has the potential to provide an overall
estimate of possible bots in DNS-based black hole list,
but clearly it cannot estimate the footprint or the live
population of a specific botnet.
VII. CHALLENGES
The size of a botnet is an important metric to
evaluate the threat posed by it. In general, it is hard to
measure the real size of a botnet since attackers can
obfuscate this information by modifying the C&C
server or other means. To obscure the size of the botnet,
botherders can modify the C&C server to discard the
responses of the users and commands. In addition,
botherders can set the user mode of the bots to be
invisible: the status messages of the bots are then not
visible for all members of a channel. In such
situations, the size of these botnets is hard to estimate
[2]. In Passive technique there are several additional
issues that complicate the task of counting botnet
members. Temporary bot migration and bot cloning are
major contributors to this effect. In several occasions,
botmasters temporarily migrate their bots from one
botnet to another. In cloning, botmasters command bots
to create copies of themselves and join a new channel
on the same server, or to connect to a different server
altogether. Generally, there are two types of cloning:
clone flooding, in which bots create a large number of
instances to overwhelm a target IRC server; and;
normal cloning events in which botmasters command
their bots to create a new IRC connection and join
another channel on the same server or on a different
server.
208 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
These observations raise an important question:
While counting botnet members, are we really counting
actual compromised machines? Although direct
counting of bots by botnet infiltration seems to be the
most direct way of estimating a botnet size, it is unclear
whether or not the resulting estimate is a count of real
bots. For one, temporary botnet migrations can
significantly inflate the membership of a particular
botnet. If counting the population of Botnet,
immediately after the migration arrives at an inflated
count. While on the surface this may not seem as a big
concern, if such migrations occur frequently, then that
could be substantially over counting the cumulative bot
population.
For further description about the impact of bot
cloning on size estimation, clone commands observed
in IRC traces of the botnets are also tracked.
VIII. CONCLUSION
Botnets pose a significant and growing threat
against cyber-security as they provide a key platform
for many cybercrimes such as Distributed Denial of
Service (DDoS) attacks against critical targets,
malware dissemination, phishing, and click fraud.
Despite the long presence of malicious botnets, only
few formal studies have examined the botnet problem
and botnet research is still in its infancy. This paper
surveys botnet size measurement. As mentioned,
highlight values of a botnet is its ability to provide
anonymity through the use of a multi-tier command and
control (C&C) architecture. Diversity of botnet
protocols and structures make botnet measurement a
challenging task. In this survey, botnet measurement
techniques are based on active and passive techniques
However, most of the current botnet measurement
techniques work on specific botnet C&C
communication protocols and structure. Consequently,
as botnets change their C&C communication
architecture, these methods are rendered ineffective.
According to our comparison, the most recent botnet
measurement technique, based on infiltration as well as
DNS based botnet measurement approach, can measure
real- world botnets regardless of its protocol and
structure with a very low false positive rate. Hence,
developing active techniques based on infiltration and
redirection for botnet measurement may be the most
promising approach to combat botnet.
REFERENCES
[1] M. A. R. J. Z. Fabian and M.A. Terzis, "A multifaceted
approach to understanding the botnet phenomenon," in
Proceedings of the 2006 ACM SIGCOMM Internet
Measurement Conference (IMC), 2006.
[2] J. Zhuge, T. Holz, X. Han, J. Guo, and W. Zou, Characterizing
the IRC- based botnet phenomenon: University of
Mannheim/Institute of Computer Science and Technology
Beijing, China, 2007.

[3] M. A. R. J. Z. Fabian and M.A. Terzis, "My botnet is bigger
than yours (maybe, better than yours): why size estimates
remain challenging," in Proc. of the 1st Workshop on Hot
Topics in Understanding Botnets (HotBots 2007), 2007.
[4] T. Holz, M. Steiner, F. Dahl, E. Biersack, and F. Freiling,
"Measurements and mitigation of peer-to-peer-based botnets: a
case study on storm worm," in Proceedings of the 1st Usenix
Workshop on Large-Scale Exploits and Emergent Threats,
2008, pp. 1-9.
[5] I. Castle and E. Buckley, "The Automatic Discovery,
Identification and Measurement of Botnets," in Emerging
Security Information, Systems and Technologies, 2008.
SECURWARE '08. Second International Conference on, 2008,
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[9] B. B. H. Kang, E. Chan-Tin, C. P. Lee, J. Tyra, H. J. Kang, C.
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"Towards complete node enumeration in a peer-to-peer botnet,"
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[10] H. Jun, L. Zhitang, Y. Dezhong, and Y. Junfeng,
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[11] A. Krishnamurthy, B. Plattner, and R. Weaver, "A Probabilistic
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[12] M. Feily, A. Shahrestani, and S. Ramadass, "A Survey of
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[13] Z. Li, J. Hu, Z. B. Hu, B. Wang, L. Tang, and X. Yi,
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 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Flooding Algorithm Based Resource Discovery

on Virtual Organization
Shikha Goyal
Department of Computer Science, Bhagwant Institute of Technology,
Muzaffarnagar, UP, India

Abstract—This paper studies discovery of resources distributed database. The problem is complicated by the
on virtual organization using flooding algorithm. The fact that some resource information (e.g., CPU load or
main problem arises when we have to find the resource in available storage) changes dynamically. Resource
grid in a lesser time. Here match making rules are taken discovery techniques maintain their source attribute and
to identify each resource type and distance travelled in
hops. If resource matches in lesser time then it is
status information in a distributed database and differ in
immediately allocated to the user. We make use of router the way they update, organize, or maintain the
information which is updated as the number increase4 or distributed database.
decreases; this increases the efficiency of memory
utilization on the router.
Keywords: Resource Discovery, Virtual organization,
Reliability value, Flooding algorithm.

I. INTRODUCTION
Grid computing provides an effective infrastructure
for massive computation among flexible and dynamic
collection of divided system for resource discovery.
Grid system is a large scale of distributed environment
which provides a high number of powerful resources to
its users. It provides many types of resources such as
computing resources (CPU cycles, storage, network
bandwidth and memory etc) and services (access to
specific data, shared software etc) [1].
Resource Discovery is systematic process of
determining which grid resource is the best candidate to
complete a job with trade-offs like
1. In shortest amount of time
2. With most efficient use of resources
3. At minimum cost.
Resource Discovery schema maintains and queries
a resource database known as “status” database. This
database is maintained network wide to fulfill the client
request information service. Discovery is initiated by a
network application to find suitable resources within the
Grid. For this it has to interact with the resources
individually through agents or it maintains the
information about the resources in databases.
The grid resource discovery problem [3] can be
defined as the problem of matching a query for
resources, described in terms of required characteristics,
to a set of resources that meet the expressed
requirements. The problem is complicated by the fact
that some resource information (e.g., CPU load or
available storage) changes dynamically. Resource
discovery techniques maintain their source attribute and
status information in a distributed database and differ in
the way they update, organize, or maintain the
Fig. 1: Grid Resource Discovery [12]
The challenge is to devise highly distributed
discovery techniques that are fault tolerant and highly
scalable. Matching the needs of an application with
available resources is one of the basic and key aspects
of a Grid system [4].
II. RELATED WORK
In this section, research work concerning the grid
resource discovery problem in general, as well as
implementation of trust mechanisms is presented.
Though significant work has been done towards the
direction of trusted grid computing [5] focusing to the
security implications that could arise in such systems,
resource discovery in grid system is limited. In this
section we presented related work regarding resource
discovery implementations.
The amount of communication required by the
algorithm is measured by:
a) The pointer communication complexity defined
as the number of pointers exchanged during
the course of the algorithm.

210 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2

 Flooding Algorithm Based Resource Discovery on Virtual Organization

b) The connection communication complexity III. PROPOSED WORK

defined by the total number of connections
Our work consists of creation of Virtual
between pairs of entities.
organizations based on different categories that depends
The flooding algorithm assumes that each node v
upon disk size, memory size and processor speed.
only communicates over edges connecting it with a set
of initial neighbors, rev). In every round node v contacts TABLE 1: SUMMARY OF CATEGORIES USED
all its initial neighbors and transmits to them updates, IN THE SIMULATION STUDY OF THIS PAPER
r(v)update. And then updates its own set of neighbors Categories Disk Memory Processor
by merging rev) with the set {r(u)update_}, with u E Size(MB) size(MB) Speed(GB)
r(v).The number of rounds required. by the flooding Category 1 <50000 <128 <0.5
Category 2 50000 to 256 to 512 1 to 1.5
algorithms equal with the diameter of the graph. 100000
The Swamping algorithm allows a machine to open Category 3 100000 to 512 to 1024 1.5 to 2
connections with all their current neighbors not only 150000
with the set of initial neighbors. The graph of the Category 4 150000 to 1024 to 2048 2 to 2.5
200000
network known to one machine converges to a complete
Category 5 >200000 >2048 >2.5
graph on O(log(n» steps but the communication
complexity increases. Here n is the number of nodes in Reliability value is assigned to each system
the network. separately.In the beginning, reliability value is assigned
In the random pointer.jump algorithm each node v as 0.1 for all the systems equally. In the later stages, this
connects a random neighbor, U E (rev) who sends r(u) value might increase or decrease depending on the
to v who in turn merges (rev) with r(u). A version of the execution of user tasks successfully. Using this
algorithm called the random pointer jump with back reliability, the Virtual organization can be either
edge requires u to send back to v a pointer to all its identified as complete trustworthy or partial
neighbors. There are even strongly connected graphs trustworthy. If reliability of each system is greater than
that require with high probability O(n) time to converge 0.75, then the trustworthy value of that virtual
to a complete graph in the random pointer jump organization is the average of the reliability value of all
algorithm. the system. Trustworthy of a virtual organization is
Matchmaking (also called Matchmaker) [6] is a assigned in the range of 0 to 1.
distributed resource management mechanism developed Virtual organization has information about resource
as part of Condor [7] project for Grid systems. In a type, and global values. Each Router contains the
simple view, the matchmaking acts as ”yellow page” information about the virtual organization and its
service to enable tasks to find resources for execution. neighbor virtual organization which is linked to it. The
The matchmaking can support dynamic clusters, i.e. generalized algorithm of the proposed improved
resources can enter and join their local clusters at will. flooding method for resource discovery is as follows
The matchmaking is based on the idea that resources
providing services and clients requesting service
advertise their characteristics and requirements using
classified advertisements (classads).
A noteworthy approach to the resource discovery
problem is the matchmaking framework [9]. The
matchmaking framework was designed to solve real
problems encountered in the deployment of condor a
high Throughput computing system.
Another notable approach to the resource discovery
problem is the semantic communities’ one
[10].Motivation behind the semantic communities
approach is that grid communities and human consists
of members that are engaged in sharing and
communication.
In the eight trusts model [11] the global reputation
of each peer is given by the local reputation values
assigned to this peers by other peers, weighted by the
global reputations of the assigning peers.
This paper mainly focus in proposing and
presenting an efficient way of dealing with memory size System architecture for the above generalized
of the routers and how these can be managed effectively algorithm of the proposed improved flooding method
for solving the grid resource discovery problem. for resource discovery is as follows

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Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

Fig3 also shows the comparative results of the

existing and the proposed flooding algorithm
corresponding to table 2. From the chart, it is also
inferred that there is a decrease in hops value for the
proposed method.

VI. MEMORY SIZE OF THE ROUTERS

In proposed work we have six routers. Each router
is connected to its virtual organization. Here the
memory space for each router is calculated. Thus the
values range from 50000 to 300000 MB.
TABLE 3: PERFORMANCE COMPARISON OF EXISTING AND PROPOSED
IMPROVED FLOODING ALGORITHM FOR USAGE OF MEMORY
Disk Size Disk Capacity Disk Capacity
In this paper improved flooding algorithm is used Existing Method Proposed Method
to send the user’s request from one virtual organization
50000 42000 39000
to another to find the requested resources. 100000 78000 68000
150000 115000 100000
IV. CONCLUSION 200000 150000 120000
250000 225000 199000
In the proposed work we have studied six virtual 300000 290000 250000
organizations. Each virtual organization has its own
resources types and global values. Virtual organization Memory size in the proposed method decreases by
generates the request. The request is ranges from 5 to 8% compared to existing method using matchmaking
50 in steps of 5. algorithm for the disk size 50000 MB. Thus for the disk
size from 50000 to 300000 MB, there is a decrease of
V. HOPS VALUE CALCULATION 8% to 20% in the memory size of the proposed method
compared to the existing one.
TABLE 2: PERFORMANCE COMPARISON OF EXISTING AN PROPOSED
IMPROVED FLOODING ALGORITHM FOR FINDING HOPS
Number of Matchmaking Improved Flooding
Requests Algorithm Algorithm
5 20 15
10 30 25
20 50 43
30 85 80
40 105 90
50 102 100

Number of hops to find the appropriate resources in

the proposed method decreases by 25% compared to
existing method using matchmaking algorithm for 5
requests. Thus for the requests from 5 to 50, there is a
decrease of 6% to 25% to find the hops value in the
proposed method compared to the existing one.
Fig. 4: Performance Comparison of Existing and Proposed Improved
Flooding Algorithm for Usage of Memory

Fig4 also shows the comparative results of the

Fig. 3: Performance Comparison of Existing and Proposed Improved
Flooding Algorithm for Finding Hops Value
existing and the proposed flooding algorithm
corresponding to table 3. From the chart, it is also
inferred that there is a decrease in memory size for the
proposed method.
This paper analyzed and examined the importance
of resource discovery in Grid environments by
calculating hops value which helps to reduce the time
for matching the resources with the user’s request. Also,
the proposed method stores only partial information of
virtual organization and hence memory space is
reduced.

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 Flooding Algorithm Based Resource Discovery on Virtual Organization
REFERENCES
[1] J. Joseph and C. Fellenstein, “Grid Computing”, IBM
PressPearson Education, pp. 5.
[2] Foster, I. and C. Kesselman (2004) The Grid: Blueprint for a
NewComputing Infrastructure, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.
[3] Iamnitchi and I. Foster, “On Fully Decentralized Resource
Discovery in Grid Environments,” IEEE International
Workshopon Grid Computing, Denver, CO, 2001.
[4] Klaus Krauter, Rajkumar Buyya and Muthucumaru
Maheswaran, “A taxonomy and survey of grid resource
management systems fordistributed computing”, 2001 John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 17September 2001.
[5] Song. S., Hwang, K, Kwok.Y, 2005. Trusted grid computing
withsecurity binding and trust integration.Journal of Grid
Computing 3 (1).
[6] M.J. Litzkow, M. Livny, and M.W. Mutka. Condor–A hunter of
idle workstations, 8th International Conference on Distributed
Computing Systems, pages 104-111, 1988.
[7] M. Maheswaran and K. Krauter A Parameter-based Approach to
Resource Discovery First IEEE/ACM International Workshop,
2000.
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[8] O.F. Rana, D. Bunford-Jones and D.W. Walker. Resource
Discovery for Dynamic Clusters in Computational Grids. 15th
IEEEInternal Symposium on Parall and Distributed Processing,
pages 759-767, 2001.
[9] Raman.R. 2001. Matchmking frameworks for distributed
resource management. Technical report, University of
Wisconsin-maddison.
[10] Tangpongprasit,S., Katagiri, T., Honda, H., Yuba, T., 2005.
Atime-to-live based reservation Algorithm on fully
decentralized resource discovery in grid computing. Parallel
Computing 31, 529-543, june.
[11] Kamvar, S., Schlosser, M., Garcia-Molina, H., 2003. The
eigentrust algorithm for reputation management in p2p
networks.In: in proceedings of world Wide Web Conference,
Budapest Hungary.
[12] Klaus Krauter, Rajkumar Buyya, and Muthucumaru
Maheswaran “A Taxonomy and Survey of Grid Resource
Management Systems”, School of Computer Science and
Software Engineering, Monash University Melborne Australia.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Cluster based Routing Protocol to Prolong

Network Lifetime in Heterogeneous Wireless
Sensor Network
Vandana Mishra1, Rohinee Rai2, Riddhi Gupta3 and Rudresh4
1,2,3,4
Department of Digital Communication, Bhagwant, University, India
e-mail: 1vandana0903@gmail.com

Abstract—The efficient node-energy utilization is one
of important factors in wireless sensor network, research
on wireless sensor network has often assumed
homogenous node which are equipped with the same
amount of energy and as a result, they cannot take
advantage of heterogeneity. This leads to the research in
heterogeneous network in which fraction of nodes are
powerful (with more energy), more suitable to become a
cluster head. Intuitively, powerful nodes have to become
cluster head more often than the normal nodes. In this
paper we proposed a cluster based routing algorithm to
extend the lifetime of the networks and to maintain the
balanced energy consumption of nodes, we analyzed a
heterogeneous network with three types of nodes having
different initial energy levels. The performance of the
proposed protocol has been examined and evaluated in
MATLAB simulator. As a result of simulation, we have
confirmed that our proposed algorithm shows better
performance in terms of lifetime than LEACH, without
other critical overheads and performance degradation.
Keywords: Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), Routing
Protocols, Heterogeneous, Lifetime, Clustering,
Homogeneous.
I. INTRODUCTION
A wireless network can be defined as a network
consists of low size and low complex devices are called
sensor nodes which can sense surrounding things and
after gathering information from that monitored
surrounding fields and communicates through wireless
links.
Wireless communication technologies continue to
grow in diverse areas to provide new and better
opportunities for general business systems; the
advances in micro-electro mechanical systems have
made building such kind of sensors a possibility. The
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) consist of large
number of low cost devices to gather information from
the diverse kinds of physical phenomenon. The sensors
can monitor various entities such as: temperature,
pressure, humidity, salinity, metallic objects, and
mobility; this monitoring capability can be effectively
used in commercial, military, and environmental
applications (Heinzelman W., Chandrakasan A., and
Balakrishnan H.2000, Lindsay S., Raghavendra C., and
Sivalingam K., 2001, Manjeshwar A. and. Agrawal
D.,2001). For these sensor network applications, most
research has discussed problems by the deployment of
large number of low-cost homogeneous devices.
However, it is often feasible to consider the deployment
of heterogeneous devices with different capabilities
Advances in wireless sensor network technologies have
made it possible to develop low-cost, low-powered tiny
sensor nodes.
Fig. 1: Architecture of Sensor Network
The major issues stemming from these studies are
protocol design in regards to battery energy efficiency,
localization scheme, synchronization, data aggregation
and security technologies for wireless sensor networks.
In particular, researchers have shown great interest in
the routing protocols in the network layer, which
considers self-organization capabilities, limited battery
power, and data aggregation schemes (K. Akkaya and
M. Younis, 2005, Q. Jiang and D. Manivannan,
2004).The concept of cluster based routing is also
utilized to perform energy efficient routing in WSNs.
Author(C. Siva Ram Murthy and B.S Manoj,2004)
shows the most important features of cluster-based
architectures over ad hoc and sensor networks.
Researchers generally assume that the nodes in wireless
sensor networks are homogeneous. But in reality,
homogeneous sensor networks hardly exist. In
heterogeneous sensor networks, few nodes are having
comparatively more energy to perform data filtering,
fusion and transport. This leads to the research on
heterogeneous networks to prolong the lifetime and
reliability of the network.

214 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2

 Cluster based Routing Protocol to Prolong Network Lifetime in Heterogeneous Wireless Sensor Network

For heterogeneous WSNs, a very critical task for
clustering protocols is to select the cluster head so that
least energy is consumed, and hence prolong the
lifetime. Clustering algorithms can be classified based
on two main criterions: according to the energy
efficiency and stability. Selection of cluster head in
energy efficient techniques generally depends on the
initial energy, residual energy, average energy of the
network, or energy consumption rate or combination of
these. Some algorithm for clustering: EEHC (Dilip
Kumar a,*, Trilok C. Aseri b, 1, R.B. Patel, 2010),
DEEC (Vivek Katiyar, Narottam Chand, Surender Soni,
2010), DBEC (Changmin Duan; Hong Fan, 2007) and
CBSD (R.S. Marin-Perianu, J. Scholten, P.J.M.
Havinga And P.H. Hartel, 2010).All the recent research
work focuses on sensor networks that consist of
identical sensors with equal capacity in terms of
sensing, computation, communication, and power. The
possibility of working with more than one type of
sensors within a same network is mentioned in
(Pottie G. and Kaiser W., 2000). We have observed that
the manufacturing of a sensor is generally application-
specific. Different special purpose sensors can be used
to form a single sensor network to perform more
comprehensive tasks, e.g., some sensors collect image
data, some sensors collect audio signal, some sensors
have more processing capability, some sensors have
more power, and so on. This results in a heterogeneous
sensor network that can have a variety of compositions
of sensors. Many organizational and communication
issues arise with such a structure.
In this paper, we have examined one of the
simplest heterogeneous scenarios in which sensors are
equipped with different battery power in an event-
driven sensor network. In particular, we have
considered a field randomly deployed with sensors that
gather data and transmit it back to a base station. Such a
scenario is motivated by applications in which data is
desired from a hostile environment, such as a volcano
or a swamp, where sensors are likely to be deployed in
an unmanned manner. Under such situations sensing
data will be collected, aggregated, analyzed and
transmitted to a more accessible location. The main
issue of our interest is to maximize the lifetime of a
sensor network for a given amount of energy, or
equivalently, and to retrieve the same data using the
least amount of energy also the proposed algorithm
extends the survival time of sensor networks by
properly choosing cluster heads with consideration to
node residual energy.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Next,
the related work is discussed. Then we show a paradigm
of heterogeneous wireless sensor networks and also
describe the network model. Then we describe the basic
system model and proposed work. Lastly we present
simulation results and conclude the paper.
II. RELATED STUDY
In a cluster based routing protocol, sensor nodes
are partitioned into many groups (clusters), which
integrates information data collected from sensor nodes
and transmits them to the sink node of the network. In
each of the many clusters in this network resides a
cluster head which collects data from sensor nodes
within its group, completes data aggregation, and sends
them to the sink node of the network. Such data
aggregation can reduce the consumption of node energy
and the transmission delay as compared to multi-hop
routing protocols (J. Ibriq and I. mahgoub, 2004).
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in
WSNs. One of the major issues in wireless sensor
network is developing an energy-efficient routing
protocol. Since the sensor nodes have limited available
power, energy conservation is a critical issue in wireless
sensor network for nodes and network life. The issue of
heterogeneity (in terms of energy) of nodes is addressed
in (Ye M., Li C., Chen G., and Wu J., 2005). In
(Smaragdakis G., Matta I., and Bestavros, 2004), the
proposed protocol is based on random selection of
cluster-heads weighted according to the remaining node
energy. This approach addresses the problem of varying
energy levels and consumption rates but still assumes
that the sink can be reached directly by all the nodes.
There have been many studies presented for
configuration and operation algorithms of a cluster
based network topology in ad hoc networks.
Advantages to a clustering network are the reduction of
an overhead of routing establishment, minimization of
the size of the routing table, and stabilization of the
network topology. The clustering network can make
resource management and bandwidth allocation more
efficient and make node positioning management and
transmitting power management possible.
In addition, the clustering scheme in a wireless
sensor network enables an aggregate data of cluster
member nodes at the cluster head and can easily
provide the network scalability due to node increase.
Consequently, in a huge sensor network that is several
hundred ~ hundred thousand times bigger than ad hoc
networks; the clustering based routing algorithm is a
possible approach to maintain network configuration
management and to make data aggregation. In the
clustering algorithm, all nodes in a sensor network can
become a cluster head but must belong to only one
cluster. The algorithm should minimize the overhead of
clustering setup messages and establishing times.
Additionally, the algorithm must maintain a stable
network configuration, routing, network efficiency,
with a minimization of energy Consumption
(J. Ibriq and I. mahgoub, 2004).

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Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
Fig. 2: Basic Operation of Cluster Based Routing
Many clustering algorithms are there and most of them
are based upon nodes weights. Some examples are
PEGASIS, DEEC etc.
III. NETWORK AND ENERGY CONSUMPTION MODEL
We assume that the energy consumption of the
sensor is due to data transmission and reception. Cluster
head consume energy for the data aggregation before it
sends the data to BS. We use the same radio model as
stated in (J. Ibriq and I. mahgoub,2004) and shown in
Figure 1 to calculate energy consumption in
communication, ignoring energy consumption of nodes
in the process of computing, storage, etc. In the process
of transmitting l bits message through distance d, the
energy consumption of the transmitter is:
ETx (k,d)=k(Eelec+ ıAMPdı)= Eelec k + kıAMPdı,,
Where,
k=length of the message,
d=transmission distance between transmitter and
receiver,
Eelec= electronic energy,
ıAMP =transmitter amplifier,
ı= Path Loss (2<= 1<=4),
Also, the energy consumed in the message
reception is given by
ERx = Eelec k,
Fig. 3: Energy Consumption Model
216 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
IV. HETEROGENEOUS MODEL FOR WIRELESS
SENSOR NETWORK
In this section, we will present a paradigm of
heterogeneous wireless sensor network and discuss the
impact of heterogeneous resources.
A. Types of Heterogeneous Resources
There are three common types of resource
heterogeneity in sensor node: computational
heterogeneity, link heterogeneity, and energy
heterogeneity (Pottie G. and Kaiser W., 2000).
Computational heterogeneity means that the
heterogeneous node has a more powerful
microprocessor and more memory than the normal
node. With the powerful computational resources, the
heterogeneous nodes can provide complex data
processing and longer-term storage. Link heterogeneity
means that the heterogeneous node has high-bandwidth
and long-distance network transceiver than the normal
node. Link heterogeneity can provide more reliable data
transmission. Energy heterogeneity means that the
heterogeneous node is line powered, or its battery is
replaceable. Among above three types of resource
heterogeneity, the most important heterogeneity is the
energy heterogeneity because both computational
heterogeneity and link heterogeneity will consume more
energy resource. If there is no energy heterogeneity,
computational heterogeneity and link heterogeneity will
bring negative impact to the whole sensor network, i.e.,
decreasing the network lifetime.
B. Heterogeneous Impact on the Wireless
Sensor Networks
Placing few heterogeneous nodes in the sensor
network can bring following three main benefits:
1. Prolonging network lifetime. In the
heterogeneous wireless sensor network, the
average energy consumption for forwarding a
packet from the normal nodes to the sink in
heterogeneous sensor networks will be much
less than the energy consumed in
homogeneous sensor networks.
2. Improving reliability of data transmission. It is
well known that sensor network links tend to
have low reliability. And each hop
significantly lowers the end-to-end delivery
rate. With heterogeneous nodes; there will be
fewer hops between normal sensor nodes and
the sink. So the heterogeneous sensor network
can get much higher end-to-end delivery rate
than the homogeneous sensor network.
3. Decreasing latency of data transportation.
Computational heterogeneity can decrease the
processing latency in immediate nodes. And
link heterogeneity can decrease the waiting
time in the transmitting queue. Fewer hops
between sensor nodes and sink node also mean
fewer forwarding latency.
 Cluster based Routing Protocol to Prolong Network Lifetime in Heterogeneous Wireless Sensor Network
V. PROPOSED ALGORITHM
A. Model Architecture and Basic Assumptions
Consider the cluster based WSN with 100 sensor
nodes dispersed in a field as shown in Figure 4. BS is
located inside the field remotely, composed of several
clusters. Each cluster has one CH which acts as a local
control centre to coordinate the data transmissions. All
of these components are based on the following
assumptions
• The WSNs consist of the heterogeneous sensor
nodes.
• The BS is located inside the WSNs.
• Some sensor nodes have different initial
energy.
• All sensor nodes and BS are stationary after
deployment.
• All nodes can send data to BS.
• Data compression is done by the Cluster Head.
• Data Compression energy is different from the
reception and transmission.
• In the first round, each node has a probability p
of becoming the cluster head.
• A node, which has become cluster head, shall
be eligible to become cluster head after 1-1/p
rounds.
• All nodes consume same energy for
transmission and reception.
• Energy of transmission depends on the
distance (source to destination) and data size.
B. Proposed Algorithm
In this paper, we describe a cluster based routing
protocol which considers the residual energy of sensor
nodes to avoid unbalanced energy consumption of the
sensor nodes. We have considered a heterogeneous
network with three types of nodes (normal, advanced
and super nodes) that are deployed in a harsh
environment. Advanced and super nodes are more
powerful and are having higher battery power than the
normal nodes. We have assumed the cluster head
election is based residual energy of the node. We have
analyzed network lifetime by using the characteristic
parameters of heterogeneity is the fraction of different
type of nodes namely the few advanced and super nodes
of α and β times more energy than the normal nodes in
order to prolong the lifetime of the sensor network.
Intuitively, super and advanced nodes have to become
cluster heads more often than the normal nodes, which
is equivalent to a fairness constant on energy
consumption. The new heterogeneous setting has
changed the total initial energy of the network and does
not affect on the spatial density of the network. We
assumed the following variables for the:
E2=Energy of super node.
E1=Energy of advanced node.
E0=Energy of normal node.
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 217
Et2=Total initial energy of advanced nodes.
Et1=Total initial energy of super nodes.
Et0=Total initial energy of normal nodes.
E2= E0. (1+β) (1)
E1=E0. (1+α) (2)
Et1= m.n.p.E2 (3)
Et2= m.n.E1. (1-p) (4)
Et0= n. (1-m).E0 (5)
The total initial energy of the new heterogeneous
sensor network setting is given by equation 7.
Q = α – p. (α – β) (6)
Et =n.E0. (1+m.Q) (7)
Our approach is to assign a weight to the optimal
probability popt. Let us define that P1, P2 and P3 are
the weighted election probabilities for the normal
advanced and super nodes. In order to maintain the
minimum energy consumption in each round within an
epoch, the average number of cluster heads per round
per epoch must be constant and equal to popt.n. In this
type of scenario the average number of cluster heads
per round per epoch is equal to n. (1+m.Q). The
weighed probabilities for normal, advanced and super
nodes are respectively:
P1 = popt (8)
1+m.Q
P2 = popt. (1+α) (9)
1+ m.Q
P3 = popt. (1+β) (10)
1+m.Q
We have replaced popt by the weighted
probabilities to obtain the threshold that is used to elect
the cluster head in each round. We define T (s1), T (s2)
and T (s3) are the thresholds for normal, advanced and
super nodes. This algorithm uses a probability function
considering the use of node residual energy for cluster
configuration. Thus, the threshold for normal nodes for
cluster head selection can be evaluated by equation
(11).
T (s1) = P1. Eres if s1εG
1- P1. (r mod1/P1) Emax (11)
0 otherwise
where r is the current round, G’ is the set of normal
nodes that have not become cluster heads within the last
1/P1 rounds of the epoch, and Eres is the current residual
energy of the node, Emax is the maximum residual
energy of the entire network.T (s1) is the threshold
applied to a nodes n. (1-m) normal nodes. This
guarantees that each normal node will become a cluster
head exactly once every (1+m.Q) /P1 rounds per epoch,
and that the average number of cluster heads that are
normal nodes per round per epoch is equal to n. (1-m).
P1. Similarly, thresholds T (s2) and T (s3) are evaluated
for advanced and super nodes.
The proposed algorithm works in round. Each
round has three phases: (1) a set-up phase, (2) a steady
state phase, and (3) a pre-setup phase. The algorithm
works as follows:
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

• In the set-up phase keeping the base station position at the center denoted
1. Each node generates a random probability by ‘x’.We denote the normal node with ‘o’, an
(p) at the beginning of a new round and advanced node with ‘+’ and a super node with
computes the threshold value (T (n)) with ‘^’deployment of the sensor node is shown in figure
the use of equation (1). 4.Our simulation model uses the parameters as shown
If r = 1 (i.e. the first round), let Emax of all in table 1
nodes be 1. TABLE 1: SIMULATION PARAMETERS
2. In case of p < Pt, the node is selected as a
cluster head. Simulation Parameter Value
Network area 200m *200m
3. A selected cluster head broadcasts an No of nodes 100
advertised message over neighbor nodes. Initial energy 0.5J
4. The neighbor nodes collect advertised BS position 100m * 100m
messages during a given time interval and Eelec 50nJ/bit
then send a “join REQ” message to the Etx=ERX 50nJ/bit
εfs 10pJ/bits/m2
nearest cluster head. εmp 0.0013pJ/bit/m4
5. The cluster head receives the “join-REQ” do=sqrt(εfs / εmp)
messages and builds a cluster member list EDA 5nJ/bit
schedule. Then broadcast them over Packet size 4000bits
neighbor nodes. β 2
α 1
6. The member node receives and save the
p 0.5
message for data transfer.
• In the steady state phase,
1. After the cluster selection process
completes, each member sends data and
its residual energy information to them
cluster head
2. The cluster head maintains residual energy
information of member nodes.
• In the Pre-setup phase,
1. Before the last frame of a round
completes, the cluster head sends BS the
maximum residual energy value of nodes
belong to its own cluster.
2. BS collects all maximum residual energy
values from cluster heads, finds the Fig. 4: Simulation Result of Sensor Network
maximum residual energy value (Emax) B. Simulation Results
of the network, and sends Emax back to
cluster heads. 1) Network lifetime when first node dead
3. The cluster head broadcasts Emax over In the random selection method cluster head
cluster nodes. selection in each round is done on the basis of 1/p, not
4. Each node save the value of Emax for the on the basis of residual energy. In this we observe the
next computation of T (n) and the current result of the first node dead, because dead nodes are the
round is terminated reason to affect the lifetime of the network or drag
towards early dead of all node,the base station position
VI. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION placed at the (100,200) with 4000 packet size.
The performance analysis of above routing Simulation is taken for 2000 rounds.
protocol is evaluated with the MATLAB (www. TABLE 2: NETWORK LIFETIME (FIRST NODE DEAD)
Mathworks.com). Then the protocol is compared to the
Simulation Rounds LEACH Proposed Protocol
heterogeneous LEACH algorithm (in which cluster 1 438 635
selection is done by random selection) in terms of the 2 501 661
network lifetime. 3 462 640
4 560 723
A. Simulation Parameter 5 478 678
6 456 639
In this simulation, our experiment model performed 7 467 712
on 100 nodes which were randomly deployed and 8 532 698
distributed in a 100×100 square meter area. Initially 9 521 694
10 448 742

218 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Cluster based Routing Protocol to Prolong Network Lifetime in Heterogeneous Wireless Sensor Network

3000 1200
2500
1000
No of Rounds

2000
800

No of Rounds
1500 4000
LEACH
1000 600
Proposed 8000
500 400
12000
0 200
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Simulation Rounds 0
Fig. 5: Network Lifetime (First Node Dead) 1 Leach 2 3 Proposed

2) Network lifetime when last node dead Fig. 7: Network Lifetime (Different Packet Size)

Similarly when all nodes are dead in the network, 4) Residual energy of the network
the lifespan of network is over, less the round number We simulated the proposed method to get the value
implies lesser lifetime of network. Figure 6 shows the of residual energy left for the network at differ rounds
result, Simulation is taken for 2000 rounds. and we compared with the LEACH protocol and the
TABLE 3: NETWORK LIFETIME (ALL NODE DEAD) result are shown in figure 8,and the result shows that
Simulation Rounds LEACH Proposed
our proposed protocol have more residual energy for the
1 1813 2314 network. Keeping the base station position at (100,200)
2 2145 2456 with packet size 4000.
3 1987 2221
TABLE 5: RESIDUAL ENERGY IN JOULES FOR DIFFERENT ROUNDS
4 1869 2532
5 2145 2654 Round Number LEACH Proposed
6 1854 2433 500 22.595 34.567
7 1865 2563 1000 14.097 25.121
8 1923 2321 1500 5.2684 16.476
9 2103 2422 2000 2.1902 9.4093
10 1821 2466 2500 1.5828 4.8712
3000 0.5632 3.0321
3000
3500 0.0666 0.9765
2500 4000 0 0.5521
4500 0 0
No of Rounds

2000
1500 40
LEACH 35
Residule energy

1000 30
Proposed 25
500 20
15
0 10 LEACH
5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 Proposed
Simulation Rounds
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500

Fig. 6: Network Lifetime (All Node Dead)

No of Rounds
3) Lifetime with varying message size
We simulated the proposed method with different Fig. 8: Residual Energy in Joules for Different Rounds
message size to observe the lifetime of the network. The
results are shown in following table 4. Keeping base VII. CONCLUSION
station position at (50, 50) and in this simulation we In this paper, we propose a new cluster based
vary the packet size and keeping the no of rounds to routing protocol for wireless sensor network that
2000. considers the residual energy of nodes to extend the
TABLE 4: NETWORK LIFETIME (DIFFERENT PACKET SIZE) network lifetime of sensor networks and due to
heterogeneity of sensor nodes,where more powerful
Packet Size LEACH Proposed Protocol
nodes act as a cluster head for more number of rounds.
4000 999 1092
8000 476 525
Performance evaluation in terms network lifetime is
12000 325 360 conducted on MATLAB.We compared the LEACH
protocol with the proposed protocol under the same
simulation conditions and values, the consideration of

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Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
residual energy during cluster head selection processing
improves the network performance.By considering the
base station position, packet size, our protocol clearly
makes the network lifetime much longer without other
critical overhead and performance degradation.
REFERENCES
[1] Heinzelman W., Chandrakasan A., and Balakrishnan H.,
“Application-Specific Protocol Architectures for Wireless
Networks,” PhD Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
2000.
[2] Lindsay S., Raghavendra C., and Sivalingam K., “Data
Gathering in Sensor Networks Using the Energy Delay Metric,”
in Proceedings of the 15thInternational Parallel and Distributed
Processing Symposium, 2001.
[3] Manjeshwar A. and. Agrawal D., “TEEN: A Routing Protocol
for Enhanced Efficiency in Wireless Sensor Networks,” in
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Distributed Computing Issues in Wireless Networks and Mobile
Computing, San Francisco, 2001.
[4] C. Siva Ram Murthy and B.S Manoj, Ad Hoc Wireless
Networks Architectures and Protocols. Prentice Hall
Communication Engineering and Emerging Technologies
Series, 2004.
[5] K. Akkaya and M. Younis, "A Survey of RoutingProtocols in
Wireless Sensor Networks, " in the Elsevier Ad Hoc Network
Journal, Vol 3/3, pp. 325-349, 2005.
[6] Q. Jiang and D. Manivannan, “Routing protocols for sensor
networks,” Proceedings of CCNC 2004, pp.93-98, Jan. 2004.
[7] Dilip Kumar a,*, Trilok C. Aseri b, 1, R.B. Patel “EEHC:
Energy efficient heterogeneous clustered scheme for wireless
sensor networks in “Computer Communications” 32 (2009)
662–667.
220 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
[8] Vivek Katiyar, Narottam Chand, Surender Soni,” Clustering
Algorithms for Heterogeneous Wireless Sensor Network: A
Survey “, International Journal Of Applied Engineering
Research, Dindigul Volume 1, No 2, 2010.
[9] Changmin Duan; Hong Fan, “A Distributed Energy Balance
Clustering Protocol for Heterogeneous Wireless Sensor
Networks”, Wireless Communications, Networking and Mobile
Computing, 2007.
[10] R.S. Marin-Perianu, J. Scholten, P.J.M. Havinga And P.H.
Hartel Cluster -based service discovery for heterogeneous
wireless sensor networks International Journal of Parallel,
Emergent and Distributed Systems, Vol., No., 1–35.
[11] Pottie G. and Kaiser W., “Wireless Integrated Network
Sensors,” Communications of the ACM, vol. 43, no. 5, pp. 51-
58, 2000.
[12] J. Ibriq and I. mahgoub, "Cluster-Based Routing in Wireless
Sensor Networks: Issues and Challenges", Proceedings of the
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Telecommunication Systems, pp.759-766, Jul. 2004.
[13] Ye M., Li C., Chen G., and Wu J., “EECS: An Energy Efficient
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Computing, and Communications Conference (IPCCC’2005),
pp. 535-540, 2005.
[14] Smaragdakis G., Matta I., and Bestavros A., “SEP: A Stable
Election Protocol for Clustered Heterogeneous Wireless Sensor
Networks,” in Proceedings of 2nd International Workshop on
Sensor and Actor Network Protocols and Applications (SANPA’
2004), 2004
[15] www. Mathworks.com
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Autonomic Communication—A New Wave
Navdeep Kaur
Std. M.Tech (Communication Systems), Department of Electronics Technology,
Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India
e-mail: navdeep.mahal88@gmail.com
Abstract—Next generation networks will certainly
face requesting access from different parts of the
network.The heterogeneity of communication and
application softwares changing situations in the
environment, from the users, the operators, the business
requirements as well as the technologies. Users will be
more and more mobile, protocols, etc. will increase and
render the network more complex to manage. Autonomic
networking aims to design networks that are capable to
self-manage, while optimizing their configurations and
interactions to the changing needs of the users and the
environment.The present paper deals with overview of
autonomic communication and its role in digital global
world.
I. INTRODUCTION
Autonomic communication studies the individual
network element as it is affected by and affects
elements and the often numerous groups to which it
belongs as well as network in general.Autonomic is a
way, being able to self-configure, self-monitor, self-
adapt, and self-heal.Autonomic communication studies
the individual network element as it is affected by and
affects elements and the often numerous groups to
which it belongs as well as network in general. The
goals are to understand how desired element’s
behaviors are learned, influenced or changed, and how,
in turn, these affect other elements, groups and
network[1].
The Autonomic Communication (AC) is to allow
selfadaptable, self-configurable, technology
independent, robust, secure, scalable, and easily
deployed services and infrastructures. Autonomic
Communication is a paradigm in which the applications
and the services need not ported onto a pre configured
network, but where the network itself grows out of the
services that end users desire.
II. ADVANTAGES OF AUTONOMIC COMMUNICATION
The following are the main benefits of this
advanced technology:
1. Reduce network complexity
2. Cope with proliferation of WLANs and
numerous ad hoc, peer to peer networking
paradigms which may occupy same frequency
space.
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
3. Share the cost of managing the networks (as
IBM’s Autonomic Computing)[1].
4. Support mobile, personalized Services
5. Improve efficiencies through context
awareness, etc.
6. End-user is becoming a resource-powerful
engine.
7. Contributes its resources to the network
8. The autonomic, powerful end-user is
becoming the network.
9. The network will be made up of zillions of
autonomic nodes.
III. ISSUES IN AUTONOMIC COMMUNICATION
The increasing density of the global network
operators, developers and users both dramatic
advantages and significant challenges:
A. Industry
The need to maintain diverse and complex
networks is often a significant (and increasing) cost of
doing business. A more autonomic infrastructure would
reduce these costs and facilitate new opportunities, but
only if made sufficiently flexible, robust and secure for
use across the spectrum of corporate communications.
B. Operators
Increasing interconnectivity potentially allows
improved robustness capabilities and closer integration
with the and bandwidth, but also increases the
complexity of management and the fragility of
protocols in coping with a highly dynamic and largely
scale free environment composed of diverse networks
and technologies.Finergrained mobility and roaming
require that the relationships between operators, and
between operators and users, be extensively re-thought.
C. Developers
Mobile and pervasive networks allow applications
and services to extend into the environment, both
providing and benefiting from sensing personal and
social goals of users, but at the cost of massively
increased programming and configuration
complexity[4].
221
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
D. Users
Mobility and ubiquity tilt the balance of
communications systems in the users’ direction,
placing individually- and socially-focused adaptations
at the core of the systems architecture, but with the
danger that the increased potential for surveillance and
complexity will erode the privacy of individual and
further disenfranchise entire social groups.
IV. VISION OF AUTONOMIC COMMUNICATION (AC)
1. It is to allow self-adaptable, self-configurable,
technology independent, robust, secure, scalable,
and easily deployed services and infrastructures.
2. ACs is a paradigm in which the applications and
the services need not ported onto a pre-
configured network, but where the network itself
grows out of the services that end users desire.
The following desirable properties are envisioned
1. Zero-effort deployment
2. Autonomously Controlled Network Entities–
self-organized, self-managed, self-configured,
self-healed, self-learning system[2].
3. Morphing capabilities-changing (add, delete,
modify) functionality.
V. FEATURES OF AUTONOMIC COMMUNICATION
The main features of autonomic communication is
the ability to adapt to an evolving situation where new
services can become available.
A. Network Architectures
Network Architectures that are heterogeneous,
resilient, evolvable, distributed and highly
dynamic.Multi- mission/ reprogrammable functionality
and communications Services[4]. As Network
Architectures consists of traditional communication
and coordination models which are heterogeneous in
nature means no autonomic adaptability.
B. Self- aware Communications Protocols
Self-aware Communications Protocols that enable
self-adaptive anytime/ anywhere operations in a
heterogeneous mix of networks.
C. Security and Protection
Since autonomic nodes could self program their
networking behavior out of cooperative mechanisms,
this calls for novel techniques for trusted software.
D. Cognitive Situated Networks
Cognitive Situated Networks no longer act as a
means to simply propagate information from one
machine to the other but become a living partner
enabling “on- the- fly” interactions with the
environment. Nano- sensor technology to gather, filter,
222 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
aggregate, and map information that live in multiple
and dynamic contexts.
E. Virtual Reality & Virtual Presence
Virtual Reality & Virtual Presence natural
interaction by Video tracking, Eye tracking, Gesture
and Emotion Recognition.
Fig. 1: Autonomic Communication System Self-ware Areas
F. Ambient Intelligence
It is an emerging interface paradigm in which the
computer intelligence is embedded in a digital
environment that is aware of the presence of the users
and is sensitive to their needs, habits, gestures and
emotions. In this interaction through all senses-
devices-to-device, devices-to-person, devices-to-
environment and devices-to-cyber. Figure 1 shows
different components of this technology.
VI. FUNCTIONALITIES OF AN AUTONOMIC SYSTEM
In order to grant an autonomic behavior to
autonomic system, the following functionalities will be
foreseen and enabled both at the autonomic node or
component as a single point of decision and the whole
system.
A. Self-locating
With this feature the autonomic node establishes,
and dynamically updates, a reference system to identify
neighbor nodes and locate the resources required by its
coordination scheme. The reference model will help in
the behavior correlation process.
B. Self-configuring
With the ability to dynamically configure itself on
the fly, an information pervaded environment can adapt
immediately and with minimal human intervention to
the deployment of new components or changes in the
information-pervaded environment.
C. Self-healing
Through self-healing, systems state can be
evaluated and corrective actions can be initiated
without disrupting system operation. The corrective
 Autonomic Communication—A New Wave

actions may lead the system/subsystem to alter its own limitation providing the system with the ability to
state and/or influence changes in other elements of the represent and reason about, and to compare and
environment. The information pervaded environment as evaluate, possible situations that do not exist, or exist
a whole becomes more resilient as changes are made to but are not known, either because they are future
reduce or help to eliminate the impact of failing possibilities, or because they are remote or hypothetical
components. possibilities or because they might have occurred in the
past [5 ]. Finally, the reflective process enables the
D. Self-optimizing cognitive elements to monitor and control their own
This feature refers to the ability of the information- progress to adapt their future behavior in response to
pervaded environment to efficiently maximize resource previous performance. Statistics, or executions history,
allocation and utilization to meet end-users needs with are an important parameter in the decision-making
a minimal human intervention. In the near term, self- process.The architecture aims to reproduce the
optimization primarily addresses the complexity of behavior of the modeled system (i.e. human nervous
managing system performance. system) at different level of time (short term, long term
reactions) to exhibit a robust behavior to errors and
E. Self-protecting unknown/unexpected events.
The goal of self-protecting environments is to
provide the right information to the right users at the
right time through actions that grant access based on
the users role and predefined privileges. A self
protecting information-pervaded environment can
detect hostile or intrusive behavior as it occurs and take
autonomous actions to make itself less vulnerable to
unauthorized access and use, viruses, denial-of-service
attacks and general failures.
F. Self- and Context-aware
These features refer to perception and cognitive
reaction to an event or more generically to a condition,
relevant to the same intelligent node or, respectively to
the environment. Context-awareness is a foundation for
the rest of the operational features: self-configuring, Fig. 2: DARPA Cognitive Architecture
self-healing, self-optimizing, and self-protecting.
VIII. INFORMED DECISION IN WIRELESS ECOSYSTEM
VII. COGNITIVE RADIO IN AUTONOMIC DOMAIN
An extended model for autonomic computing and
Cognitive architectures are characterized by certain autonomic communications is proposed and depicted in
properties: the cognitive behavior should not be figure 3.
implemented partly but it should concern the complete
system implementation of various aspects of the
cognitive behavior as well as the complete system
(Holistic view of the cognitive system).The system
aims to learn and adapt its future reactions based on
statistics about the previous executions. DARPA
proposes an architecture for cognitive nodes that
introduces 3 processes related to cognitive behaviors:
reactive, deliberative and reflective (meta
management)reasoning process.
The “reactive” process provides the cognitive
network with capabilities that allows reacting
automatically to some events or perception of the Fig. 3: Model of Autonomic Computing and Autonomic
environment. However, that sense of “reactive” Communication
excludes any possibility to take into account future
The model introduces some new features. The first
possibilities, hypotheses about what might have been
is the functionality for sensing,assessing risks and
the case, or formulate hypotheses about what exists in
determining behavior[3].The second issue is the
some part of the system that is not currently being
computation of fitness function.
perceived. Deliberative process permits to leverage this

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Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
IX. CONCLUSION
Continuous developments of mobile technologies [1]
and their use in everyday life increase our need to be
continuously connected to others and to the Internet, [2]
anywhere and at any time. However, in mobile,
pervasive environments user connectivity is mainly
affected by wireless-communications constraints and [3]
user mobility. These boundary conditions do not allow
us to design communication environments based on
unique and fully connected networks or assume a stable [4]
path between each pair of users wishing to
communicate.The present paper has overviewed state
of art of autonomic communication and its impact in [5]
digital global world.
224 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
REFERENCES
M. Smirnov,"Autonomic Communication: Research Agenda for
New Communication Paradigm," Fraunhofer FOCUS White
Paper, November 2004.
N. Samaan and A.Karmouch, "An Automated Policy Based
Management Framework for Wired/Wireless Differential
Communication Systems," IEEE J-SAC, VOL.23, NO.12,
December 2005.
Dr Dragan2006, “Autonomic communication and wireless
cognitive networks,”1st International Conference on cognitive
radio oriented in wireless networks, Greece, June 2006.
Navdeep Kaur and Jasvir Singh, 2011 “wireless mobile social
networking in autonomic and opportunistic
communication,”report of term paper on wireless
communication, May 2011pp 1-17.
Sloman A., “Requirements for a Fully Deliberative
Architecture,” Technical Report COSY-DP-0604, available at:
http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/research/projects/
cosy/papers/#dp0604.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Test Data Generation and Adequacy Criteria

Raghav Mehra1, Punit Agarwal2 and Rabins Porwal3
1
Research Scholar, Bhagwant University, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India
2
Asst. Prof., Dept. of Computer App., BIT, Muzaffarnagar, UP, India
3
Associate Prof., Dept. of IT, ITS Mohan Nagar, U.P., India

Abstract—In the software testing a real way of
measuring effective testing is that the system passes an
adequate suite of test cases, and then it must be correct or
dependable. But that’s impossible because the adequacy of
test suites is provably undecidable. So we’ll have to settle
adequacy Design rules to highlight inadequacy of test
suites. Design rules do not guarantee good designs. Good
design depends on talented, creative, disciplined designers
and that can be the best test suite set to fulfill adequacy
criteria.
Keywords: adequacy criteria, automatic test case
generation, test data generation.
Abbreviations: GA- Genetic Algorithm, SUT- Software
under Testing
Data Generation (ATDG) Technique is a technique
used for automatic test data generation for SUT.
Figure 1 models a typical test data generator
system which consists of three parts: program analyzer,
path selector and test data generator. The source code is
run through a program analyzer, which produces the
necessary data used by the path selector and the test
data generator. The selector inspects the program data
in order to find suitable paths. Suitable for instance
mean paths leading to high code coverage.

I. INTRODUCTION
If we talk about testing then the role of test case
designing is very important. A Test case is a set of
inputs, execution conditions, and a fail/pass criterion. A
requirement to be satisfied by one or more test cases. A
test suite is created by such test cases. Test obligation is
a partial test case specification, requiring some property
deemed important to thorough testing.
If a test suite fails to satisfy some criterion, the
obligation that has not been satisfied may provide some
useful information about improving the test suite. If a
test suite satisfies all the obligations by all the criteria,
we do not know definitively that it is an effective test
suite, but we have some evidence of its thoroughness.

II. TEST DATA GENERATION Fig. 1: Architecture of a Test Data Generator System

Software testing accounts for 50% of the total cost
of software development. This cost could be reduced if
the process of testing is automated. One way to do this
would be to generate input data to the program to be
tested-program-based test data generation.
Through the years a number of different methods
for generating test data have been presented. In 1996
Ferguson and Korel divided these methods in three
classes: random, path-oriented, and goal-oriented test
data generation. This is the most appropriate
classification in terms of test data generation, although
the problem of path selection is not considered
separately. The selection of a path can largely affect the
whole process of test data generation.
Test data is basically the input needed for
executing the test code, which has been written to test
the ‘software under test’ (SUT) and Automated Test
The paths are then given as argument to the test
data generator which derives input values that exercise
the given paths. The generator may provide the selector
with feedback such as information concerning
infeasible paths.
A control flow graph, or just flow graph when
context is clear, is a graphical representation of a
program. There exist many different definitions on
control flow graphs throughout the literature. The
definition used here has been inspired by Beizer as well
as Korel. Let’s consider a program to understand.
int triType( int a, int b, int c)
{
1 int type = PLAIN;
1 if(a<b)
2 swap(a,b);
3 if(a<c)

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Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
4 swap(a,c)
5 if(b<c)
6 swap(b,c)
7if(a==b)
{ new techniques are being researched. For object
8 if(b==c)
9 type= EQUILATERAL;
else
10 type = ISOSCELES;
} bring the object under test in the required state for
11 else if (b==c)
12 Type= ISOSCELES;
13 Return type;
} objects in order to achieve a certain test goal. Strategies
Figure 2. A program that determines the type of a
triangle given its sides.
Using the program in figure 2 we can prepare a
flow graph as in figure 3.
A test case is a software testing activity, which
consists of event, action, input, output, expected result
and actual result. Clinically defined (IEEE 829-1998) a
test case is an input and an expected result. These steps
can be stored in a word processor document,
spreadsheet, database or other common repository.
The term test script is the combination of a test
case, test procedure and test data. Initially the term was
derived from the byproduct of work created by
automated regression test tools. Today, test scripts can
be manual, automated or a combination of both. The
most common term for a collection of test cases is a test
suite. The test suite often also contains more detailed
instructions or goals for each collection of test cases.
Fig. 3: A Flow Graph of the Program in Figure
226 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
The demand of automated test data generation for
dynamically testing object-oriented software increases.
The automatic creation of test data is still an open
problem in object-oriented software testing, and many
orientated software, the automatic test data generation
technique is not sufficient, because besides input data
used for testing, it additionally has to produce the right
sequences of method calls, and the right artifacts, to
testing.
Test cases for testing object-oriented software
include test programs which create and manipulate
for the encoding of test cases to evolvable data
structures as well as ideas about how the objective
functions could allow for a sophisticated evaluation are
proposed.
III. GENETIC ALGORITHM
Genetic algorithms have already been used to
tackle typical testing problems with success, but the use
of genetic programming applied to automatic test case
generation is relatively new and promising.
Our work shows how genetic algorithms combined
with different types of software analysis creates new
unit tests with a higher amount of program coverage.
Together with static analysis, the genetic algorithm is
able to generate tests for more real world programs in a
shorter amount of time. This presents an approach with
which to apply evolutionary algorithms for the
automatic generation of test data for the white-box
testing of object-oriented software.
Genetic algorithms are basically search algorithms
that are based on the ideas of genetics and evolution in
which new and fitter set of string individuals are created
by combining portions of fittest string individuals of an
older set [Gol89].
Evolutionary computational methods have been of
interest to computer scientists, mathematicians,
biologists, psychologists and other investigators since
the earliest days of computing research. Mitchell (1996)
surveys some of the early work conducted on
“evolution strategies” and other types of “evolutionary
programming” efforts. Evolutionary algorithms for
optimization and machine learning were among the first
such topics researched. Genetic algorithms (GAs) with
selection, crossover, and mutation were first introduced
by Holland (1975) as an adaptive search technique that
mimics the processes of evolution to solve optimization
problems when traditional methods are deemed too
costly in processing time.
A genetic algorithm is a heuristic that mimics the
evolution of natural species in searching for the optimal
solution to a problem. In the test-data generation
application, the solution sought by the genetic algorithm
is test data that causes execution of a given statement,

branch, path, or definition–use pair in the program
under test. The genetic algorithm conducts its search by
constructing new test data from previously generated
test data that are evaluated as good candidates. The
algorithm evaluates the candidate test data, and hence
guides the direction of the search, using the program’s
control dependence graph.
A GA operates on strings of digits called
chromosomes, each digit that makes up the
chromosome is called a gene, and a collection of such
chromosomes makes up a population. Each
chromosome has a fitness value associated with it, and
this fitness value determines the probability of survival
of an individual chromosome in the next generation.
After the next generation is created a percentage of the
chromosomes are crossed and a small percentage of the
genes are mutated.
A basic algorithm for a GA is as follows:
1. Generate a random population of
chromosomes.
2. Calculate the fitness of each member of the
population.
3. While best chromosome (highest fitness) is
below some threshold or the number of
generations is below some limit.
• Generate next population (reproduction)
allowing greater chance of more fit
population members to survive.
• Crossover a percentage of population
members to create two new members.
• Mutate a percentage of genes in the
population.
• Recalculate fitness of the population.
4. Finish.
While the algorithm begins with a random
population, it is the iterative process of reproduction,
crossover, and mutation that gives the process a
structure. A chromosome on its own may have a poor
fit or low fitness, but it may contain some
characteristics which when combined with another
chromosome (crossover) or adjusted slightly (mutation)
will create an offspring with a much higher fitness.
A genetic algorithm execution begins with a
random initial population of candidate solutions {is} to
an objective function f(s). Each candidate solution is is
generally a vector of parameters to the function f(s) and
usually appears as an encoded binary string (or bit
string) called a chromosome. An encoded parameter is
referred to as a gene, where the parameter’s values are
the gene’s alleles. The number of parameters and the
size of the bit encoding of each parameter defines the
length of the chromosome. In this part a chromosome
represents an encoding of a test case.
After creating the initial population, each
chromosome is evaluated and assigned a fitness value.
Evaluation is based on a fitness function that is problem
dependent. From this initial selection, the population of
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 227
Test Data Generation and Adequacy Criteria
chromosomes iteratively evolves to one in which
candidates satisfy some termination criteria or, as is
also in our case, fail to make any progress. Each
iteration step is also called a generation.
Each generation may be viewed as a two stage
process [Whi94]. Beginning with the current
population, selection is applied to create an intermediate
population and then crossover and mutation are applied
to create the next population. The most common
selection scheme is the roulette-wheel selection in
which each chromosome is allocated a wheel slot of
size in proportion to its fitness. By repeatedly spinning
the wheel, individual chromosomes are chosen using
“stochastic sampling with replacement” to construct the
intermediate population. Other selection schemes also
exist [Gol89], for instance the elitist scheme in which
the fittest chromosomes survive from one population to
the other.
Selection Recombination
(Duplication) (Crossover)
String 1 String 1 Offspring-A (1 X 2)
String 2 String 2 Offspring-B (1 X 2)
String 3 String 2 Offspring-A (2 X 4)
String 4 String 4 Offspring-B (2 X 4)
Current Next
Generation t
Intermediate
Generation t + 1
Generation t
Fig. 5: One Generation is Broken Down into a Selection Phase and
Recombination Phase
This figure shows strings being assigned into
adjacent slots during selection. In fact, they can be
assigned slots randomly in order to shuffle the
intermediate population. Mutation (not shown) can be
applied after crossover.
After selection & crossover recombination is
applied to randomly paired strings with a probability.
Amongst the various crossover schemes. The one point,
two point and the uniform crossover schemes are few
popular schemes [Gol89, Whi94]. In the one point case
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
a crossover point is identified in the chromosome bit
string at random and the portions of chromosomes
following the crossover point. In the paired crossover
chromosomes, are interchanged, while in the two point
case two crossover points are identified in the bit string
and the middle portions are exchanged in the paired
chromosomes. In the case of uniform crossover each bit
in the string is exchanged according to a predefined
crossover probability.
In addition to crossover, mutation is used to
prevent permanent loss of any particular bit or allele. As
an operator, mutation application also introduces
genetic diversity. Mutation results in the flipping of bits
in a chromosome according to a mutation probability
which is generally kept very low.
The chromosome length, population size, and the
various probability values in a GA application are
referred to as the GA parameters. Selection, crossover,
mutation are also referred to as the GA operators.
IV. ADEQUECY CRITERIAN
Adequacy criterion is a predicate that is true
(satisfied) or false (not satisfied) of a 〈program, test
suite〉 pair. It is the set of test obligations. A test suite
satisfies an adequacy criterion if all the tests succeed
(pass) every test obligation in the criterion is satisfied
by at least one of the test cases in the test suite.
Adequacy criteria create test cases to cover faults
that could possibly occur in the software, introduce
mutations in the code. The statement coverage
adequacy criterion is satisfied by test suite S for
program P if each executable statement in P is executed
by at least one test case in S, and the outcome of each
test execution was “pass”. Sometimes no test suite can
satisfy a criterion for a given program.
if (a==0)
{ if (a<0)
c=b/a;
throw new Logic Error (“a must be non zero
here!”)
} block or segment coverage.
Simply put, code coverage is a way of ensuring that
your tests are actually testing your code. When you run
your tests you are presumably checking that you are
getting the expected results. Code coverage will tell you
how much of your code you exercised by running the
test. There are a number of criteria that can be used to
determine how well your tests exercise your code.
V. COVERAGE MATRICS
A number of different metrics are used determine
how well exercised the code is ? The most simple is
statement coverage, which simply tells you whether you
exercised the statements in your code. When working
with code coverage, we should keep in mind that
228 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
“Testing never proves the absence of faults, it only
shows their presence.”
Code Coverage is a way to try to cover more of the
testing problem space so that we come closer to proving
the absence of faults, or at least the absence of a certain
class of faults. The code coverage is just one weapon in
the software engineer's testing arsenal.
The Statement Coverage is the most basic form of
code coverage. In software testing practice, testers are
often required to generate test cases to execute every
statement in the program at least once. A test case is an
input on which the program under test is executed
during testing. A test set is a set of test cases for testing
a program. The requirement of executing all the
statements in the program under test is an adequacy
criterion. A test set that satisfies this requirement is
considered to be adequate according to the statement
coverage criterion. Sometimes the percentage of
executed statements is calculated to indicate how
adequately the testing has been performed. The
percentage of the statements exercised by testing is a
measurement of the adequacy.
A statement is covered if it is executed. A
statement does not necessarily correspond to a line of
code multiple statements on a single line.
Where there are sequences of statements without
branches it is not necessary to count the execution of
every statement, just one will suffice. But people often
like the count of every line to be reported especially in
summary statistics.
It can be quite difficult to achieve 100% statement
coverage. There may be sections of code designed to
deal with error conditions, or rarely occurring events
such as a signal received during a certain section of
code. There may also be code that should never be
executed:
int a=10;
print "This should never happen!";
Statement coverage, or something very similar, can
also be called statement execution, line, block, basic
The goal of Branch Coverage is to ensure that
whenever a program can jump, it jumps to all possible
destinations. Similarly the branch coverage criterion
requires that all control transfers in the program under
test are exercised during testing. The percentage of the
control transfers executed during testing is a
measurement of test adequacy. The simplest example is
a complete if statement:
if (x)
print "it will be execute";
else
print "it will not be execute";
Full coverage is achieved here only if x is true on
one occasion and false on another.
 Test Data Generation and Adequacy Criteria

Achieving full branch coverage will protect against means that the second term will not be evaluated if the
errors in which some requirements are not met in a value of the first term has already determined the value
certain branch. For example: of the whole expression. For example, when using the ||
if (x!=0) operator the second term is never evaluated if the first
{ evaluates to true. This means that for full condition
print "x is nonzero"; coverage there are only three combinations of values to
z=y/x; cover instead of four.
} Condition coverage gets complicated and difficult
else to achieve, as the expression gets complicated. For this
{ reason there are a number of different ways of reporting
print "x is zero"; condition coverage which try to ensure that the most
} important combinations are covered without worrying
This code will fail if x is false. In such a simple about less important combinations. Expressions which
example statement coverage is as powerful, but branch are not part of a branching construct should also be
coverage should also allow for the case where the else covered:
part is missing, and in languages which support the z = x || y;
construct, switch statements should be catered for: Condition coverage is also known as expression,
if (x!=0) condition-decision and multiple decision coverage.
{ Mutation Adequacy is often aimed at detecting
print "x is nonzero"; faults in software. A way to measure how well this
z=y/x; objective has been achieved is to plant some artificial
} faults into the program and check if they are detected by
100% branch coverage implies 100% statement the test. A program with a planted fault is called a
coverage. Branch coverage is also called decision, arc mutant of the original program. If a mutant and the
or all edges coverage. original program produce different outputs on at least
There are classes of errors which branch coverage one test case, the fault is detected. In this case, we say
cannot detect, such as: that the mutant is dead or killed by the test set.
if (x) Otherwise, the mutant is still alive. The percentage of
{ dead mutants compared to the mutants that are not
print "it will be execute"; equivalent to the original program is an adequacy
} measurement, called the mutation score or mutation
if(y) adequacy [Budd et al. 1978; DeMillo et al. 1978;
{ Hamlet 1977].
print "it will also be execute"; From Good enough and Gerhart’s [1975, 1977]
} point of view, a software test adequacy criterion is a
100% branch coverage can be achieved by setting predicate that defines “what properties of a program
(x, y) to (1, 1) and then to (0, 0). But if we have (0, 1) must be exercised to constitute a ‘thorough’ test, i.e.,
then things go bang. The purpose of path coverage is to one whose successful execution implies no errors in a
ensure that all paths through the program are taken. tested program.” To guarantee the correctness of
adequately tested programs, they proposed reliability
Development efficiency = size of software/ Time and validity requirements of test criteria. Reliability
required requires that a test criterion always produce consistent
Time = Person days, Person Hours, Size= loc test results; that is, if the program tested successfully on
one test set that satisfies the criterion, then the program
Old generation languages may reduce productivity
also tested successfully on all test sets that satisfies the
as there are less chance of reusability. So for all above
criterion. Validity requires that the test always produce
mentioned adequacy criteria, objective of software’s a meaningful result; that is, for every error in a
has better chance of code coverage & will have better program, there exists a test set that satisfies the criterion
development efficiency due to reusability of code. and is capable of revealing the error. But it was soon
When a boolean expression is evaluated it can be recognized that there is no computable criterion that
useful to ensure that all the terms in the expression are satisfies the two requirements, and hence they are not
exercised. For example: practically applicable [Howden 1976]. Moreover, these
a if x || y; two requirements are not independent since a criterion
To achieve full condition coverage, this expression is either reliable or valid for any given software
should be evaluated with x and y set to each of the four [Weyuker and Ostrand 1980]. Since then, the focus of
combinations of values they can take. research seems to have shifted from seeking
In many software programming languages, most theoretically ideal criteria to the search for practically
boolean operators are short-circuiting operators. This applicable approximations.

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Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
Adequacy criteria provide a way to define a notion
of “thoroughness” in a test suite.But they don’t offer
guarantees; more like design rules to highlight
inadequacy
VI. CONCLUSION
Adequacy criteria provide a way to define a notion
of “thoroughness” in a test suite. But they don’t offer
guarantees; more like design rules to highlight
inadequacy.
The test criteria are a central problem of testing.
Numerous adequacy criteria have been proposed,
analyzed and compared. A lot of research has been done
on the issue of evaluating and comparing criteria. The
tendency is toward systematic approaches in testing
using adequacy criteria.
REFERENCES
[1] [Chang et al., 1996] Chang, K., Cross, J., Carlisle, W., and Liao,
S. (1996). A performance evaluation of heuristics-based test
case generation methods for software branch coverage.
International Journal of Software Engineering and Knowledge
Engineering, 6(4):585{608.
[2] [Chilenski and Miller, 1994] Chilenski, J. and Miller, S. (1994).
Applicability of modified condition/decision coverage to
software testing. Software Engineering Journal, pages 193{200.
230 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
[3] [Duran and Natfos, 1984] Duran, J. and Natfos, S. (1984). An
evaluation of random testing. IEEE Trans-actions on Software
Engineering, pages 438{444.
[4] [Gallagher and Narasimhan, 1997] Gallagher, M. J. and
Narasimhan, V. L. (1997). Adtest: A test data generation suite
for ada software systems. IEEE TSE, 23(8):473{484.
[5] [Horgan et al., 1994] Horgan, J., London, S., and Lyu, M.
(1994). Achieving software quality with testing coverage
measures. IEEE Computer, 27(9):60{69.
[6] [Korel, 1996] Korel, B. (1996). Automated test data generation
for programs with procedures. In Proceedings of the 1996
International Symposium on Software Testing and Analysis,
pages 209{215. ACM Press.
[7] [Michael et al., 1997] Michael, C., McGraw, G., Schatz, M., and
Walton, C. (1997). Genetic algorithms for test data generation.
In Proceedings of the Twelfth IEEE International Automated
Software Engineering Conference (ASE 97).
[8] [Ruchika Malhotra and Mohit Garg] Journal of Information
Processing Systems, Vol.7, No.2, June 2011. An Adequacy
Based Test Data Generation. Technique Using Genetic
Algorithms.
[9] [R. Mall. ]Fundamentals of Software Engineering. Prentice Hall
of India, 3rd edition. 2009
[10] [Elfriede Dustin] Effective Software Testing. Addison Wesley,
2002, ISBN 0-20179-429-2
[11] [M. Tikir and J. Hollingsworth] “Efficient instrumentation for
code coverage testing”, Int’l. Symp. on Software Testing and
Analysis, Rome, Italy, 2002.
[12] [Offutt J., Liu S., Abdurazik A., and Ammann P] “Generating
test data from state-based specifications”, Software Testing,
Verification and Reliability, Vol. 13, pp 25-53, 2003.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Performance Comparison of Duobinary

and Binary NRZ Modulation Formats
for 60 km Fiber Length
Navpreet Singh1 and M.L. Singh2
1
Assistant Professor, Mahavir ECTGO, Sardulgarh
2
Professor, GNDU, Amritsar
e-mail: navi.gndu@gmail.com, 2mlsingh7@gmail.com
1

Abstract—This paper simulates three channel II. SIMULATION SETUP

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) optical
communication system using 9.0 optisystem to investigate
immunity of Duo-binary and binary modulation like NRZ
Rectangular on Bit Error Rate for FWM at 3 ps/nm/km
dispersion value, different core effective area of fiber and
0.8 nm channel spacing (WDM) for 60 km long optical
communication system. The duobinary modulation format
for varied core effective area, 3 ps/nm/km dispersion and
channel spacing offer a significant performance benefit
with respect to non return to zero (NRZ) format. It is
observed that for 3 ps/nm/km dispersion duobinary
provides better bit error rate (BER) and eye diagram as
compared to binary NRZ for 0.8 nm channel spacing. It is
observed that for 3 ps/nm/km dispersions, 0.8 nm channel
spacing and varied core radius both format has BER
values above acceptable level.
For the simulation optisystem version 9.0 is used.
In the simulation setup for duobinary modulation
format three duobinary transmitter subsystems are used
at three different frequencies 1550 nm, 1549.6 nm and
1549.2nm (0.8 nm channel spacing or 100 GHz) they
are followed by a WDM MUX which multiplexes the
three different frequencies of different channels.MUX
has three input ports and 1 output port having channel
of three different frequencies 1550 nm, 1549.6 nm and
1549.2nm, depth 100 dB, filter type bessel of order 2
and bandwidth 15GHz. In case of NRZ format the
simulation setup is same only the duobinary
transmitters are replaced by NRZ transmitters.

I. INTRODUCTION
Duobinary modulation techniques are known to
compress the optical spectrum, thereby facilitating the
tighter packing of channels into the EDFA gain
window. It has also been reported that the 2- level
variant of duobinary signaling [2, 3] almost eliminates
the impact of SBS since the optical carrier component is
suppressed [4]. Four-Wave-Mixing (FWM) is another
non linear effect that can limit the performance of
WDM systems [5, 6, 7, 8]. When high power optical
signal is launched into a fiber linearity of optical
response is lost. Four wave mixing is due to changes in Fig. 1: Duobinary Modulation Format Simulation Setup for 60 km
the refractive index with optical power called optical At output port of MUX a optical meter is used to
Kerr effect. In four wave mixing (FWM) effect, two co- measure output optical power from MUX and a optical
propagating wave produce two new optical sideband spectrum analyzer to view spectrum of signal which
wave at different frequencies. When new frequencies comes out from MUX. From output port of WDM
fall in the transmission window of original frequency it MUX signal travels to optical fiber of length 60km,
causes severe cross talk between channels propagating reference wavelength 1550nm, 3ps/nm/km dispersion
through an optical fiber. Degradation becomes very and core effective area that can be varied from 2.5 to
100 µm. Again at end of fiber another optical meter is
severe for large number of WDM channels with small
used to measure output optical power from fiber output
spacing. Optical duobinary modulation has attracted and a optical spectrum analyzer to view spectrum of
much attention as a transmission technique that can signal. At fiber end a WDM DEMUX is used having
mitigate fiber chromatic-dispersion effects in high same channel spacing as of MUX, the DEMUX has 100
capacity optical transmission system [9-11]. dB depth 15 GHz bandwidth and 2nd orber Bessel filter.

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Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

After that there are three receiver sub systems. At the

end of receiver module a eye diagram analyzer followed
by 3R regenerator is used to measure BER and Eye
diagram. In case of NRZ format the same receiver
module is used.

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this section BER vs. Core effective area is
simulated for dispersion 3 ps/nm/km for channel
spacing 0.8 nm for varied core effective area from 2.5
to 100 µm and fixed fiber length 60 km.
Channel spacing and dispersion are fixed, which
are 0.8 nm and 3 ps/nm/km resp. whereas core effective
area varied (2.5 to 100 µm) for fixed fiber length of 60
km.
-40
10
(a)
duo-binary

binary

-35
10
BER

-30
10

-25
10

-20
10
0 20 40 60 80 100
2
CORE EFFECTIVE AREA (µm )

Fig. 2: Fiber Length 60 km, Dispersion = 3 ps/nm/km,0.8 nm Channel

Spacing and Core Effective Area Varied (2.5 to 100 µm)
(b)
For 0.8 nm channel spacing, fiber length is 60 km, Fig. 3: Spectrum for Fiber Length 60 km, 3 ps/nm/km Dispersion for
dispersion 3ps/nm/km and core effective area is 100 µm Core Effective Area and 0.8 nm Channel Spacing, Spectrum
changed from 2.5 to 100 µm, the above plot (fig.:2) at Fiber End Showing FWM (a) Duobinary (b) NRZ
gives information that binary has low BER (3.83×10-26)
as compare to duo-binary (8.98×10-22) both formats
BER is noticed at 100 µm. BER for both binary and
duo-binary is decreasing (7.55×10-15 to 3.83×10-26) and
(2.41×10-13 to 8.98×10-22) but BER in case of binary is
decreasing more sharply than duo-binary from 2.5 µm
to 10 µm afterward upto 100 µm duo-binary shows
more composure in BER values at different core
effective area as compare to binary, because BER of
binary increases at snail pace.
Duobinary has maximum BER value at 100 µm
core effective area whereas binary has maximum BER
value at 10 µm core effective area as mentioned above.
So it predicted that for 0.8 nm channel spacing duo-
binary condition is better than binary for 3ps/nm/km
dispersion when fiber length is 60 km

(a)

232 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Performance Comparison of Duobinary and Binary NRZ Modulation Formats for 60 km Fiber Length
(b)
Fig. 4: (a) Eye Diagram at 100 µm Core Effective Area of Duobinary
for 60 km Fiber Length, 3 ps/nm/km Dispersion and 0.8nm Channel
Spacing. (b) Eye Diagram at 100 µm Core Effective Area of Binary
for 60 km Fiber Length 3 ps/nm/km Dispersion and 0.8 nm
Channel Spacing
IV. CONCLUSION
Try to Conclude That Which System is Better and
Why
In nutshell for 3 ps/nm/km dispersion when fiber
length is fixed that is 60 km duobinary is better than
binary format in terms of BER for 0.8 nm channel
spacing when core effective area is varies from 2.5 to
100 µm. For dispersion 3 ps/nm/km for fixed fiber
length 60 km, when core effective area is varied from
2.5 to 100 µm binary lags behind than duo binary in
terms of BER or duobinary show more improvement in
BER as compare to binary format and eye diagram also
clarifies same. It shows duo binary is more immune to
dispersion for variation in core effective area from 2.5
to 100µm.
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 233
REFRENCES
[1] P.L. Li, D.X. Huang, X.L. Zhang, J. Chen, and L.R. Huang,”
Theoretical Analysis of Tunable Wavelength Conversion Based
on FWM in a Semiconductor Fiber Ring Laser,” IEEE Journal
of quantum electronics, Vol. 41, No. 3, pp. 581-588, March
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[2] T. Franck, P.B. Hansen, T.N. Nielsen, L. Eskildsen. Duobinary
Transmitter with Low Intersymbol Interference. IEEE Photon.
Technol. Lett., Vol. 10, No. 4, April 1998.
[3] T. Ono, Y. Yano, K. Fukuchi, T. Ito, H. Yamazaki, M.
Yamaguchi, K. Emura, “Characteristics of Optical Duobinary
Signals in Terabit/s Capacity, High-Spectral Efficiency WDM
Systems”, J. Lightwave Tech, Vol. 16, No. 5, May 1998.
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 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

A Survey on Botnet Detection

Divya Bhatt1, Neha Garg2 and Ramesh Rawat3
1,2,3
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Graphic Era University, Dehradun, India
e-mail: 1anshus91@gmail.com, 2nehagarg.february@gmail.com, 3rsrawat06}@gmail.com

Abstract—Apart from viruses, worms, Trojan horses bandwidth, storage and computational power. Using this
and network intrusions, there is a less familiar and very approach, bots are able to communicate with other bots
growing threat that tends to become harmful and by downloading files or commands from other bots’
disastorous botnets. A “botnet”consists of a network of machines and performing different activities. In
comproised computers controlled by an attacker
(“botmaster”). Nowadays, botnets have become the root
comparison to IRC structures, everyone can join a P2P
cause of many Internet attacks. Bots are controlled by a network, thus, the more peers acting as bots, the more
command and control (C&C) infrastructure to launch powerful the botmaster can be[2].Before the evolution
such attacks as Distributed-Denial-of-Service (DDoS), of Botnets; the major sources of malware were viruses,
spamming, identity theft and phishing, all of which worms, Trojan Horses that used to affect only a single
seriously threaten the Internet services and users. Prior machine. With the evolution of Botnets; the concept of
the botnets used usually organized themselves in a destruction was enhanced from a single machine to a
hierarchy architecture, which offers professionals network as a whole. The history of undertaking botnets
opportunities to detect or defend the botnets in their for destruction roughly dates back to 1990. Prior to
servers. However, newly-appeared P2P botnet, are
revealing a decentralized feature, which brought
this, botnets were the major sources of maintaining
difficulties in detection and mitigation.It simply improve control of the IRC channels. Their mischievous
the single point failure occur in centralized botnet.This applications mainly took advantage of the centralized
paper aims to provide a concise overview of botnets and control of IRC for command and control[3]. But
the detecting techniques. centralized control structure was relatively easy to
discover and track. Due to insecure nature of IRC
Keywords: Bot, Botnet, Botnet Detection, C&C, IRC.
botnets; they completely changed their structure form
centralized to a peer-to-peer nature, which is a
I. INTRODUCTION
decentralized control structure. This ultimately makes it
A “botnet” is a network of compromised machines much harde to spy the communication among the bots
(“bots”) connected to the Internet that is controlled by a and to track their origin. The command and control
remote attacker (“botmaster”) bots in the botnet channel is stable during the operation of botnets i.e.
connect directly to some special hosts (called once a botnet is established; the command and control
“command-and-control” servers, or “C&C” servers). channel remain the same throughout its operation. But
These C&C servers receive commands from the on the other hand, once a C&C channel is detected,
botmaster and forward them to the other bots in the then the whole botnet is exposed[4].
network. From now on, we will call a botnet with such
a control communication architecture a “C&C
botnet”[4]. From a botmaster’s perspective, the C&C
servers are the fundamental weak points in current
botnet architectures. First, a botmaster will lose
control of her botnet once the limited number of C&C
servers are shut down by defenders. Second, defenders
could easily obtain the identities. Third, an entire
botnet may be exposed once a C&C server in the
botnet is hijacked or captured by defenders[7].So after
that p2p botnet came into existence which has several
advantages over simple botnet. As a result, a new
approach of botnet structures starts to appear taking
advantage of existing Peer-to-Peer (P2P) protocols. The
attackers start to use P2P networks in order to control
their botnets. By using this approach, the bots can
contact other bots without having a centralised point for
their command and control (C&C) structure[1]. In P2P, Fig. 1: C&C Architecture of the P2P Botnet [4]
each node acts as client-server which provides

234 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2


II. BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION
Botnet Lifecycle Botnets share a common lifecycle
that is dependent on the clients participating within the
botnet. Each botclient will go through a similar
process[3][1][7].
• Exploitation: First, the vulnerable client is
infected with bot software so that it can be
controlled remotely. The exploit may be a
result of an unpatched vulnerability or
malicious code that an unsuspecting user
executed on the local machine[3][1].
• Rallying: Typically, once the botclient is
infected, it will notify a botherder that it is
now a participant in the botnet. This is done
using the botnet owner s communications
method of choice. However, most botnets
currently use IRC channels for
communication[3].
• Security and Evasion: Once the machine has
been infected, bot software may try to take
measures to cover its tracks and remain an
active host. The botclient may try to
download additional modules that work to
prevent the user from knowing that their
machine is compromised or it could install
itself as a rootkit hidden deep within the
Operating System. To further prevent
detection, many botnets try to disable common
anti- virus software installed on the
machine[3].
• Receiving Commands: For the majority of its
life, a botnet client will run quietly on a
machine and wait for commands from a
botherder or botnet owner. Botclients will
typically listen for commands on an IRC
channel. When a command is sent out across
the channel, the botclient will process and
execute it[3].
• Death: When a bot owner can no longer
participate with one of its clients, it is no
longer considered a part of the botnet. This
can happen for several reasons, including
detection or removal of the malicious bot
software by the victim. If the botherder
suspects that their cover has been blown, they
may take steps to cover their tracks by
executing a command that tells the bot
software to erase itself[3].
A. Communication Techniques
The most common method for botnets to
communicate is the Internet Relay Chat (IRC) protocol.
This protocol was designed for instant messaging using
client-server architecture. IRC servers host both public
and private chat rooms known as channels. Participants
within a channel can have one of two modes of access.
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 235
A Survey on Botnet Detection
In operator mode, the user has elevated privileges that
allow them to control the room. In user mode, the user
is simply a participant in the room and cannot control
room settings[8].
Typically, bots or zombies will enter a channel
on an IRC server specified by the bot owner. The
bot will have user privileges while a bot master, or
controller, will have operator privileges. Bots will listen
for command messages sent across the channel by an
operator[10].
Fig. 2: Botnet Life Cycle[3]
III. STATES-OF–ART
Jian kang et al. [2] proposed the basic principles
and mechanism of this decentralized P2P botnet, and
present a novel detecting method using Multi-chart
CUSUM. propose a novel detecting method using the
Multichart CUSUM test in detecting storm botnet.
Kaulfman algorithm is also applied on the dynamic
threshold adjusting to improve the detecting precision.
The results prove that the method can detect the storm
botnet in a relatively high precision with both low
false- positive and false-negative. planning to work on
ways of mitigating and preventing those botnets in the
future. To detect this botnet, a Multi-chart CUSUM
algorithm with its input on UDP, ICMP, and SMTP
abnormally increasing is proposed. propose a method of
integrating several factors as our detecting characters,
testing them by improved change-point detecting
algorithm—Multi-chart CUSUM, and adjusting the
thresholds by Kaulfman algorithm. This prototype
system effectively improves the precision in new P2P
botnet detection and got relatively satisfied experiment
results.
Sang-kyun et al. [10] proposed useful method for
modeling multi-phased flows of P2P botnet traffic.
Botnets are becoming more sophisticated and more
dangerous each day and attackers use the P2P protocol
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
to avoid centralized botnet topologies. We focus on
the feature that a peer bot generates multiple traffic to
communicate with large number of remote peers. In
this case, phased botnet flows have similar patterns,
which occur at irregular intervals. We compress
duplicated flows via flow grouping and construct a
transition model of the clustered flows using a
probability-based matrix. A flow state is decided by
features consisting of; protocol, port, and traffic. Our
model involves transition information about the state
values. Finally, we use the likelihood ratio for
detection. In the experimental evaluation, we show the
efficiency of our proposed system with the
SpamThru, Storm, and Nugache botnets Ping wang
et al. [5] proposed the design of an advanced hybrid
peer-to-peer botnet. Compared with current botnets, the
proposed botnet is harder to be shut down, monitored,
and hijacked. It provides robust network connectivity,
individualized encryption and control traffic dispersion,
limited botnet exposure by each bot, and easy
monitoring and recovery by its botmaster. To defend
against such an advanced botnet, point out that
honeypots may play animportant role. Therefore,
invest more research into determining how to deploy
honeypots efficiently and avoid their exposure to
botnets and botmasters. Honeypot is an effective way to
trap and spy on malware and malicious
activities.Because compromised machines in a botnet
need to cooperate and work together, it is
particularlyeffective to use honeypot techniques in
botnet spying.
Wen-hwao et al. [7] proposed a P2P botnet
detection method relying on monitoring traffic at the
gateway and using data mining technology to analyze
network behavior. The research, besides proving the
accuracy of the method by the results, also achieved the
following objects: 1. Using Anomaly detection
regardless of the packets were encrypted or not; 2.
Achieved higher distribution in practice without
installing any software in computer or changing any
network or routing architecture;
3. made pre-warning instead of post review
possible only for the network behavior in P2P botnet
without any attack (such as syn flood and port scan) as
exploration parameters; 4. P2P botnet flow was found
among various mixed flows in the same computer
without being disturbed. On the other hand, the research
was conducted only for LAN environment with more
distributed structure from the internet. Therefore, it was
necessary to be distributed in ISPs if we want to stop
P2P botnet massively and effectively, indicating that
the NAT technology would be generally used in
internet causing all the flows integrating as the same
IP, which eventually made the judgment of P2P botnet
flow more difficult since the characters were extremely
diluted.
236 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
Al-hamaadi et al. [1] proposed a correlation
algorithm to detect bots on the system by correlating
their behavioural activities. results show that
correlating different different activities can enhance
the detection mechanisms and reduce the false
alarms.Correlation algorithm is used because P2P
bots are difficult to detect as there is no central point of
communications. In addition, analysing network traffic
looking for signatures can be tedious task because bots
signatures can be dynamic and encrypted. different
peer-to-peer bots such as Sinit and Nugache to examine
the behaviour of these bots. In their analysis, they note
that some peer-to-peer bots communicate on a fixed
port. They argue that by monitoring traffic on that port,
one could detect these bots. They also discover that
some of these bots generate a large number of
destination unreachable error messages (DU) and
connection reset error messages while trying to connect
to other peers. In addition, some bot’s communications
are encrypted which make the traffic analysis a difficult
task and resulting in high false alarms.
Yuanyuan Zeng et al. [8] proposed a C&C
protocol- independent botnet detection framework that
combines both host-and network-level information. Our
network flow analyzer searches for trigger action traffic
patterns among different hosts without accessing the
packets’ payloads, and clusters similarly behaving hosts
into suspicious groups.Our host analyzer then obtains
suspicion-level information along with a few network
statistics on a host-by-host basis for verification.
Finally, our correlation engine generates a detection
result for each host by taking into account both
suspicionlevel and clustering results. Our experimental
evaluation based on real-world data has shown the
following results. The network analyzer can be
effective in forming suspicious clusters of aggressive
bots but may fail to separate benign hosts from bot-
infected hosts if the latter are stealthy at the network
level. When the stealthy bots are present, it is the host
analyzer that provides correct detection results by
generating distinguishing suspicion levels. By using
combined host-and network-level information, our
framework is shown to be able to detect different types
of botnets with low false-positive and false-negative
rates.
Saad et al. [9] proposed the characterization of
network traffic behaviors to detect P2P botnet
command and control (C&C) phase. The detection of
botnet C&C phase is very important since it allows the
detection of bots that spread under the radar through
malicious email, websites, file sharing networks, ad hoc
wireless network and before these bots attack their
victims or achieve their goals. We discussed the main
requirements of an online botnet detection framework
and investigated the power of different machine
learning (ML) techniques that are commonly used in
the literaturein addressing these requirements. Although

the performance of these techniques was promising,
none of these techniques can satisfy all the
requirements of an online botnet detection framework.
This underscores the need to investigate new ML
technique or an hybrid of existing ones that can satisfy
all the requirements of online botnet detection as
outlined above. This will be the main purpose of our
future work. We also intend in our future work to study
the use of our proposed approach to detect different
classes of botnets (beyond P2P botnets).
Jinzhigang et al. [3] introduces Botnet detection
methods, studies detection mechanism towards P2P
Botnets based on user behavior, and proposes a new
case to identify Peer2Peer Botnet. To test and verify
function of the method we provide, a simple experiment
platform is designed and implemented. there are two
major Botnet Detection Methods:Honeypot Technology
and Traffic Analysis Technology.Honeypot is a trap
host the defender used specially in the network to
tempt attackers. All the programs running on it could
be regarded as rogue program; while Traffic Analysis
Technology is a method that the testing staff analyze the
traffic of abnormal network by Network Analysis
Software. So this paper put forward a new detection
theory model—P2P Detection Technology based on
combination of user sociality and Traffic Detection
Analysis Technology
IV. BOTNET DETECTION TECHNIQUES
In many cases, botnet infections and attacks are
unavoidable. However, network users and
administrators must be aware of compromises and
attacks in order to remediate them. Several tools and
techniques exist for detecting botnet infections when
preventative measures have failed. There are also tools
that help network administrators detect when they ve
become a victim of an attack[11].
A. Two Major Botnet Detection Methods
Honeypot Technology and Traffic Analysis
Technology. Honeypot is a trap host the defender
used specially in the network to tempt attackers. All
the programs running on it could be regarded as
rogue program; while Traffic Analysis Technology is
a method that the testing staff analyze the traffic of
abnormal network by Network Analysis Software. But
the premise of Honeypot Technology is that the
honeypot must be added in Botnet concealedly and
ensure that it will not be antidetected by attackers.
Most Botnet of P2P Agreement hold a tight
authentication mechanism, making it hard to add
honeybot into botnet. In addition, most well-developed
Traffic Analysis Technology is used to detect botnet
based on IRC Agreement, not suit the new botnet of of
P2P Agreement yet. He has proposed a multi phase
traffic model which was based on p2p botne
traffic.which has focuses on the multi traffic produced
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 237
A Survey on Botnet Detection
when one bot node communicate with lots of remote
nodes. This directional Botnet traffic hassimilar
characteristics. Compress the traffic whose state is
decided by agreement, port, communication volume
through traffic group and traffic clustering structured
by Probability matrix. The record raised a Botnet
detection system based on irregular abnormal
network independent from agreement structure of
Botnet. The system adopts definition and
characteristics of Botnet, showing similar C&C
communication mode and malicious behavior pattern in
the same Botnet[6].
B. IRC Detection Techniques
A lot of techniques have been proposed for IRC
Botnet detection. The basis of all these techniques is
founding of packets either at network layer or
application layer. the mechanism of detection is
suggested on the network layer level. Here the
hierarchy between routers and the IRC server is
explored in bottom-up manner i.e. the tracking initiates
from the victim and follows the path of infecting
routers till the origin (bot-herder).he has proposed a
framework which sniffs the network traffic, filters it on
the basis of application layer protocol, and then
segregates them into either righteous or saboteur IRC
traffic just by contemplating the IRC chat contents. The
separating foundation between a normal human and
botnet conversation is that the human language is
alternating while the Botnet conversation is repeating.
presents a pipelined approach which accomplishes the
detection procedure in a number of steps. First it
separates the black and white list traffic based on the
DNS queries; this separated traffic is classified
according to applications i.e. extract chat- like traffic.
Next pair wise correlation of the traffic flows is done to
identify similar traffic considering it to be originating
from same botnet. The study of these IRC detection
techniques reveals that choice of the suitable detection
technique depends on the required scenario. If the
solution has to be managed at the network layer, serves
as the best option; while on application layer ans serve
the purpose[5].
Again we categorized botnet detection strategies
broadly into 2 types:
1) Host based detection
Host based detection pertains to detecting bot
activities on a single machine. Some typical symptoms
through which botnets can be detected via host based
detection are:
• Infection detection by antivirus. This may or
may not be a botnet activity but certainly can
be a starting point for infection. Many
infections might not even be detected.
• Slowing of the machine. Again, this can
happen due to variety of reasons but if this is a
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
sudden change, one must check for
spyware/adware on the system using some
scanner[4].
o Detection of rookits on the machine.
o Modification of Windows host / system
files.
o Random popups indicating adware
presence on the machine which can also
be a form of botnet click fraud activity.
o If your DNS resolution server is not your
ISP's or company's server, then it might
have been replaced by a shady source and
can forward your requests to shady
URLs.
2) Network based detection
Network based detection pertains to detecting bot
activities on a network. Some typical symptoms through
which botnets can be detected via network based
detection are:
• One can sniff IRC traffic across commonly
used IRC (Internet Relay Chat) ports.
• Most common ports used for IRC is port 6667.
Many bot masters today use non standard IRC
ports for communication to avoid detection.
So, observing the suspicious outbound
connections on non standard ports would be a
good idea for detecting bot activities. Also,
the IRC traffic being generally in plain text,
sniffing for known IRC commands and
keywords will help detecting a botnet
activity[4][6].
• By maintaining a check-list of known C&C
servers, one can check for outbound requests to
those servers.
• If many machines on the network are
accessing same server at once, bot masters
keep changing their DNS servers to shift their
location.
• Keeping a check on ports 135, 139, 445
(ports for windows file sharing) may also
help detect presence of bots. A heavy traffic
over these ports, is an indication of some bot
activity.
• Huge amount of SMTP out bound traffic,
especially from servers which are not
supposed to be SMTP servers indicates
infection of malware spam in the network.
One of the most popular methods for tracking and
analyzing botnets is the honeypot[4]. A honeypot is a
network host set up by security researchers and
disguised as a vulnerable machine that attackers might
target. Once the honeypot has been compromised by an
attacker, security researchers can analyze the bot in
order to get information about the attack and its source
(Honeypots). Honeypots can generally be grouped into
two different categories:
238 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
Low Interaction: Honeypots that limit what an
attacker can do with a system are considered low
interaction. The host or network services within the
honeypot are normally emulated so that no device is
actually infected. This method is primarily used for
malware collection[7].
High Interaction: When actual services and
software are used and system compromises are not
simulated the honeypot is considered high interaction.
In this case, a system is closely monitored while an
attacker compromises and infects the system. These
honeypots allow security researchers to get a better
understanding of how attackers and malware are
modifying a system in order to use it to their advantage.
It can also help researches discover new, stealthier
exploits (Honeypots)[4][7].
V. BOTNET USES AND STRATEGIES
Infecting machines across the world with control
mechanisms would be meaningless without some kind of
incentive for the attacker. Unfortunately, bots are used
for network attacks as well as making profit. Recently,
more botnets are being designed to help their owners
make profit instead of simply denying services[9].
A. Denial of Service
One of the first uses of botnets was in Denial of
Service (DoS) attacks. These attacks seek to overload a
target, such as a website or server, until it is completely
unresponsive to legitimate traffic. Specifically, botnets
most often perform a DoS attack by commanding
zombies from all over the internet to send huge
amounts of network traffic to a target. This is known as
a Distributed Denial of Server (DDoS) attack.
Attackers use several techniques to perform these
attacks[9][1].
B. TCP SYN Flood
In a TCP SYN Flood attack, the attacker
commands zombies to send SYN messages, or the
first part of the TCP handshake, without responding to
follow-up requests. This attack may also be combined
with IP spoofing so that follow-up requests are sent to
another host. As thousands of SYN messages are sent to
the server, the target s connection table fills up and
large amounts of memory must be allocated to each
connection attempt until it exceeds the timeout period.
Eventually, the server may not be able to handle any
more SYN requests and therefore may start dropping
traffic[9].
C. UDP Flood
Using the UDP protocol, an attacker may attempt
to overwhelm a server by having botnet zombies
simultaneously sent small UDP packets to the target.
These packets are sometimes sent on random open

ports. Once the packets reach the target, it must allocate
resources to handle them. If enough packets reach the
target, it can cause other traffic to be dropped[7].
D. Smurfing
Smurf attacks involve sending an overwhelming
number of ICMP ping requests to a broadcast address
while spoofing the source IP address. The spoofed
source IP address is often the target of the attack
since each host in the broadcast range will attempt to
reply to the source address that was specified. This can
overwhelm the target with requests. However, there
are newer techniques to filter this spoofed, or
illegitimate, traffic at the border of the network,
preventing this kind of attack from being effective[3].
1) Click fraud attack
Online advertising programs that offer site owners
compensation for advertisement clicks have also fallen
victim to botnet attacks. By programmatically
commanding infected machines to click on an
advertisement on a web page, an attacker can generate
thousands of unique, but illegitimate, clicks instantly for
a substantial profit
2) Keylogging
Attack Some botnets are organized to log
keystrokes on each infected machine in order to steal
sensitive information from users. In some cases, some
bots can also filter logged keystrokes for keywords that
may indicate a username and password sequence has
been entered. For example, the keyword “Ebay” could
indicate that someone is typing the address to Ebay and
is about to sign in with their credentials. This can be
more effective than sniffing network traffic for user
credentials since it bypasses any encryption that web
sites or services are using.
VI. CONCLUSION
Use of botnet has to led a rise in DDOS attacks on
resulting in significant loses to the economy.These
network can be harmfull for constructive
purpose,however currently they are primarily being
used to penetrate computer related crime such as
SPAM&DDOS. Response to a botnet attack is
difficult.However,if proper precaution are undertaken
prevention is possible. The impact that botnets have
had on networks and the internet since their inception
really demonstrates one of the greatest threats to
computer systems in a digital age. If previous and
current botnet strategies are any indication, the problem
is likely to get worse before it gets better. The
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 239
A Survey on Botnet Detection
complexity of botnets continues to increase. New
methods for intrustion, infection, and evasion are
making it increasingly difficult to track and detect bots.
There are several ways that individuals and groups can
lessen the threat of botnets. Keeping systems up-to-
date, installing firewalls, and making users aware of
common social engineering strategies are a few of the
ways individuals as well as network administrators can
prevent their computers from becoming part of a
botnet. This could suffocate botnets by eliminating
the resources they need to become massive
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[11] K. Jian and Z. Jun-Yao, "Application Entropy Theory to
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[12] Z. Yuanyuan, Y. Guanhua, E. Stephan, and G. S. Kang,
"Measuring the effectiveness of infrastructure-level detection of
large-scale botnets," in Proceedings of the Nineteenth
International Workshop on Quality of Service San Jose,
California: IEEE Press.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Intrusion Detection Scheme for Wireless
Ad-hoc Networks: A Study
Sanjeev Kumar1 and Nitin Verma2
1
M.Tech, Digital Communication Candidate Rajasthan Technical University, Kota, India
2
Assistant Professor, Deptt. of ECE R.V.I.T, Bijnor (UP), India
e-mail: 1er.sanjeev_85@rediffmail.com, 2vermanitin52@rediffmail.com
Abstract—Wireless network is a free structured
network any mobile node can take entry and any node can
leave the network without permission so there is a main
problem of security of the data that is to be transmitted
through these unknown nodes (not exactly). Here we are
giving an idea to overcome this problem that we can use
distributed intrusion detection technique to find out the
known and unknown attacks. Further in this paper we
studied about the characteristic of attacks, types of
attacks, distributed intrusion detection technique history
of work that was accelerated this research.
I. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, Mobile ad hoc networks (Ma-net)
have become an exciting and important technology
because of the rapid development of wireless devices.
MANET is a set of independent mobile nodes that can
communicate to each other via radio EM waves.
MANET consists of mobile nodes that can move freely
in an open environment without centralized control.
Nodes in a mobile ad-hoc network usually seek the help
of other intermediate nodes to establish channels for
long path, an intelligent mobile node use to capable of
communicating with its neighbors and other nodes in
the network. In such a case there arises a problem of
security. Therefore, in order to make Ma-nets secure, all
its weakness or faults are to be detected and seek a
solutions to make all those weak points safe. The main
characteristics of MANET can be summarized as
follows:
• Communication via EM waves.
• Nodes can perform the roles of transmitter,
receiver and router.
• No centralized controller.
• Mutual trust and they have need of each other.
• Dynamic network topology.
• Frequent routing update.
• Mostly battery operated.
However there are ten major areas for mobile ad
hoc network on which, need to keep an eye on them.
1. Mobility speed.
2. Congestion control.
3. Available technologies.
4. Operating environments.
5. Application requirement
6. Security.
240
7. Transmission range of nodes and type of
antenna.
8. Handoff management.
9. Energy consumption.
10. Routing protocol
Intrusion detection scheme can be understood as
“Defense in depth strategies”. In other words it provides
layered security against attacks [2]. This layered
structure is shown below in fig (a). Goal of IDS not to
make perfect protection but also make a system on
which, attack is done at high cost or make attacker
spend more time [2]. By analogous way we can say that
preventive layers protects as walls, locked doors, vault
and moat however reactive layer serves as burglar
alarms. There are two important intrusion detection
techniques: misuse detection and anomaly detection. A
good taxonomy of existing technologies is presented in
[3]. In IDS there are three main sections (i) Sensors: it
continuously check the activities like packet traffic or
host behavior. Automatically detect unrequited
activities by analysis. And finally alarm is triggered to
the system administrator.
Fig. (a): Layered Structure of Intrusion Detection Scheme [2]
II. LOW IMMUNITY OF AD-HOC NETWORK TO ATTACKS
Ad hoc network has a non-centralized structure due
to this it is more dynamic this give many of advantage
to this network but there is a problem that it is fully
depends on the neighbor node. So ad hoc network is
vulnerable to attacks:
1. Active interfering
2. Passive interfering
3. Leakage of secret information
4. Message distortion
5. Impersonation
6. Byzantine failures
7. Impersonation
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
 Intrusion Detection Scheme for Wireless Ad-hoc Networks: A Study
III. ATTACKS POSSIBLE IN AD-HOC NETWORK
In active attack, attacker can modify packets,
absorb packets, inject packets, or even disrupt network
services. However in case of passive attack, an attacker
passively read the packets that are passing trough it
without modifying or tampering packets.
Main attacks are:
1. Route Logic Compromise: Instead of original
routing control message incorrect routing
control messages are injected to damage
routing logic.
2. Traffic Distortion Attack: All attacks that
create problem for data packets to transfer
from the source to the destination. This type of
attack can snoop network traffic, corrupt
packet, block or reply transmissions for some
malicious purposes.
3. Jamming: Wanted and unwanted interference
can happen with radio waves of MANETs,
because WLANs use unlicensed frequencies.
Other electromagnetic devices can operate on
same that can overlap with WLAN traffic. If
attacker has a powerful transmitter and can
generate a strong radio signal that can corrupt
a weak signal, this condition is called
jamming. Jammers can be of two types:
• High power pulse full band jammers.
• Low power partial-band jammers
The solution to jamming is to use Spread-Spectrum
technology to transmit data.
4. Spoofing: source address can be corrupt by
injecting data and control packets.
5. Flooding attack: one or many node sends
floods of Route Request (RREQ) and Route
Reply (RREP) messages meaninglessly. This
is called flooding attack. Solution for this
attack is to authenticate route control messages
[4].
6. Packet Modifications and Dropping:
Intermediate nodes can modify the packet
content. Also it is possible to change the
header information including source-
destination addresses. The malicious
intermediate nodes can also drops data.
7. Repeater attack: Two nodes are said to be
neighbour if they are in transmission range
directly to each other. Any attacker node A
shows, that node A is neighbour of node B and
the service of node B is prevented from
receiving and sending data packets to its
destinations. This type of attack can be
protected by Neighbour Detection Techniques.
8. Identity impersonation: Generally there is no
authentication scheme take place in MANET.
Therefore the IP address and MAC based
identity are easy to impersonate, if
communication channel is not secured.
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 241
9. Black hole attack: Like original Black hole in
universe, this node absorbs anything (any
packet) whatever is going through it. In other
words it drops all the packets rather than
forwarding them to its original path or
location. Since a black hole does not check its
routing table so it can reply fast as compare to
original node [5].
10. Gray hole attack: Unlike black hole attack it
drops only selected packets
11. Wormhole attack: In this type of attack,
attacker requires to have two nodes, connected
by private tunnel. Two nodes can connected
through a wired or wireless link. The
tunnelling will be always faster than the
normal multi-hop route (source to destination).
This is a repeater attack; an attacker records
the packets at one place and tunnel to another
location and replies from the second location.
This is a very powerful attack because it can be
done if all communication provides
authenticity or digital signature and even if
attacker has no keys.
12. Eavesdropping: In this, packet can be decoded
during the journey and forwarded to next as it
is.
13. Steep deprivation: In this attack a node tries to
save its own energy.
14. Sybil attack: A node acquires more than one
identity.
15. Selfishness: A node transmits and receives
only own packets however that does not
behave a part of network.
16. Routing disruption attacks: In MANET,
sometimes an attacker can generates routing
control packets and they are generally a
falsified routing REPLY ( in case of dynamic
source routing protocol. Such type of control
packets prevents to find out correct path and
correct routing logic in the whole network.
IV. HISTORY OF INTRUSION DETECTION SCHEME
In 1980, James Anderson wrote report for US air
force to propose a unique method to filter out audit
trails and detect unusual attacks. In 1986, Dorothy
Denning and Peter developed a real time intrusion
detection system. In 1990 US Davis developed another
system i.e., Network system monitor. In 1992,
Distributed intrusion detection system developed. In
1998 DARPA sponsored an intrusion detection
evaluation of many IDS. In 2000, this becomes an open
research topic for whole world. [2]
In 2002, Oleg Kachirski and Ratan Guha have
proposed a distributed multisensory Intrusion detection
scheme. After that, Yian Huang, Wenke Lee proposed a
cooperative Intrusion detection scheme for ad-hoc
network. In this, there are six modules which work
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

same as previous but if proof against an attacker node is
not sufficient then a request is sent to global response
module for cooperating. Further Ricardo Puttini et al
developed an algorithm which was fully distributed. In
this, data has been collected but execute algorithm and
alerts to neighbour nodes. Further in 2005, Abdul
Rehman Hijazi and Naseer proposed a scheme by which
bandwidth can be conserved by using local stationary
and mobile agent. Satoshi Kurosawa proposed a model
of IDS based on AODV in November 2005. And further
in the same year Geethapriya Thamilarasuet.al
presented a new model of IDS based on cross layer.
Cao Minh Trang et al implemented a model based on
on-demand Distance vector protocol. Yang fang Fu et al
proposed hierarchical and distributed IDS to find out
the status of every node in network says cluster. Inthis
scheme there are two types of Intrusion detection first
one is host based and other one is network based.
Jaydeep sen et al proposed a reputation system for
MANET. In reputation system incentives are provided.
This system is based on six modules (i) monitoring (ii)
reputation collection (iii) reputation maintenance (iv)
reputation formatting (v) reputation propagation (vi)
alarm raiser module.In 2010, Abolfazl Esfandi proposed
a scheme in which data has been collected using data
mining technique. This gives many advantages that it
increases alarm rate, detection rate, false positive is
reduced. In 2011 Ghenima Bourkach et al proposed a
distributed model made of local IDS agent which is
same as earlier in many respects. [7]
V. PROBLEMS OF WIRED IDS TECHNIQUES
There are various problems comes but some main
are given below.
• Real time traffic analysis is no longer possible
in adhoc network [6].
• Ad hoc network does not have gateway and
routers therefore whole network is to be
considered for audit data [6].
• Audit trace is limited in ad hoc network [6].
• Ad-hoc nodes may be stingy about
communication because slower links, limited
bandwidth, higher cost, and battery power
scarcity [6].
others the malicious action of the node. It is a type of
detecting attacks inside and second one is Network
based intrusion detection. It captures and examines the
network traffic that flows through it. There is no central
body that monitor to whole network therefore this
scheme is not suitable for each case.
There are three components of Data analysis. First
is IDS based on misuse detection. Misuse detection IDS
analyze the collected data for well known attacks
patterns, sometimes these patterns are known as
signature (Set of patterns of known attacks). Alarm
whenever signature matches. The main drawback of
misuse detection is that it can only detect previous well
known attacks. Another type of Intrusion detection is
based on anomaly (behavior based). Anomaly detection
scheme check the abnormal behavior of any node. Any
type of behavior that does not match a normal behavior
that comes in the category of attack. In this technique, a
threshold is set so that the difference can be created in
between a normal node and an attacker node behavior
patterns. The main advantage of this scheme is that it
can detect a new type of unknown attack. Third type of
IDS is based on specification. In this, IDS defines a set
of rules that explains the correct operation or set of
rules and this protocol monitors the overall process.
Narrower or incomplete signatures (false negative) will
miss some attacks sometimes. A broader signature
(false positive) will raise false alarms. It is necessary to
update protocol for new known attack patterns. Each
mobile node runs IDS independently. Each mobile host
believe on its own observation table and analysis but
cooperation is possible.

VI. TYPES OF INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEM

Traditional IDS are based on two techniques
activity of data collection and activity of data
analysis. Data collection system component is
responsible for collection of data about user and
application level. This collected data is further used for
data analysis and detect the malicious node.
Data collection system component are of two types.
First, Host based intrusion detection. In this system
Fig. (b): Types of IDSs, Host Based IDS: Monitor Host Activity
component, specific host captures local network traffic, Network Based IDS: Monitors Packet Traffic
i.e., used to secure the activity of host, points out to

242 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Intrusion Detection Scheme for Wireless Ad-hoc Networks: A Study
VII. DISTRIBUTED INTRUSION DETECTION
SYSTEM FOR WIRELESS AD-HOC NETWORK
In 2002 a distributed multisensory intrusion
detection system had been proposed based on mobile
agent technology. Local IDS architecture is shown
below in figure (c) in which at the starting three primary
levels, packet level, user level and system level are
present. Further monitoring module and then Decision
module and after that action module are present [1]. In
this system, there are three modules which give
functionality of mobile agent, i.e., when to monitor a
network, how to decide and when to initiate a response.
Monitor module: A host which monitors every
node and checkout the user activity and sense the
system level while network monitor sensor runs only on
selected nodes to capture packets at packets level [1].
Decision module: Decision module checkout those
nodes whenever the network is under threat, data is to
be collected and analyzed. And further investigation is
done
Fig. (c): Intrusion Detection Architecture
Functions of IDS: Functioning of IDS can be
understood in simple steps by such a way.
• Collect audit traces
• Analyze local data
• Request data from other host if required
• Alarms for others
• Global response based on coordination with
other
• Secure messaging with other host
Fig. (d): Functional Diagram of IDS
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 243
VIII. RESEARCH ACHIEVEMENTS
1. In case of Spoofing attacks, there is great
degree of accuracy for detection and false
alarm rate and all the ad-hoc resources are
mainly used for monitoring. It can be used to
discover unknown attacks.
2. For data collection and data signature, there is
no need of distributed scheme and it is feasible
to light weight mobile agent.
3. For sequence number modification, accuracy is
decreased by increasing mobility however
overhead is minimized as no cryptographic
mechanism is used.
4. For black hole attack, detection rate almost
accurate and it uses an intelligent and
distributive & multiple local IDS agents
however overhead increases due to
cryptography.
5. For Byzantine failure of nodes, detection rate
is about 85% and false alarm rate is about
20%. It is a highly reliable and fully
cooperative protocol.
6. For fault tolerance usability, more secure due
to key management, consume less energy and
extendable however there is a problem that it
increases overhead
7. For Like collision and packet dropping
detection rate is reduced by 54% and false
alarm rate is reduced by 1%. It has a great
advantage that true positives are increased due
to cross layer.
8. For Anomaly intrusion, detection rate is 94.33
% and false alarm rate is 75%. It consumes
more resources due to its distributive nature.
IX. CONCLUSION
Ad hoc security is a great issue as far as concerned
to a secured network for a highly sensitive and military
operation. So we have given a solid reason to use of
new intrusion detection techniques by our research
achievements. Anomaly detection systems are found
more economical however we have points out that
intrusion detection is much better than previous one.
Here we have given our view in terms of spoofing data
collection and data signature, like collision packet
dropping denial of service and sequence number
modification, fault tolerance Byzantine attack, flooding,
black hole attack and anomaly intrusion by sharing
detection rate, false alarm rate and advantage and
disadvantage of that.
REFERENCES
[1] Oleg Kachiiri, Ratan guha “intrusion detection using Mobile
agents in Wireless adhoc networks” Proceeding of IEEE
workshop on Knowledge Media networking IEEE 2002, pp:153-
158.
[2] www.engr.smu.edu/tchen
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

[3] H. Debar, M. Dacier, and A. Wespi, “A Revised Taxonomy for [7] Rupali Pathak, Durgesh Kumar Mishra “ distributed intrusion
Intrusion-Detection Systems,” Annales des Tlcommunications, detection scheme for wireless adhoc networks: a review” CSI
vol. 55, 2000 6thInternational conference on software engineering (conseg-
[4] Ning, P.; Sun, K.: How to Misuse AODV: a Case Study of 2012) pp:358-363
Insider Attacks Against Mobile Ad-hoc Routing Protocols. In: [8] Y. Huang, and W. Lee, “A Cooperative Intrusion Detection
Proceedings of the 2003 IEEE Workshop on Information System for Ad Hoc Networks,” Proceedings of the ACM
Assurance, pp.60-67, NY (2003). Workshop on Security of Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks
[5] Shurman M.AI, Yoo S.M., Park S.: Black Hole Attack in (SASN’03), Fairfax VA, October 2003.
Wireless Ad Hoc Networks. In: Proceedings of ACM 42nd
Southeast Conference (ACMSE 04),pp. 96-97, Alabama (2004).
[6] Y. Zhang and W. Lee, “Intrusion Detection in Wireless Ad Hoc
Networks,” the 6th Annual International Conf. on Mobile
Computing and Networking (ACM MobiCom’00), Boston, MA,
Aug., 2000, pp. 275-283.

244 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Procee
edings of Nation
nal Conference on Trends in Siignal Processing & Communica
ation (TSPC’13)), 12th–14th April 2013

Prrotocool Indeependeent Multica

M ast-Spaarse an
nd
D
Dense M es in Wirele
Mode W ss Sennsor N
Networrk
Nikhil Ranjan1 and Gariima Krishna2
1
Reseaarch (Ph.D) Scholar,
S Dept. of CSE, JJT University, Jhhunjhunu, Rajjasthan
2
Associate Professor,, Dept. of CSE
E, College of Engineering
E R
Roorkee, Roorrkee, UK
mail: 1nikhilraanjan.research@gmail.com
e-m m, 2garimakrisshna@gmail.ccom

Abstract—In Wireless Sensor Netw work, sensor nodes Protocol Independent M Multicast-Spaarse Mode
or motes coommunicate with
w each otherr and also with h Base (PIM
M-SM) routes multicast pacckets to multiccast groups,
Station usiing their wireless radios frequency
f chaannel, and is designed too efficiently esstablish distrib
bution trees
allowing th
hem to dissemiinate their sennsor data to reemote across wide area networks (WA ANs). PIM-SM is called
processing, visualization, analysis, annd storage sysstems.
Wireless Seensor Network k is an emergiing technologyy that
Protoocol Indepenndent becausee it can usee the route
shows great promise for various futuristic applications. In inforrmation that any routing protocol enteers into the
this paper we
w mainly ideentify the archiitectural issues that multticast Routingg Information Base (RIB), or, as it is
are arise with the multicaasting protocolls in wireless sensor
s knowwn in Windoows terminoloogy, the multticast view.
networks. Exammples of these routing prrotocols inclu ude unicast
proto
ocols such as a the Routinng Informatio on Protocol
Keywords: Wireless Sensor nodes,, Network, Prootocol
Independennt Multicastingg, Dense Moode, Sparse Mode,
M (RIP
P) and Openn Shortest P Path First (O OSPF), but
Shortest Path Tree, Sharedd Tree multticast protocolls that populatte the routing tables such
as the
t Distance Vector Mullticast Routin ng Protocol
I. INTTRODUCTION (DVVMRP) can allso be used. SSparse mode means that
the protocol
p is deesigned for situations wherre multicast
A wirreless sensor node or motte has not onnly a grou
ups are thinlyy populated across a larrge region.
sensing coomponent, but b also on-bboard processsing, Sparrse-mode prrotocols cann operate in LAN
communicaation, and sttorage capabiilities. With these envirronments, butt they are mosst efficient oveer WANs.
enhancemeents, a senssor node is often not only
responsiblee for data colllection, but also
a for in-nettwork
analysis, correlation, annd fusion of itts own sensorr data
and data frrom other senssor nodes especially sink. WhenW
many sensors cooperaatively monitor large phyysical
environments, they forrm a wireless sensor netw work.
There exiists a varietty of sensoors that calcculate
environmental parameteers such as temperature, light
intensity, sound, magnnetic fields, image, etc. The
informationn based on sensed data caan also be ussed in
agriculturee and livestocck, assisted driving
d or even in
providing security
s at homme or in publiic places. To fulfill
f
privacy annd security requirements
r in an approppriate
architecturre for WSNs and offering pervasive serrvices
is essentiall for user acceeptance.

Fig. 1.2: Source and Receeiver Arrangemen

nt

A sparse grouup can be deffined as one ini which, 1.

The number of networks or domains with w group
memmbers presentt is significaantly smallerr than the
num
mber of networrks/domains iin the Interneet, 2. Group
memmbers span an area that is tooo large to relly on a hop-
counnt limit or som
me other formm of limiting the scope of
multticast packet propagation,
p 33. The internettwork is not
suffiiciently resouurce rich to ignore the overhead
o of
curreent dense modde schemes.
Fig. 1.1: Sensor Networkk

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Proceedingss of National Co
onference on Tre
ends in Signal Processing
P & Co
ommunication (TSPC’13) 12th–
–14th April 2013
3

Reverse pathh forwarding (RPF) is an n optimized

formm of floodingg, where the router acceptts a packet
fromm source S through
t interfface I only if I is the
interrface the routter would usee in order to reach S. It
deterrmines whetther the interface is correct c by
conssulting its Unnicast routingg tables. Thiss technique
drammatically decrreases the ovverhead assocciated with
stand dard floodingg. Because a router accepts a packet
fromm only one neiighbor, it flooods the packett only once,
whicch means assuuming point-too-point links each e packet
is traansmitted overr each link onnce in each dirrection.
Fig. 1.3: Classification of Multicasting Routing
R Protocol
III. SHORTEST-PA
ATH TREES
In conntrast, dense-m
mode protocolls such as DV VMRP
and Multiicast OSPF (MOSPF) are a designedd for The Shortestt path trees (SPTs) are also called
situations where muulticast grouups are widely w sourrce-based treees. It means thhat the forwaarding paths
representedd and bandwiddth is plentifuul. So, data paackets are based
b on the shortest unicast path to the source.
or membeership report information may be sennt out Thatt is source treees are considdered shortesst-path trees
unnecessarrily on interfaaces that do noot lead to mullticast from
m the perspectiive of the unicast routing taables. If the
unicast routing metric
m is hop ccounts, then th
he branches
sources or interested receivers. RoutersR storee the
he multicast SPT
of th S are minim mum hop. If th he metric is
associated state for thesse uninteresteed nodes, whiich is
delayy, the branchees are minimuum delay.
also unneccessary. This overhead iss acceptable when For every muulticast source,, there is a corrresponding
most hosts are interestedd in the data and
a there is ennough multticast tree thaat directly connects the so ource to all
bandwidth to support thhe flow of conntrol messagess, but receiivers. Once thhe tree for a ssource and itss associated
is otherwisse inefficient. PIM-SM asssumes that noo host grouup is construccted, all trafficc to the memmbers of the
wants dataa unless it is explicitly
e requuested. PIM have
h a grouup passes alonng this tree. SP PTs have an (S,
( G) entry
dense-modde counterpartt (PIM-DM) thhat is interopeerable with
h a list of outggoing interfacees, where S iss the source
with sparsee mode. addrress and G is the
t multicast ggroup. Examp ples of other
protoocols that usse SPTs are DVMRP an nd MOSPF,
II. FLOODING AND REVERSE PATH
H FORWARDING
G whicch are dense-mmode protocolls.
Floodiing is a simplle scheme forr routing that does
IV. SHARED TREES
not depennd on havingg any routingg informationn. In
flooding, a packet is transmitted on o every inteerface Shared trees are, for PIM M-SM, called d RP trees
except the one from which it was recceived. To lim mit the (RPTT) since theyy rely on a ccentral routerr called the
number of times a packeet is replicatedd, a metric, suuch as rend
dezvous point (RP) that recceives all the traffic
t from
a hop counnt, is used. When
W the metrric reaches a given
g the sources
s and forwards
f that traffic to thee receivers.
threshold, the
t packet is dropped.
d Mem mbers send exxplicit joins to the centraal node, so
theree is no assum mption that all hosts are recceivers. The
resullt is a single trree for each m
multicast groupp, no matter
how many sourcess there are. Thhe only routerrs that know
abouut the group are a the ones tthat are on th he tree, and
data is sent only to interested receivers. RP PTs have a
(*, G)
G entry calleed a wildcardd entry, wherre G is the
multticast group. With
W an RP, rreceivers havee a place to
join to even if no sources
s exist yyet.

Fig. 1.4: Flooding

F of Message

The problem
p with flooding is that it createes an
exponentiaal number of copies
c of eachh packet. So, on
o the
one hand, flooding guuarantees thatt a copy of each
packet willl be delivereed to each noode, providedd that
packets arren't lost; on the other hand, floodingg can
generate soo much conggestion that packets
p very likely
l
will be lostt.
Fig. 1.5: Prune Messages in WSN

246 ‹ Bhag
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o Technology, Muzaffarnagar,
M Uttar Pradesh, India
 Protocol Independent Multicast—Sparse and Dense Modes in Wireless Sensor Network
The shared tree is unidirectional, which means data
flows only from the RP to the receivers. For a host other
than the RP to send on the tree, the data must first be
tunneled to the RP before it can be multicast to the
participants. This means that if a receiver is also a
source, it can't use that tree to send packets to the RP. It
can only use it to receive packets from the RP.
RPTs have longer delays, packets must first be sent
to the RP before they can be distributed, but have less
router state to maintain. Some examples of applications
where an RPT is appropriate include: 1. Networks with
many low-rate data sources, 2. Applications that can
tolerate delay, 3. Applications requiring consistent
policy and access control across most participants in a
group, 4. Networks where most of the source trees
overlap topologically with the shared tree.
Conferencing applications can use both the SPTs
and the RPT. The RPT could be used for keep-alive
packets, because these are sent at a low data rate. The
sources could use the SPTs because they are sending
out a great deal of data.
Although each path from the RP to a receiver is the
shortest path, the shortest path from the source to the
receivers is not the same as the path from the receiver to
the RP. A legitimate question is: Why not use the SPT
rather than the RPT? For PIM-SM, there are two
answers. First, PIM-SM has a method that allows the
last-hop router to leave the RPT and join the SPT if the
volume of traffic warrants it. This is called an SPT
switch, and is discussed later in the paper. Second,
when the RPT is used, routers don't need to maintain as
much state, which decreases the amount of memory
required.
V. PROBLEM ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH MULTICASTING
ROUTING PROTOCOL
PIM-SM higher version is currently considered the
de facto standard multicast routing protocol. However,
some issues are still not resolved. As it is a router-to-
router protocol, all routers in the network must be
upgraded to support it. A second issue is that, because
the number of candidate RPs scales linearly with the
size of the domain, the protocol cannot scale globally.
Mapping G to RP may also present a scaling problem
because it involves flooding the BSR announcements.
Another problem is the location of the RP. There are
many ISPs in the world, and none of them want to
depend on an RP in the domain of another ISP for
multicast service between its own customers.
VI. CONCLUSION
PIM-SM is the de facto standard multicast routing
protocol. It is designed to perform efficiently in WANs,
where multicast groups are sparsely distributed. It
maintains the traditional IP multicast service model of
receiver initiated membership and supports both shared
and shortest path trees. PIM-SM is not dependent on a
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 247
specific unicast routing protocol. Because it is a router-
to-router protocol, all routers in the network must be
upgraded to support PIM-SIM higher version.
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[19] S.-J. Lee, Mario Gerla, and C.-C. Chiang. On-Demand Multicast
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248 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Simulation in Wireless Sensor

Network: A Review
Pranavi Tayal1, Hardwari Lal Mandoria2 and Himanshu Chanyal3
1
Dept. of Information Technology, College of Technology, GBPU A&T, Pantnagar (Uttarakhand), India
2
Dept. of Information Technology, College of Technology, GBPU A&T, Pantnagar (Uttarakhand), India
3
Dept. of Information Technology, College of Technology, GBPU A&T, Pantnagar (Uttarakhand), India
e-mail: 1diligent.virgos@gmail.com, 2drmandoria@gmail.com, 3himanshu.chanyal@gmail.com

Abstract—Network simulation is a widely circulated

methodology for performance analysis in the
communication systems engineering. It is very costly to
distribute systematically a complete test bed having
multiple networked computers, routers and data links
to check certain network protocol or a specific network
algorithm. The network simulators in these circumstances
save a lot of money and time in accomplishing this task.
This paper provides a comprehensive survey and
comparisons of various popular sensor network simulators
based on methodology and criteria to help researchers in
choosing the best simulator available for a particular
application environment.
Keywords: Wireless sensor networks, Network Fig. 1: A Simple Wireless Sensor Network
Simulation, Simulator, Emulator, Simulation tools.
B. Simulation in WSN
I. INTRODUCTION
Simulation is a very important modern technology.
A. Wireless Sensor Network It can be applied to different science, engineering, or
other application fields for different purposes. Network
Sensor networks are consists of large numbers of
simulators are used by people from different areas such
small sensing and computing devices. These devices,
as academic researchers, industrial developers, and
are called motes. Motes has very limited
Quality Assurance (QA) to design, simulate, verify, and
communication, computational and energy resources.
analyze the performance of different networks
WSN have a wide variety of applications such as
protocols. They can also be used to evaluate the effect
battlefield surveillance, target tracking, industrial
of the different parameters on the protocols being
process monitoring, environment and habitat
studied.
monitoring, precision agriculture, and disaster area
monitoring. Fig.1 [1] shows a typical simple wireless C. Why use Simulation
sensor network. A complete wireless sensor network
usually consists of one or more base stations Use of simulators is necessary when developing
(or gateway), a number of sensor nodes, and the end or researching in the field of WSN. Reasons for this are
user. Sensor nodes are used to measure physical numerous:
quantities such as temperature, position, humidity, • Manufacturers have not achieved expected low
pressure etc. The output of those sensor nodes are costs for sensor nodes yet, so experiments on a
wirelessly transmitted to the base station (or gateway) real-world WSN (which could consist of
for data collection, analysis, and logging. End users hundreds or thousands of nodes) are expensive
may also be able to receive and manage the data from [3].
the sensor via a website from long-distance or • It is more cost-effective to use simulation,
applications in console terminal. except for final stages of development, when
real-world tests are needed.
• Simulation can be used to detect and correct
many bugs and issues before testing on a real
system. e.g. volcano activity monitoring).
Experimenting in those environments could be

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 249

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
expensive or dangerous, which is another
reason for using simulation [4].
• Additionally, knowing the weaknesses of
available simulators could help developers to
identify drawbacks of their own models, when
compared with these simulators, thus
providing an opportunity for improvement.
In this paper we conduct a survey of several
simulators that we find significant and interesting. In
the second section, we present basic concepts in
network simulation. In the third section, we describe
methodology and criteria. In the fourth section, we
describe the different simulators. In the fifth section,
simulators are compared and analyzed according to
methodology and criteria and in the sixth section, we
conclude the paper.
II. BASIC CONCEPTS IN NETWORK SIMULATION
In this section, we will introduce some basic
concepts in the area of network simulation
A. Simulation and Emulation
In the communications networks, simulation is a
useful technique since the behavior of a network can
be modeled by calculating the interaction between the
different network components (routers, physical links
or packets) using mathematical formulas. Another
characteristic of network simulation is that the
simulation program can be used together with different
applications and services in order to observe end-to-end
or other point-to-point performance in the networks.
Network emulation means that network under
planning is simulated in order to assess its performance
or to predict the impact of possible changes, or
optimizations. The major difference lying between them
is that a network emulator means that end-systems such
as computers can be attached to the emulator and will
act exactly as they are attached to a real network. The
main point is that the network emulator's job is to
emulate the network which connects end-hosts, but not
the end-hosts themselves.
B. Simulator and Emulator
Simulator [8] is universally used to develop and
test protocols of WSNs, especially in the beginning
stage of these designs. The cost of simulating thousands
of nodes networks is very low, and the simulation can
be finished within very short execution time. Both
general and specialized simulators are available for uses
to simulate WSNs.
The tool, which is using firmware as well as
hardware to perform the simulation, is called emulator
[8]. Emulation can combine both software and
hardware implementation. Emulator implements in
real nodes, thus it may provide more precision
250 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
performance. Usually emulator has highly scalability,
which can emulate numerous sensor nodes at the same
time.
C. Type of Network Simulators
Different types of network simulators can be
categorized and explained based on some criteria such
as if they are commercial or free, or if they are simple
ones or complex ones or if they are Trace- Driven
Simulation and Discrete-Event Simulations [Jain91].
1) Commercial and open source simulators
Some of the network simulators are commercial
which means that they would not provide the source
code of its software or the affiliated packages to the
general users for free. All the user s have to pay to
get the license to use their software or pay to order
specific packages for their own specific usage
requirements. The advantage is that it generally has
complete and up-to-date documentations and they can
be consistently maintained by some specialized staff in
that company.
While the open source network simulator is
disadvantageous in this aspect, and generally there
are not enough specialized people working on the
documentation. On the contrary, the open source
network simulator has the advantage that everything is
very open and everyone or organization can contribute
to it and find bugs in it. The interface is also open for
future improvement. It can also be very flexible and
reflect the most new recent developments of new
technologies in a faster way than commercial network
simulators.
TABLE 1 NETWORK SIMULATORS
Network Simulators Name
Commercial OPNET, QualNet
Open Source NS2, NS3, OMNeT++, SSFNet, J-Sim
2) Simple vs. complex
Currently there are a great variety of network
simulators, ranging from the simple ones to the
complex ones. Minimally, a network simulator should
enable users to represent a network topology, defining
the scenarios, specifying the nodes on the network, the
links between those nodes and the traffic between the
nodes. More complicated systems may allow the user to
specify everything about the protocols used to process
network traffic. Graphical applications also allow users
to easily visualize the workings of their simulated
environment. Some of them may be text- based and can
provide a less visual or intuitive interface. Others may
be programming-oriented and can provide a
programming framework that allows the users to

customize to create an application that simulates the
networking environment for testing.
3) Discrete-Event simulations and trace-driven
simulation
Discrete-event simulation [9, 10] is widely used in
WSNs, because it can easily simulate lots of jobs
running on different sensor nodes. Discrete- event
simulation includes some of components. This
simulation can list pending events, which can be
simulated by routines. This simulation includes input
routines, output routines, initial routines, and trace
routines. In addition, this simulation provides dynamic
memory management, which can add new entities and
drop old entities in the model. Debugger breakpoints
are provided in discrete-event simulation, thus users can
check the code step by step without disrupting the
program operation.
However, Trace-Driven Simulation [9] provides
different services. This kind of simulation is commonly
used in real system. The simulation results have more
credibility. It provides more accurate workload; these
detail information allow users to deeply study the
simulation model. Usually, input values in this
simulation constant unchanged. However, this
simulation also contains some drawbacks. For example,
the high-level detail information increases the
complexity of the simulation; workloads may change,
and thus the representativeness of the simulation needs
to be suspicious.
III. METHODOLOGY AND CRITERIA
We define a set of criteria to compare the
selected simulators. The criteria are:
1. Iming: In discrete event simulators, events that
affect state of the system are chronologically
ordered into event queue, and event scheduler
executes them one by one. Continuous
simulators are concerned with modeling a set
of equations that represent system over
time [5].
2. Software license: A simulator can be
proprietary, or have one of the free
software/open source licenses.
3. Programming Language: Language that
simulator used.
4. Graphical User Interface (GUI) support: Is it
available and how useful it is?
5. General or specific simulator: They are
examined separately whether it is specifically
designed for wireless sensor network.
IV. SIMULATORS
This paper will present five different simulators.
These simulators were selected based on a number of
criteria including timing, license, key features, merits
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 251
Simulation in Wireless Sensor Network: A Review
and limitation. This section illustrates five main- stream
simulation tools used in WSNs: NS-2, TOSSIM,
OMNeT++, J-Sim, Avrora, and analyzes the merits
and limitation of each simulation tool.
A. NS-2
Overview: Ns-2[2,6,7,11,12,13,18,19,20] is the
most popular simulation tool for sensor networks. It
began as ns (Network Simulator) in 1989 with the
purpose of general network simulation. Ns-2 is an
object- oriented discrete event simulator; its modular
approach has effectively made it extensible.
Simulations are based on a combination of C++ and
OTcl. In general, C++ is used for implementing
protocols and extending the ns-2 library. OTcl is used to
create and control the simulation environment itself,
including the selection of output data. Simulation is run
at the packet level, allowing for detailed results.
Merits: NS-2 can support a considerable range
of protocols in all layers. For example, the ad-hoc and
WSN specific protocols are provided by NS-2.
Secondly, the open source model saves the cost of
simulation, and online documents allow the users easily
to modify and improve the codes.
Limitation: People who want to use this simulator
need to familiar with writing scripting language and
modeling technique; the Tool Command Language is
somewhat difficulty to understand and write. NS-2 is
more complex and time-consuming than other
simulators to model a desired job. NS-2 provides a
poor graphical support, no Graphical User Interface
(GUI).
B. OMNeT++
Overview: OMNeT++ is the component-based
discrete event simulator [14,19,21,22]. OMNeT++
provides both a noncommercial license, used at
academic institutions or non-profit research
organizations, and a commercial license, used at "for-
profit" environments. OMNeT++ uses building blocks
called modules to implement their simulator. Modules
are connected in a hierarchical nested fashion, where
each module can contain several other modules.
In the sensor network model of OMNeT++, called
SensorSim, modules are used to define a number of
different objects in Figure 2[14].
Fig. 2: OMNeT++'s Module Implementation
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
Merits: OMNeT++ provides a powerful GUI. This
strong GUI makes the tracing and debugging much
easier than using other simulators. This simulator can
support MAC protocols as well as some localized
protocols in WSN. People can use OMNeT++ to
simulate channel controls in WSNs. In addition,
OMNeT++ can simulate power consumption problems
in WSN.
Limitation: The number of available protocols is
not larger enough. In addition, the compatible problem
will rise since individual researching groups developed
the models separately, this makes the combination of
models difficult and programs may have high
probability report bugs.
C. TOSSIM
Overview: TOSSIM [8,15,19,20,23,24], are
actually emulators. Emulators are different from
simulators in that they run actual application code.
TOSSIM is designed specifically for TinyOS
applications to be run on MICA Motes, which is an
open source operating system targeting embedded
operating system. In 2003, TOSSIM was first
developed by UC Berkeley’s TinyOS project team.
TOSSIM is a bit- level discrete event network emulator
built in Python, a high-level programming language
emphasizing code readability, and C++. People can
run TOSSIM on Linux Operating Systems or on
Cygwin on Windows. TOSSIM also provides open
sources and online documents.
The TOSSIM architecture is made up of a number
of different components as shown in Figure 3[15]:
Fig. 3: TOSSIM Architecture
Merits: The open source model free online
document save the emulation cost. Also, TOSSIM has
a GUI, TinyViz, which is very convenience for the user
to interact with electronic devices. TOSSIM is a very
simple but powerful emulator for WSN. TOSSIM can
support thousands of nodes simulation.
Limitation: It is not designed to simulate the
performance metrics of other new protocols. Therefore,
TOSSIM cannot correctly simulate issues of the energy
252 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
consumption in WSN. Secondly, every node has to run
on NesC code, a programming language that is event-
driven, component-based and implemented on TinyOS,
thus TOSSIM can only emulate the type of
homogeneous applications. TOSSIM is specifically
designed for WSN simulation, motes-like nodes are the
only thing that TOSSIM can simulate.
D. J-Sim
Overview: J-Sim [16,18,19] is a discrete event
network simulator built in Java. This simulator
provides GUI library, which facilities users to model or
compile the Mathematical Modeling Language, a “text-
based language” written to J-Sim models. J-Sim
provides open source models and online documents.
Unlike ns-2, however, J-Sim uses the concept of
components, replacing the notion that each node should
be represented as an object. J-Sim uses three top level
components as shown in Figure 4[16]: the target node
(which produces stimuli), the sensor node (that reacts to
the stimuli), and the sink node (the ultimate destination
for stimuli reporting).
Fig. 4: Top Level of J-Sim's Component based Architecture
Merits: J-Sim have good reusability and
interchangeability, which facilities easily simulation.
Secondly, J-Sim contains large number of protocols;
this simulator can also support data diffusions, routings
and localization simulations in WSNs. Thirdly, J-Sim
provides a GUI library, which can help users to trace
and debug programs. Fourth, comparing with NS-2, J-
Sim can simulate larger number of sensor nodes,
around 500, and J-Sim can save lots of memory sizes.
Limitations: The execution time is much longer
than that of NS-2. Because J-Sim was not originally
designed to simulate WSNs, the inherently design of J-
Sim makes users hardly add new protocols or node
components.
E. Avrora
Overview: Avrora [2,17,] is a simulator
specifically designed for WSNs built in Java. Similar to
ATEMU, Avrora can also simulate AVR-based
microcontroller MICA2 sensor nodes. This simulator
was developed by University of California, Los
 Simulation in Wireless Sensor Network: A Review

Angeles Compilers Group. Avrora is implemented in accuracy; Avrora provides more accuracy than
Java, unlike the other two emulators, which are written TOSSIM does with equivalent scales of sensor nodes.
in C. Avrora implements each node as its own thread. Limitation: Avrora fails to model clock drift. It
However, it still runs actual Mica code and is an is 50% slower than TOSSIM.It cannot model mobility.
emulator. Like ATEMU, Avrora runs code in an
instruction-by- instruction fashion. However, the V. ANALYSIS
simulator attempts to achieve better scalability and
speed by not synchronizing all nodes after every Each of these simulators/emulators are
instruction. distinguished using language,timing and other criteria
shown in Table I below.
Merits: Avrora is an instruction-level simulator,
which removes the gap between TOSSIM and A comparative graph of the most prominent
ATEMU. The codes in Avrora run instruction by simulation frameworks according to the criteria of
scalability and abstraction level as shown in fig. 5. In
instruction, which provides faster speed and better
scalability. Avrora can support thousands of nodes this figure, it does not express the maximal feasible
simulation, and can save much more execution time network sizes, but reflects the typical application
domain.
with similar accuracy. Avrora provides larger
scalability than ATEMU does with equivalent
TABLE 1: COMPARISON OF FIVE SIMULATION TOOLS
Simulation tools Simulator or Discret e-Event Simulaions or G UI Open source s General simulator Programming
Emul ator Trace- Driven Simulation and Online or Specific languag e/
documents simulator Platfor m
NS-2 Simulator Discrete-Event Simulat ion No Yes general simula tor C++
OMNeT++ Simul ator Discret e-Event Ye s Yes gener alsimula tor C++
Simulat ion
TOSSIM Emulator Discrete-Event Simulat ion Yes Yes specifically design nesC
ed for WSNs
J-Sim Simulator Discrete-Event Simulation Yes Yes general simula tor Java
Avrora Simulator Discrete-Event Simulation Yes No specifically design Java
ed for WSNs

appropriate roadmap for choosing the best simulator for

a particular application environment are also provided.

Fig. 5: Comparison of Simulators based on Scalability
and Level of Abstraction
VI. CONCLUSION
The goals of this paper were to provide
background scope on a number of different sensor
network simulators and present the merit and
limitation of each. Simulators are compared based on
different criteria, and comparative results are presented
in tabular form. In addition, short descriptions of
simulators are also provided. Since no single simulator
under survey is universally applicable to all situations,
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[20] C. Stevens, C. Lyons, R. Hendrych, R. S. Carbajo, M. Huggard,
C. McGoldrick, “Simulating Mobility in WSNs: Bridging the
gap between ns-2 and TOSSIM 2.x”, 13th IEEE/ACM
International Symposium on Distributed Simulation and Real
Time Applications, 2009, ISBN: 978-0-7695-3868-6.
[21] Omnet++”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnet.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
A Study on Energy Efficient Data Collection
Approaches in Wireless Sensor Network
Pranavi Tayal1, Hardwari Lal Mandoria2 and Renu Bahuguna3
1,2,3
Dept. of Information Technology, College of Technology, GBPUA&T, Pantnagar (Uttarakhand), India
e-mail: 1diligent.virgos@gmail.com, 2drmandoria@gmail.com, 3renubahuguna@gmail.com
Abstract—Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) consist
of many sensor nodes. These networks have
hugeapplication in habitat monitoring, disaster
management, security and military, etc. Wireless sensor
nodes are very small in size and have limited processing
capability with very low battery power. This restriction of
low battery power makes the sensor network prone to
failure. In this paper we put our attention into various
energy efficient approaches for data collection in wireless
network.
Keywords: Wireless Sensor Networks, Energy Efficient
Approaches, Energy Management.
I. INTRODUCTION
One of the most important applications of wireless
sensor networks is data collection. Optimizing energy
consumption for extending the lifetime in wireless
sensor networks is of dominant importance. Wireless
sensor networks are consisted of hundreds or thousands
of small sensors that have limited resources. Energy-
efficient techniques are the main issue of wireless
sensor networks. Efficient data collection is challenging
in Wireless Sensor Networks. Wireless Sensor
Networks (WSNs) are usually self-organized wireless
ad hoc networks comprising of a large number of
resource constrained sensor nodes. One of the most
important tasks of these sensor nodes is systematic
collection of data and transmits gathered data to a
distant base station (BS). Hence network life- time
becomes an important parameter for efficient design of
data gathering schemes for sensor networks. Energy
management is a key issue in the deployment of sensor
networks, because sensors only reply on the battery for
the power which cannot be recharged or replaced. The
available energy is considered a major factor when
designing protocols in a sensor network. The lifetime of
the battery operated nodes may be extended in some
way by adopting appropriate energy conservation
mechanism for efficient communication.
In this paper, we give a survey of various energy
efficient approaches for data collection in wireless
sensor network.
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
II. WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are usually
self- organized wireless ad hoc networks comprising
of a large number of resource constrained sensor
nodes. Wireless sensor networks are consisted of
hundreds or thousands of small sensors that have
limited resources [1]. A multidisciplinary research area
such as wireless sensor networks (WSN) have been
invoked the monitoring of remote physical environment
and are used for a wide range of applications ranging
from defense personnel to many scientific research,
statistical application, disaster area and War Zone.
These networks are constraint with energy, memory
and computing power enhance efficient techniques are
needed for data aggregation, data collection, query
processing, decision making and routing in sensor
networks [2]. The problem encountered in the recent
past was of the more battery power consumption as
activity increases; need more efficient data
aggregation and collection techniques with right
decision making capabilities. A wireless sensor
network (WSN) consists of spatially distributed
autonomous sensors to monitor physical or
environmental conditions such as temperature, sound,
pressure etc and to cooperatively pass their data
through the network to a main location. The more
modern networks are bi-directional, also enabling
control of sensor activity [3]. The development of
wireless sensor networks was motivated by military
applications such as battlefield surveillance; today such
networks are used in many industrial and consumer
applications, such as industrial process monitoring
and control, machine health monitoring, and so on.
Wireless sensor network is to create a robust and fault-
tolerant network to cover a large area. Each node
usually has three components:
• Sensor component to sense the environment
for the data.
• Process component to perform simple
computation from the collected data, and
• Communication component to exchange
messages with neighboring sensor nodes. Each
sensor network has the ability to disseminate
the data through the network, and aggregate
255
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
the local data from nodes to a sink node
(gateway or cluster head).
WSN’s promise several advantages over traditional
sensing method in many ways: better coverage, fault
tolerance and robustness. The ad hoc nature and deploy
and leave vision make them even more attractive in real
world applications. Several real- world applications are
being designed and developed that are taking advantage
of this new technology.
For example:-In tree for fire detection [13], In
building for fire crew assistance [14], In wine grape
vineyards for improving the quality of crop and the
performance of the land and in many other applications
such as military application, monitoring toxic zones,
agriculture, healthcare, industrial automation and
volcano monitoring [15].
Fig. 1: Wireless Sensor Network
A. Characteristics
The main characteristics of a WSN include:
• Power consumption constrains for nodes using
batteries or energy harvesting
• Ability to cope with node failures
• Mobility of nodes
• Communication failures
• Heterogeneity of nodes
• Scalability to large scale of deployment
• Ability to withstand harsh environmental
conditions
• Ease of use
• Power consumption
III. ENERGY EFFICIENT APPROACHES IN WIRELESS
SENSOR NETWORK
Wireless sensor nodes have limited energy
resources. Advance in battery technology has been very
much limited compared to the development of sensor
networks. Energy conservation is essential in many
scenarios due to the impossibility of extending or
replacing the battery power. In addition, the multi- hop
routing in a typical sensor network from the layered or
clustered architecture has introduced a large portion or
relay traffic which depletes the power quickly as in a
traditional wireless network. Deployment of mobile
sensors in a wireless sensor network is an energy
consuming process and it should be carefully designed.
256 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
SamerHanoun et al. [1]models the mobile collector
and the sensor network as a system-of-systems, and
types of interactions. They presented the framework
thatassists deploying incongruous mobiles without
priorknowledge about the sensor network.They
proposed a model for governing theinteractions
between the sensor network and class ofmobile
elements acting as data collectors. They showed
amethodology of structuring the sensor network
forconveying collection request to the mobiles
withoutknowing their positions or number. Two motion
heuristicsare presented to guide the collection tour of
the mobileelement. They argue that theproposed
framework is both practical and simple for
providingloose coupling between the network and the
mobilecollectors.
A.S.Poornima et al. [2] proposed a simple
authentication scheme for heterogeneoussensor network
which uses mobile agents forefficient data collection.
There proposed scheme is used torecognize and find
malicious nodes acting as mobile agents. Also attaining
confidentiality of the data collected using simplekey
derivation technique which allows a cluster head
toencrypt the data every time using a different key
which canbe easily derived by the base station. Mobile
agents is used to collect the data is becomingpopular
in wireless sensor networks. Regarding security there
were challenges when mobile agents are used for data
collection.They have proposed a simple
authenticationscheme which is derived using the tree
based key managementscheme. The proposed scheme
identifies malicious MA and replay messages. Through
using refreshed secret key Pi transferred data is
encrypted. The secret key is known only to CH and
base station. Hence the scheme is resilient
tocompromise of MA.
Hongjoong Sin et al. [3] proposes an energy
efficient agent-based structure in wireless sensor
networks. They adopt biologicallyinspired approaches
for wireless sensor networks. Agent
operatesautomatically with their behavior policies as a
gene. Agent agglomeratesother agents to reduce
communication and gives high priority to nodesthat
have adequate energy to communicate. Agent behavior
policies areoptimized by genetic operation at the base
station. Each agent selects a next-hop node with
neighbor information andbehavior policies. There
proposed framework provides self- configuration, self-
healing, self-optimization properties to wireless sensor
nodes. The sensor node generates an agent, when the
node has the sensing data. Theagent contains the
sensing data and channels the data toward thebase
station hop by hop. The base station selects elite agents
thatthey have more appropriate behavior policies in
currentnetwork situation by periods. The base station
propagateselected elite agents to each node. Agents in
each node inheritbehavior policies of elite agents.
 A Study on
n Energy Efficient Data Collection Approaches in Wireless Sensor Network

Edwarrd J.Coyle et al. [4] prooposed an ennergy aconntrollable infrastructure in the sensor field,
f which
efficient hiierarchical cluustering schem me to enable nodes
n acts aslow-priorrity data coollection ageent. There
transmissioon within loong distance. The sensorss are propposed approacch can providee ample energ gy saving in
organized into groups and communnicate inform mation this class of sensoor application compared totthe classical
only to cluster
c heads and then the t cluster heads
h multtihop approachh.
communicaate the accuumulated infformation too the SumitChaudhhary et al. [8] proposed th he efficient
processing center. The processing
p cennter determinees the mech hanismof energy efficiennt techniquess for data
final estim
mates of the parameters in question usinng the aggrregation in WSN using prinnciples like gllobalweight
informationn transmitted by the clusteer heads. Sincce the calcuulation of noodes, data colllection for cluster
c head
sensors area now traansmitting daata over sm maller and data aggreegation technniques using g datacube
distances ini the accumuulated environment, the ennergy aggrregation.
spent in thhe network wiill be much lesser as compaare to
the energyy spent whenn every senssor communiicates A. Data Cube Agggregation
directly to the informatioon processingg center. It is a multidimensionnal approach h for data
HaniehhAlipour et al. [5] propposes an effi ficient aggrregation. The values
v are stoored in separaate cell of a
approach for
f data collecction in wireleesssensor netw works data cube, each phase
p of cubee is divided innto separate
by introducing Memberr Forward Lisst. This listinccludes rowss & columnss and each value & nod de such as
the nodes with
w highest priority
p for foorwarding the data. conssumption, baandwidth, M MRIC, RSSII etc are
When a noden t next nodewith
dies, thee list select the repreesented at the beginning of rows.
higher priority. The benefit
b of thiis node is thhat it
secures thee algorithm from repeating when a node dies.
Member Foorward List decreases poweerconsumptionn and
latency in wireless senssor networks.T The list helpps the
other nodees to find thee path for dataa forwarding when
a previous forwarder noode has failedd. They introdduced
an efficiennt protocol to encounter foorwarder nodde for
saving ennergy. In thiis protocol they t usedMeember
Forward List
L (MFL) to find an adequuate and theshoortest
path for forrwarding dataa to the sink.
L. Beenini et al. [66]analysed thhe efficient power p
saving in the
t micro-conntrolled unit. They T discusseed the
choice of altered
a processsors for partiicular applicattions.
The dynam mic power mannagement (DP PM) approachh can
be used to shut down some s elementts in a sensor node
to save ennergy when itt becomes ouut of action for a
while. Thee software paart in a sensor network such as
the operrating system m, networkk communiccation
protocols, and applicattion protocolls should alsso be
optimized to abate the use of energgy by abatingg the Fig. 2: Data Cube Agggregation[8]
unrequiredd broadcast messages
m for thhe handshakinng or
other redunndant design in i a traditionaal wireless nettwork There paperr widely accclaims the improved
protocols. techn nology for energy effficient techn niques for
Amar Rasheed et al. [7] proopose an ennergy- dataaaggregation and
a collectionn in WSN. There
T work
efficient hybrid
h data collectionarch
c hitecture baseed on provvides the accuurate usage oof battery andd lowpower
controllablly movable infrastructurre for aclasss of conssumption so that the usser can sen nd multiple
applicationns in which sensor networks n proovide messsages in limitted resources.. Theparameters that are
bothlow-prriority and high-priority data. d High-priority usedd manage the cluster head ggeneration, an nd the node
dataneed a data deliveryy arrangemennt with low laatency selecction methods sothat the message can n be easily
and highfiidelity. Concuurrently low-priority data may transsferred undeer such circcumstances with right
tolerate highlatencydat
h ta delivery. There apprroach decission usingprinnciples like gglobal weight calculation
accomplishhed the design of anetw work that braace a of nodes, data collection for cluster head and
hybrid daata delivery arrangemennt toenhance the dataaaggregation techniques using data
d cube
network performance
p a
and abate total networkennergy aggrregation.
usage. In there system m design two delivery schhemes Mohammad HosseinAnissi et al. [9]proposed
[
aredeployeed for purposees of comparisson. The first is the energ gy-efficient mechanism, the most appropriates
a
classical add hoc approaach to deliverr high-priorityy data hopss for data foorwarding wiill be selecteed and the
withhigh fidelity
fi and loow latency. Thhe second preesents lifetiime of the whhole network will be increeased. They
proppose an energy-efficie
e ent in-Netw work data

agwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar,, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 257

Bha
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
aggregation approach in WSN. The proposed approach
uses the benefits of both cluster based and tree based
accessions. The whole network consist clusters of the
same size. Each node is related to a routing sub tree and
each sub tree floods a cluster and the root node of each
sub tree is the head node of the associated cluster. The
energy usages in wireless communication is equal to
the square of distance between two nodes in
transmission. All the nodes transmit their data to their
neighbor instead of their cluster head. Therefore, the
transmission distance is abated and the energy usages of
each node, each group and the average energy usages of
the whole networks is reduced and the network lifetime
is elevated.
Tao Shu et al. [10] develop mechanisms that
generate randomized multipath routes. Under there
designs, thepaths taken by the “shares” of different
packets change over time. So even if the routing
algorithm becomes known to the opponent,the
opponent still cannot pointout the routes cross over by
each packet. Besides irregularities, the generated
paths are also highly distributive and energy efficient,
making them quite capable of mislead black holes.
Theytentativelycheck out the security andenergy
performance of the proposed schemes. They also
formulate an optimization problem to decrease the end-
to-end energyconsumption under given security
compulsions. Wide simulations are conducted to verify
the validity of our mechanisms.They propose
aarbitrary multipath routingalgorithm that can
overcome the above problems. In theirapproach,
multiple paths are computed in aarbitrary way each
time an information packet needs to be sent, suchthat
the set of routes taken by various shares of
differentpackets keep changing over time. As a result, a
large numberof routes can be conceivably generated for
each source anddestination. To interrupt different
packets, the opponent hasto accord or jam all possible
paths from the source tothe destination, which is
practically not possible.
IoannisChatzigiannakis et al. [11] proposed the
idea of having a sinkmoving in the network area and
collecting data from sensors.They propose four
characteristic movability patterns for the sinkalong with
different data collection strategies. There data
demonstratethat by taking advantage of the sink’s
mobility, wecan significantly abate the energy spent in
hand on trafficand thus greatly extend the lifetime of
the network. They propose and inquiresink mobility as
a method for efficient and robust datadelivery in
wireless sensor networks. They propose four
mobilitypatterns for the sink, mostly randomized (such
as the simplerandom walk, biased random walks and
walks on spanningsubgraphs) as well as predictable
mobility (moving ona straight line or cycle). These
patterns assume and exploitdifferent degrees of
freedom, simplicity and networkknowledge. To get
258 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
data from sensors, the sink movement iscombined with
three data collection strategies: a passive, amulti-hop
and a limited multi- hop.
Raghavendra et al. [12] have proposed power-
efficient gathering for sensor information systems
(PEGASIS) [16] to transmit the collected data from
sensor nodes to the sink node. It is based on the
assumption of a relatively static network topology in
which each node knows the location of other nodes in
the network. The node which was selected as a leader
was within the transmission range to the sink node in
one hope. A chain is constructed from the utmost nodes
to the sink before the data is transmitted. When leader
transmit the message to the sink then the message will
pass from one node to the next node.
IV. CONCLUSION
Efficient energy consumption and conservation is a
key problem in the sensor networks, lots of work has
been done for energy efficiency but less attention has
been paid in alternative approaches for energy
efficiency. This study is trying to conduct a survey of
various approaches which could be applied in wireless
sensor networks considering the efficiency and
cooperating of mobile sensors to collect information
and make decisions.
REFERENCES
[1] SamerHanoun and Saeid Nahavandi., “A Practical Framework
for Data Collection in Wireless Sensor Networks,” Proceeding
of IEEE 2008-978-1-4244-2173-2/08.
[2] A.S. Poornima and B.B. Amberker., “Agent Based Secure Data
Collection in Hetrogeneous Sensor Networks,” IEEE
Proceeding 2010.Second International Conference on Machine
Learning and Computing.
[3] Hongjoong Sin, Jangsoo Lee, Sungju Lee, SeunghwanYoo,
Sanghyuck Lee, Jaesik Lee, Yongjun Lee, and Sungchun Kim,
“Agent-based Framework for Energy Efficiency in Wireless
Sensor Networks,” World Academy of Science, Engineering
and Technology 46 2008.
[4] SeemaBandyopadhyay and Edward J.Coyle., “An Energy
Efficient Hierarchical Clustering Algorithm for wireless Sensor
Networks,” IEEE INFOCOM 2003.
[5] HaniehAlipour and AlirezaNemaney Pour, “An Efficient
DataCollection Approach forWireless Sensor Networks,”
World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology
56 2011.
[6] T. Simunic., L. Benini., and G. D. Micheli., “Energy- Efficient
battery Management,” Proceedings of IEEE INFOCOM 2000,
vol 2, pp. 396-403, March 2000.
[7] Amar Rasheed., Rabi Mahapatra., “An Energy-Efficient Hybrid
Data Collection Scheme in Wireless Sensor Networks,”
Proceeding IEEE 2007.ISSNIP 2007.
[8] Sumit Chaudhary., Neha Singh., AvinavPathak and A.K Vatsa.,
“Energy Efficient Techniques for Data aggregation and
collection in WSN,” International Journal of Computer Science,
Engineering and Applications (IJCSEA) Vol.2, No.4,
August 2012.
[9] Mohammad HosseinAnisi,. Abdul Hanan Abdullah.,
ShukorAbdRazak.,“Energy-Efficient Data Collection in
Wireless Sensor Networks,”Wireless Sensor Network, 2011,
3, 329-333. doi:10.4236/wsn.2011.310036 Published Online
October 2011.
 A Study on Energy Efficient Data Collection Approaches in Wireless Sensor Network

[10] Tao Shu., Marwan Krunz., and Sisi Liu., “Secure Data [13] G. Boone, “Reality mining: Browsing reality with sensor
Collection in Wireless Sensor Networks Using Randomized networks”, Sensors online, vol.21, no. 9, Sept 2004.
Dispersive Routes,” IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MOBILE [14] Fire information and rescue equipment [online](June,2008)
COMPUTING, VOL. 9, NO. 7, JULY 2010. [15] Deb, B., Bhatnagar, S., Nath and B., “Reinform: Reliable
[11] Ioannis Chatzigiannakis., Athanasios Kinalis., Sotiris Information Forwarding using multiple paths in sensor
Nikoletseas., “Sink Mobility Protocols for Data Collection in networks,” in IEEE International Conference on Local
Wireless Sensor Networks,” MobiWac’06, October 2, 2006, Computer Networks (LCN’03), 2003.
Torremolinos, Malaga, Spain.Copyright 2006 ACM
159593488X/06/0010.
[12] S. Lindsey and C. S. Ragjavemdra., “PEGASIS: Power-Efficient
gathering in Sensor Information Systems,” Proceeding of IEEE
ICC 2001, Vol. 3, pp. 1125-1130, June 2001.

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 259

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Centric Model Assessment

for Collaborative Data Mining
Suneet Kumar1, Arjunarora2, Sanjiv Kumar3 and Shobhit Agarwal4
1
Associate Professor, DIT, Dehradun
2
Assistant Professor, DIT, Dehradun
3
Graduate Engg. Trainer, L&T Infotech, Bangalore
4
System Engineer, Infosys Ltd. Hyderabad
e-mail: Suneetcit81@gmail.com, 2arjunarora06dit@gmail.com,
1
3
mr.san.kumar@gmail.com, 4shobhitagarwal077@gmail.com

Abstract—Data mining is the task of discovering
interesting patterns from large amounts of data. There are
many data mining tasks, such as classification, clustering,
association rule mining and sequential pattern mining.
Sequential pattern mining finds sets of data items that
occur together frequently in some sequences.
Collaborative data mining refers to a data mining
settingwhere different groups are geographically
dispersed butwork together on the same problem in a
collaborative way. Such a setting requires adequate
software support.Group work is widespread in education.
The goal is to enable the groups and their facilitators to
see relevant aspects of the group’s operation and provide
feedbacks if these are more likely to be associated with
positive or negative outcomes and where the problems are.
We explore how useful mirror information can be
extracted via a theory-driven approach and a range of
clustering and sequential pattern mining. In this paper we
describe an experiment with a simple implementation of
such a collaborative data mining environment. The
experiment brings to light several problems, one of which
is related to model assessment. We discuss several possible
solutions. This discussion can contribute to a better
understanding of how collaborative data mining is best
organized.
Keywords: Data Mining, Sequential Pattern Mining,
Collaborative data mining, Data Preparation.
I. INRODUCTION
Group work is commonplace in many aspects of
life, particularly in the workplace where there are many
situations which require small groups of people to
worktogether to achieve a goal. For example, a task that
requiresa complexcombination of skills may only be
possibleif a group of people,each offeringdifferent
skills,canwork together.To take justone other example,it
maybenecessarytodrawonthe combinedefforts ofa
grouptoachieve a task in the time available [1]. Many
different approaches to data mining exist. They have
arisen from different communities (databases, statistics,
machine learning. Thus, data mining nowadays is
performed by people with highly different backgrounds,
each of whom have their preferred techniques. Very
few people are experts in all these domains, so to get
the most out of a data mining process; ideally multiple
experts should work together on the same data mining
task.These observations provide motivation for the
developmentof a methodology for collaborative data
mining. Our
pointof departure is that groups with different
expertise who aregeographically distributed should be
able to collaborate on acertain problem, thus jointly
achieving better results thanany of them could
individually.In the context of theEuropean SolEuNet
project, ideas have evolved about whatfunctionality
such an environment should offer, resulting ina
proposal for a collaborative data mining methodology
andsupporting system called RAMSYS [3] and
animplementation using the groupware system Zeno
[2]. The paper is structured as follows. In Section 2 we
discussRAMSYS and Zeno. In Section 3 we describe
ourcollaborative data mining experiment and the
problemsencountered, and in Section 4 we propose and
comparepossible solution. Section 5 concludes.
II. DATA MINING IN COLLABORATIVE MANNER WITH
PROPOSED TECHNOLOGIES
We set our primary goal for the data mining as
providingmirroring tools that would be useful for
helping improvethe learning about group work. This
goal is realistic in thecontext of the highly complex and
variable nature of longterm, smallgroup activity,
especially wherethe learnersundertakea diverse rangeof
tasks, suchas creating asoftwaresystem for an authentic
client.Data mining is about solving problems by
analyzing dataalready present in databases [4]. Problem
solving can be codified and a procedure or
methodologycan be developed. There are one
methodology in data mining that is used for industrial
process we called Cross Industrial Standard Process for
Data Mining, CRISP-DM [5]. This technique is used to
reduce the data mining problems into six-related phases
of (i) Data Understanding (ii) Data Preparation
(iii) Business Understanding (iv) Modeling (v)
Assessment and (vi) Deployment. These phases,
although presented in a linearmanner, have many cycles
and feedback loops connecting the phases. Often, effort

260 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2


expended in one phase highlights the need for further
work in a prior, previously consideredcomplete, phase.
The Cross Industrial Standard Process for data
mining method is extended by RAMSYS technology in
the methodology for distributed teams who collaborate
in adata mining project.The aim is to combine the great
range of expertise available in the data miners to affect
morevaluable solutions to the data mining problem. The
RAMSYS methodology attempts to achieve the
combination of a problem solving methodology,
knowledgesharing, and ease of communication. It is
guided by the following principles [3]: it should enable
lightmanagement, it should allow collaborators to start
and stop any time and leave them problem solving
freedom, it should provide efficient knowledge sharing
and security. The RAMSYS efforts have focused on
supporting the Data Preparation and Modeling phase in
a remotecollaborative setting; here we focus on the
Assessment phase. There is the main requirement of the
RAMSYS scheme is the emphasizing and availability
of the current preeminent understanding [6] of the data
mining problem. This has been implemented using the
academic groupware platform Zeno [2], by providing
coordination, collaboration, communication and
awareness. The provisions of these features are
achieved by utilizing (new)features in Zeno including
task management, resourcemanagement, and discussion
sections. The RAMSYS methodology has been trialed
(in part or infull) on several data mining projects, one of
which is the SPA project described in the subsequently
section.
III. A PRACTICAL APPROACH WITH COLLABORATIVE
DATA MINING
There are numerous health farms, provide a number
of facilities that can be used by its visitors. More
specifically, upon their arrival visitors are prescribed
certainprocedures to follow during their stay at the spa,
as well as aschedule for them. The number of people
that cansimultaneously make use of certain facilities is
limited. Thus the spa is faced with a scheduling task:
given the procedures that newly arrived visitors need to
follow and the limited capacity of certain facilities,
create a suitableschedule. The “SPA problem” was
offered to the Sol Eu Netconglomerate by a health farm.
In practice there is insufficient information to solve
this scheduling task for the following reason. Visitors
stay for several weeks and a schedule for their whole
period of stayis made, but during their stay new visitors
will arrive. Whilesome information about these new
visitors is available inadvance (such as time of arrival,
age, sex …) the procedures they need to follow will be
known only at the time of their arrival. The best one can
do is to estimate the demand for the facilities for the
near future, and use theseestimates for producing
schedules for the current patients. It is here that data
mining comes in: by mining a data base of previous
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 261
Centric Model Assessment for Collaborative Data Mining
visitors and trying to link properties of thesevisitors to
the procedures they followed, predictive modelscould
be built that estimate the demand for certain
facilitiesbased on known properties of future visitors.
Thus the data mining task can concisely be
described as follows: given a set of visitor descriptions
that will arriveduring a certain week, estimate how
many of these visitorswill need to follow each of some
available procedures.
A. Data Mining Method in Collaborative Approach
Group work is used in this scenario, so we make 4
groups in college students. Those are described as: CSE
(Computer Science Engineering), ECE (Electronics
Communication Engineering), EE (Electrical
Engineering), ME (Mechanical Engineering). CSE
served as contact withthe end user (the health farm).
Following the RAMSYS methodology implies
following the CRISP-DM methodology, hence we here
briefly describe the efforts according to the different
phases Phase 1 (business understanding) involved
becoming familiar with the data mining problem, which
was done byall groups separately. During Phase 2 (data
understanding) several groups explored the data using
visualizationtechniques, association rule discovery, etc.
and publishedtheir results on Zeno. In Phase 3 (data
preparation) themain effort consisted of data
transformations. As theoriginal database consisted of
multiple tables, this involvedto some extent
computation of aggregate functions. Data
transformations were performed mainly using CSE’s
Sumatra TT tool [7].
Mainly we focus on Phases 4 and 5: modeling and
assessment. Concerning modeling, a wide variety of
approaches was taken by the different groups: support
vector machines (ECE), neural nets (ECE, EE),
linearregression (EE, ME), instance based learning (EE,
CSE), decision trees (EE, CSE, ME), etc. Besides the
different algorithms, approaches also differedin the
version of the data set that was used (these
versionsresulting from different data transformations).
There is an intense feedback from 5 to 4: based on
model assessment, data miners wish to change their
model building approach and go through Phases 4 and 5
once more. In the collaborative setting, the feedback
should not remain with in one group but flow to all
groups for which it is relevant.
B. Assessment of the Collaborative Data
Mining Process
In this Collaborative data mining, assessment is
ambiguous. The end-user found the results interesting
and useful [8].An awful thing is that the added value of
collaboration of different groups on this task was much
smaller than hoped. The most notable collaboration was
that the results of data transformations performed by
one group were used for modeling by another group.
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

This is inline with the kind of collaboration that one should have a kind of model assessment server to
RAMSYS promotes, but it is only a minimal version of whichgroups send the models they have produced, or
it. To achieve more intensive collaboration, several thepredictions produced by their models. When a
processesmust be made more efficient. The CRISP-DM groupdecides they are interested in some specific
process is iterative, consisting of many steps and cycles. criterion, theyshould be able to add the criterion to the
Ifcollaboration is to happen at the level of a single step, central assessmentserver and immediately see the scores
itneeds to happen very efficiently. To make this of all earliersubmitted models on these criteria. In the
possible, information exchange should be made more next section weexplore this direction further.
efficient and synchronization should be improved. The
information flow between groups was often hampered IV. CENTRIC ASSESSMENT APPROACH
because documentation of results was too concise, too
In our idea, data mining groups (“clients”) should
extensive, oreven both (groups being flooded with
information from colleagues without being able to find sendforecasts or even the models themselves to a
the most relevantinformation in there). As groups do “model assessment server”, which is responsible for the
assessmentof the prognostic model and automatically
not always have theright resources available at the right
time, it may take awhile before a group reacts to results publishes theresults.
from other groups. The solutions to these problems are
to be found both at the technical and management level
(e.g. defining strict formats for exchanged documents
so that relevant information iseasier to identify).
Second, process that needs to be made more
efficient is comparative assessment of models. In order
to comparedifferent models, they must be evaluated
according to thesame criteria. The original RAMSYS
methodology proposed to determine an assessment
criterion in advance so that each group can assess their
models according to thiscriterion. The SPA experiment
revealed several problems with this proposal. Firstly, it
may be difficult to propose agood assessment criterion
in advance, and the preferredassessment criteria may
change over time, because insight in what are good and
bad criteria typically develops during the knowledge
discovery process. E.g., in the SPA experiment, visual
data analysis revealed strong outliers. These turnedout
(after discussion with the end user) to be related
tunavailability of certain procedures due to maintenance
andwere therefore irrelevant, but they strongly
influencedcertain error criteria and needed to be left
out.
In other approach, one criterion may not be
sufficient. Differentcriteria measure different properties,
all of which may berelevant, see e.g. [9]. It is more
realistic to talk of a set ofcriteria, instead of a single
one. And finally, subtledifferences in the computation
of certain criteria, the data setfrom which they are
computed, the partitioning used for cross-validation can
make the comparison unreliable.
Due to the rate at which criteria may change, the
number of criteria, and the care that must be taken when
implementing them, it is unrealistic to expect that the
different groups will continuously use the right criteria.
An assessment scheme is needed in which criteria can
flexibly be changed or added and it is guaranteed that
every group uses exactly the sameversion of a criterion,
without too much overhead. Fig. 1: Overview of Centric Model Assessment for Collaborative
We suggest centralized model assessment. Instead Data Mining
ofhaving all different groups assess their own models,

262 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India


There are several levels of communication are
possible. An inductivesystem typically has a number of
parameters; for a given setof parameters values the
system implements a function I: 2X×C→ (X → C) that
maps a dataset (a subset of the universe of labeled
instances X×C with X the instanceuniverse and C the set
of target values) onto a function M (apredictive model)
that in turn maps single instances ontosome target
value. One has the option to submit theinductive
function I; the model M learnt from a given dataset T;
or a set of predictions for some data set S, P =
{(e,M(e))|e∈S}. In all cases the server should be able
toderive from the submission a score on one or
moreevaluation criteria, which we assume to be a
function (M,P). The original RAMSYS procedure
corresponds to afourth option, communicating s =
c(M,P).
A schematic overview of these options (in reverse
ordercompared to above) is given in Figure 1. It is
assumed thatI consist of a combination of a machine
learning tool andparameter settings, so Iis the result of
tuning the tool with the parameters. Using I a model M
is built from a trainingset, this M is used to predicted
labels for a test set S, fromthese predictions a score s is
computed using the evaluationcriterion c. In the case of
a cross-validation the process ismore complicated but
the same basic scheme is valid: different models Mare
then built from different trainingsets to produce one set
of predictions P.
In data mining, we describe a data set in a table, in
which various states are identified as following shown
table.
TABLE 1: CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT OPTIONS
States 1 2 3 4
Question difficulty L L M H
Efforts cost L H M M
Result availability L H H H
Comparability M H H H
Student transparency H M M L
Flexibility of assessment H M H H
Table 1 precise some characteristics of the four
options. In the table H, M and L refer to High,
Mediumand Low respectively. Question difficulty refers
to the questionsthat are needed for examination.
Options 3 and 4 impose the challenge of developing
relatively complexlanguages and interpreters for them
(e.g., when submitting amodel M the server needs to be
able to compute thepredictions M makes on some test
set).
Efforts cost is low when result just a score, high
whencommunicating a (possibly large) set of
predictions, andmedium when communicating
functions. Result availability refers to how fast the
scores of different models for a newcriterion are made
available to everyone. It is low forOption 1 (groups
need to implement the new criterionthemselves); for
other options new scores are automaticallycomputed as
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 263
Centric Model Assessment for Collaborative Data Mining
soon as a single implementation of the newcriterion is
available. Comparability reflects the trust in the
comparability of the results, which is higher when a
singleimplementation is used. Student transparency
refers to the overhead for the data mining groups when
some option isadopted. In Option 1 it is highest, in
Option 4 lowest because the user need only submit I
(induction system+parameters) and all testing is then
done automatically. In Options 2 and 3 the user needs to
implement e.g. cross validation according to given
folds. Finally flexibility of assessment is lowest for
Option 2 because here the criterioncannotinvolve the
modelitself (complexity, interpretability but only it
spredictions.
Option 1 is the current mode of operation with in
Sol Eu Net. Option 2 provides significant advantages
over Option 1 andis still easy to implement. Option 3
imposes the challenge that a good model description
language and an interpreter for it need to be available.
A reasonable choice for such alanguage would be
PMML [10], which is already being proposed as a
common language for representing models; it handles a
reasonable variety of types of models and thereexist
visualizes for them. If PMML is going to be used
anyway in a collaborative data mining system, an
interpreter for PMML models would be sufficient to
cater for a widerange of different model assessment
criteria.
Option 4 is the most powerful one but seems least
feasible. There are different suboptions: (4a) all model
building systems are translated into a single common
language; (4b) the central model assessment server has
the necessary interpreters for the different languages in
which inductive systems, data preprocessing systems,
etc. are programmed;(4c) the server has its own
versions of the inductive systems, and all that is actually
submitted is an identifier of the system to be used and a
list of parameters. Option 4c isquite feasible but has the
disadvantage that only the systems and versions
available at the server can be used.
In the short term, we believe the most realistic
improvement to RAMSYS corresponds to Option 2,
which is easy toimplement and presents a significant
improvement over the current mode of operation. In the
longer run, assuming that PMML is general enough to
describe any kind of model that could be submitted and
that interpreters are available, itseems desirable to shift
to Option 3.
Summarizing, centralized model evaluation
reducesworkload; increases confidence in comparisons
between systems; guaranteesavailability of all criteria
for all models; reduces the time needed to obtain scores
on newcriteria; and a dds flexibility w.r.t. defining new
criteria. All of these contribute to the added value that
collaborative data mining can have over the non-
collaborative approach.
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
V. CONCLUSION
We performed mining of data collected from students
working in teams and using a collaboration toolin a
one-semester. Our goalwas to support learning group
skills in the context of astandard state-of-the art tool.
Collaborative data mining, as promoted by and used
with in the Sol Eu Net project, is not a trivial enterprise.
In order forit to work well, a highly tuned supporting
environment is needed. An experiment with
collaborative data mining, following the RAMSYS
methodology as much as possible, indicated the need
for more efficient and flexible model evaluation. Our
answer to this is centric assessment model, of which we
have presented and compared several versions. The
conclusion is that significant improvements over the
approach used for SPA can easily be obtained, while
implementing an ideal system will need some more
work.
REFERENCES
[1] E. Salas, D.E. Sims, and C.S. Burke, "Is There a "Big Five" in
Teamwork?," Small Group Research, vol. 36, pp. 555-599,
2005.
[2] Gordon, T., Voß, A., Richter, G., Märker, O. (2001). Zeno:
Groupware for discourses on the internet. KünstlicheIntelligenz
15: 43–45.
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[3] Jorge, A., Moyle, S., Voß, A., and Richter, G. (2002). Remote
collaborative data mining through online knowledge sharing.
PRO-VE ’02, 3rdIFIP Working Conference onInfrastructures
for Virtual Enterprises, Portugal.
[4] Witten, I., Frank, E. (1999). Data mining: practical machine
learning tools and techniques with Java implementations.
Morgan Kaufman, San Francisco.
[5] Chapman, P., Clinton, J., Kerber, R., Khabaza, T., Reinartz, T.,
Shearer, C. and Wirth, R. (2000). CRISP-DM 1.0: stepby-step
data mining guide.
[6] Voß, A., Gärtner, T. & Moyle, S. (2001). Zeno for rapid
collaboration in data mining projects. In Proc. of the
ECML/PKDD-01 Workshop on Integration of Data Mining,
Decision Support and Meta-Learning, pp. 43–54.
[7] Aubrecht, P. &Kouba, Z. (2001). Metadata driven data
transformation. In Proc. of the 5th World Multi-Conference on
Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics.
[8] Stepankova, O., Lauryn, S., Aubrecht, P., Klema, J., Miksovsky,
P., Novakova, L., &Palous, J. (2002). Data mining for resource
allocation: a case study. Intelligent Methods for Quality
Improvement in Industrial Practice, 1.
[9] Köpf, C., Taylor, C., & Keller, J. (2001). Multi-criteria meta-
learning in regression. In Proc. of the ECML/PKDD-01
Workshop on Integration of Data Mining, Decision Support and
Meta-Learning.
[10] Wettschereck, D., & Müller, S. (2001). Exchanging data mining
models with the predictive modelling markup language. In Proc.
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Mining, Decision Support and MetaLearning, pp. 55–66.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Communication System and Network Security
K.B. Mohd1, Umar Ansari2 and Goldy Sharma3
M.Tech (Electrical Power & Energy Systems), Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering,
Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College, Ghaziabad, India
e-mai: 1mumar28@gmail.com, 2goldysharmaacet@gmail.com
Abstract—Network security is a complicated subject,
historically only tackled by well-trained and experienced
experts. However, as more and more people become
‘wired’, an increasing number of people need to
understand the basics of security in a networked world.
This document was written with the basic computer user
and information systems manager in mind, explaining the
concepts needed to read through the hype in the
marketplace and understand risks and how to deal with
them.
Some history of networking is included, as well as an
introduction to TCP/ IP and internet working. We go on
to consider risk management, network threats, firewalls,
and more special-purpose secure networking devices.
This is not intended to be a ‘frequently asked
questions’ reference, nor is it a ‘hands-on’ document
describing how to accomplish specific functionality.
The approaching 4G (fourth generation) mobile
communication systems are projected to solve still-
remaining problems of 3G (third generation) systems and
to provide a wide variety of new services, from high-
quality voice to high-definition video to high-data-rate
wireless channels. The term 4G is used broadly to include
several types of broadband wireless access communication
systems, not only cellular telephone systems. One of the
terms used to describe 4G is MAGIC—Mobile
multimedia, anytime anywhere, Global mobility support,
integrated wireless solution, and customized personal
service. As a promise for the future, 4G systems, that is,
cellular broadband wireless access systems have been
attracting much interest in the mobile communication
arena. The 4G systems not only will support the next
generation of mobile service, but also will support the
fixed wireless networks. This paper presents an overall
vision of the 4G features, framework, and integration of
mobile communication. The features of 4G systems might
be summarized with one
Keyworks: The 4G systems are about seamlessly
integrating terminals, networks, and applications to satisfy
increasing user demands. The continuous expansion of
mobile communication and wireless networks shows
evidence of exceptional growth in the areas of mobile
subscriber, wireless network access, mobile services, and
applications.
I. INTRODUCTION
Network security consists of the provisions made in
an underlying computer network infrastructure, policies
adopted by the network administrator to protect the
network and the network-accessible resources from
unauthorized access and consistent and continuous
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
monitoring and measurement of its effectiveness
(or lack) combined together.
A. Introduction to Networking
A basic understanding of computer networks is
requisite in order to understand the principles of
network security. In this section, we'll cover some of
the foundations of computer networking, then move on
to an overview of some popular networks. Following
that, we'll take a more in-depth look at TCP/ IP, the
network protocol suite that is used to run the Internet
and many intranets.
Once we've covered this, we'll go back and discuss
some of the threats that managers and administrators of
computer networks need to confront, and then some
tools that can be used to reduce the exposure to the risks
of network computing.
B. What is a Network?
A ‘network’ has been defined as ‘any set of
interlinking lines resembling a net, a network of roads ||
an interconnected system, a network of alliances.’ This
definition suits our purpose well: a computer network is
simply a system of interconnected computers. How
they're connected is irrelevant, and as we'll soon see,
there are a number of ways to do this.
C. The ISO/ OSI Reference Model
The International Standards Organization (ISO)
Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) Reference Model
defines seven layers of communications types, and the
interfaces among them. (See Figure 1.) Each layer
depends on the services provided by the layer below it,
all the way down to the physical network hardware,
such as the computer's network interface card, and the
wires that connect the cards together.
An easy way to look at this is to compare this
model with something we use daily: the telephone. In
order for you and I to talk when we're out of earshot, we
need a device like a telephone. (In the ISO/OSI model,
this is at the application layer.) The telephones, of
course, are useless unless they have the ability to
translate the sound into electronic pulses that can be
transferred over wire and back again. (These functions
are provided in layers below the application layer.)
Finally, we get down to the physical connection: both
must be plugged into an outlet that is connected to
265
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
a switch that's part of the telephone system's network
of switches.
If I place a call to you, I pick up the receiver, and
dial your number. This number specifies which central
office to which to send my request, and then which
phone from that central office to ring. Once you answer
the phone, we begin talking, and our session has begun.
Conceptually, computer networks function exactly the
same way.
It isn't important for you to memorize the ISO/OSI
Reference Model's layers; but it's useful to know that
they exist, and that each layer cannot work without the
services provided by the layer below it.
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Fig. 1: ISO Reference Model
II. WHAT IS NETWORK SECURITY?
The networks are computer networks, both public
and private, that are used every day to conduct
transactions and communications among businesses,
government agencies and individuals. The networks are
comprised of ‘nodes’, which are ‘client’ terminals
(individual user PCs) and one or more ‘servers’ and/or
‘host’ computers. They are linked by communication
systems, some of which might be private, such as
within a company, and others which might be open to
public access. The obvious example of a network
system that is open to public access is the Internet, but
many private networks also utilize publicly-accessible
communications. Today, most companies' host
computers can be accessed by their employees whether
in their offices over a private communications network,
or from their homes or hotel rooms while on the road
through normal telephone lines.
Network security involves all activities that
organizations, enterprises, and institutions undertake to
protect the value and ongoing usability of assets and the
integrity and continuity of operations. An effective
266 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
network security strategy requires identifying threats
and then choosing the most effective set of tools to
combat them.
A. Comparison with Information Security
The terms network security and information
security are often used interchangeably, however
network security is generally taken as providing
protection at the boundaries of an organization, keeping
the bad guys (e.g. hackers, script kiddies, etc.) out.
Network security systems today are mostly effective, so
the focus has shifted to protecting resources from attack
or simple mistakes by people inside the organization,
e.g. with Digital Leak Protection (DLP). One response
to this insider threat in network security is to
compartmentalize large networks, so that an employee
would have to cross an internal boundary and be
authenticated when they try to access privileged
information. Information security is explicitly
concerned with all aspects of protecting information
resources, including network security and DLP.
B. Network Security Concepts
Network security starts from authenticating any
user, most likely a username and a password. Once
authenticated, a stateful firewall enforces access
policies such as what services are allowed to be
accessed by the network users. Though effective to
prevent unauthorized access, this component fails to
check potentially harmful contents such as computer
worms being transmitted over the network. An intrusion
prevention system (IPS) helps detect and prevent such
malware. IPS also monitors for suspicious network
traffic for contents, volume and anomalies to protect the
network from attacks such as denial of service.
Communication between two hosts using the network
could be encrypted to maintain privacy. Individual
events occurring on the network could be tracked for
audit purposes and for a later high level analysis.
Honey pots, essentially decoy network-accessible
resources, could be deployed in a network as
surveillance and early-warning tools. Techniques used
by the attackers that attempt to compromise these decoy
resources are studied during and after an attack to keep
an eye on new exploitation techniques. Such analysis
could be used to further tighten security of the actual
network being protected by the honey pot.
A useful summary of standard concepts and
methods in network security is given by in the form of
an extensible ontology of network security attacks.
1) Threats to network security include
Viruses: Computer programs written by devious
programmers and designed to replicate themselves and
infect computers when triggered by a specific event.
 Communication System and Network Security

Trojan horse programs: Delivery vehicles for III. COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

destructive code, which appear to be harmless or useful
In telecommunication, a communications system is
software programs such as games.
a collection of individual communications
Vandals: Software applications or applets that
networks,transmission systems, relay stations, tributary
cause destruction.
stations, and data terminal equipment (DTE) usually
Attacks: Including reconnaissance attacks
capable of interconnection and interoperation to form
(information-gathering activities to collect data that is
an integrated whole. The components of a
later used to compromise networks); access attacks
communications system serve a common purpose, are
(which exploit network vulnerabilities in order to gain
technically compatible, use common procedures,
entry to e-mail, databases, or the corporate network);
respond to controls, and operate in unison.
and denial-of-service attacks (which prevent access to
Telecommunications is a method of communication
part or all of a computer system).
(e.g., for sports broadcasting, mass media, journalism,
Data interception: Involves eavesdropping on
etc.). A communications subsystem is a functional unit
communications or altering data packets being
or operational assembly that is smaller than the larger
transmitted.
assembly under consideration.
Social engineering: Obtaining confidential network
security information through nontechnical means, such A. Examples
as posing as a technical support person and asking for
people's passwords. An optical communication system is any form of
telecommunication that uses light as the transmission
2) Network security tools include medium. Equipment consists of a transmitter, which
encodes a message into an optical signal, achannel,
Antivirus software packages: These packages
which carries the signal to its destination, and a
counter most virus threats if regularly updated and
receiver, which reproduces the message from the
correctly maintained.
received optical signal. Fiber-optic communication
Secure network infrastructure: Switches and
systems transmit information from one place to another
routers have hardware and software features that
by sending light through an optical fiber. The light
support secure connectivity, perimeter security,
forms an electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated
intrusion protection, identity services, and security
to carry information.
management.
A radio communication system is composed of
Dedicated network security hardware and software-
several communications subsystems that give exterior
Tools such as firewalls and intrusion detection systems
communications capabilities. A radio communication
provide protection for all areas of the network and
system comprises a transmitting conductor[4] in which
enable secure connections.
electrical oscillations or currents are produced and
Virtual private networks: These networks provide
which is arranged to cause such currents or oscillations
access control and data encryption between two
to be propagated through the free space medium from
different computers on a network. This allows remote
one point to another remote therefrom and a receiving
workers to connect to the network without the risk of a
conductor at such distant point adapted to be excited by
hacker or thief intercepting data.
the oscillations or currents propagated from the
Identity services: These services help to identify
transmitter. Power line communication systems operate
users and control their activities and transactions on the
by impressing a modulated carrier signal on power
network. Services include passwords, digital
wires. Different types of powerline communications use
certificates, and digital authentication keys.
different frequency bands, depending on the signal
Encryption: Encryption ensures that messages
transmission characteristics of the power wiring used.
cannot be intercepted or read by anyone other than the
Since the power wiring system was originally intended
authorized recipient.
for transmission of AC power, the power wire circuits
Security management: This is the glue that holds
have only a limited ability to carry higher frequencies.
together the other building blocks of a strong security
The propagation problem is a limiting factor for each
solution.
type of power line communications.
C. Security Management A duplex communication system is a system
composed of two connected parties or devices which
Security Management for networks is different for can communicate with one another in both directions.
all kinds of situations. A small home or an office would The term duplex is used when describing
only require basic security while large businesses will communication between two parties or devices. Duplex
require high maintenance and advanced software and systems are employed in nearly all communications
hardware to prevent malicious attacks from hacking and networks, either to allow for a communication ‘two-
spamming. way street’ between two connected parties or to provide

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 267

Proceedingss of National Co
onference on Tre
ends in Signal Processing
P & Co
ommunication (TSPC’13) 12th–
–14th April 2013
3

a ‘reversee path’ for the monitooring and reemote association of a large quantiity of inform mation, and
adjustmentt of equipmennt in the field. imprroved personnalization. Convergence with other
Exampples of comm munications suubsystems innclude netw
work (enterpriise, fixed) seervices will come
c about
the Defensse Communicaations System (DCS). throuugh the high session
s data rrate. Machine--to-machine
A taactical com mmunications system is a transsmission will involve two basic equipm ment types:
communicaations system m that (a) is usedu within, or in senso ors (which measure
m arametters) and tagss (which are
i designed to meet
direct suppport of, tacticaal forces, (b) is geneerally read/wrrite equipmennt). It is exp pected that
the requireements of chhanging tacticcal situationss and userss will requiree high data raates, similar to
t those on
varying environmentaal conditions, (c) proovides fixedd networks, for
f data and streaming applications.
a
securable communicatioons, such ass voice, data,, and Mob bile terminal usage (lapptops, Person nal digital
video, amoong mobile usersu to facilittate commandd and assisstants, handheelds) is expeccted to grow w rapidly as
control witthin, and in suupport of, tacttical forces, annd (d) they become morre users frienndly. Fluid high h quality
usually reequires extrem mely short installation
i t
times, video o and netw work creactiviity are impo ortant user
usually onn the order of o hours, in ordero to meeet the requ
uirements. Keey infrastructuure design reequirements
requiremennts of frequentt relocation. inclu
ude: fast respoonse, high sesssion rate, hig
gh capacity,
An Emergency
E coommunicationn system is any low user chargees, rapid retuurn on inveestment for
system (typpically compuuter based) thhat is organizeed for operrators, investm
ment that is inn line with thee growth in
the primaary purpose of supportinng the two way demaand, and simpple autonomouus terminals.
communicaation of emerrgency messaages between both As a compariison, the expeected best perfformance of
individualss and groups of individuaals. These sysstems 3G is around 10 1 bit/s/Hz/kkm2 using High H Speed
are comm monly designned to inteegrate the cross- c Dowwnlink Packet Access (H HSDPA), Mu ultiple-Input
communicaation of messsages between are varietty of Multtiple-Output (MIMO),
( etc. No current technology is
communicaation technoloogies. capaable of such peerformance.
A. Key 4G Technnologies
IV. COM
MMUNICATIO
ON
Some of the key technologies required for 4G are
brieffly described below:
b

V. OFDM
MA
Orthogonal Frequency Division MultiplexingM
(OFD DM) not onnly provides clear advaantages for
physsical layer performance, buut also a fram mework for
imprroving layer 2 performaance by pro oposing an
addittional degreee of free-dom m. Using OD DFM, it is
possible to exploiit the time doomain, the spaace domain,
the frequency doomain and evven the code domain to
optimmize radio chhannel usage.. It ensures very v robust
Fig. 2 transsmission in multi-path
m envvironments with
w reduced
receiiver complexiity. As shown in Figure 3, the t signal is
split into orthogonal subcarrierrs, on each off which the
signaal is ‘narrow wband’ (a feew kHz) and d therefore
immmune to multi-ppath effects, pprovided a gu uard interval
is in
nserted betweeen each OFD DM symbol. OFDMO also
provvides a frequuency diversity gain, imp proving the
physsical layer perrformance. It is also comp patible with
otherr enhancemennt technologies, such as smaart antennas
and MIMO. OFD DM modulatioon can also bee employed
as a multiple acceess technologyy (Orthogonall Frequency
Division Multiplee Access; OFD DMA). In thiss case, each
OFD DM symbol caan transmit infformation to/fr from several
Fig. 3 userss using a diffferent set of suubcarriers (su
ubchannels).
This not only provvides additionnal flexibility for
f resource
The evolution from m 3G to 4G will be driveen by
alloccation (increaasing the cappacity), but also enables
services thhat offer betterr quality (e.g.. video and soound)
thanks to greater
g bandw width, more soophistication in i the crosss-layer optimiization of radiio link usage.

268 ‹ Bhag
gwant Institute of
o Technology, Muzaffarnagar,
M Uttar Pradesh, India
 Co
ommunication S
System and Netw
work Security

VI. CONCLU
USION

As the historry of mobile communicatiions shows,

Fig. 4
B. Coverage
From 1 to 20 bit/s/Hz/km,
b while Pico cell
technologyy can achieve from 100 to 500 Bit/s/Hz//km?,
depending on the compplexity of the terminal harddware
and softwaare. These perrformances onnly refer to ouutdoor
coverage; not all the issues associated with inndoor
coverage have
h yet beeen resolved. However, inndoor
coverage can
c be obtaineed by: Coveraage is achieveed by
adding new w technologies (possibly in overlay mode) m
and progreessively enhanncing densityy. Take a WiM MAX
deploymennt, for exampple: first the parent
p coveraage is
deployed; it is thenn made deenser by addding
discontinuoous Pico cellls, after whicch the Pico cell c is
made densser but still diiscontinuouslyy. Finally the Pico
cell coveraage is made coontinuous eithher by using MIMO
M
or by depploying anothher Pico celll Coverage in a
different frrequency bandd. Parent coverage perform mance
may vary:
• Direct
D penetrattion; this is onnly possible inn low
frrequency bandds (significanttly Below 1 GHz) G
annd requires ann excess of power,
p whichh may
raaise significannt Interference issues.
• Inndoor short range r radio connected too the
fixxed network.
• Connection
C viaa a relay to a Pico
P cellular access
a
pooint.
mpts have been made too reduce a number of
attem
technnologies to a single globall standard. Prrojected 4G
systeems offer this promise off a standard that t can be
embrraced worldw wide throughh its key concept
c of
integ
gration. Futurre wireless networks wiill need to
suppport diverse IP I multimediia application ns to allow
shariing of resourcces among muultiple users. There must
be a low complexxity of implem mentation and an efficient
mean ns of negotiaation betweenn the end useers and the
wireless infrastruccture. The fouurth generatio
on promises
to fulfill
fu the goaal of PCC (ppersonal com mputing and
comm munication) a vision that aaffordably pro ovides high
data rates everywhhere over a wiireless networrk.
The provisionn of megabit/s data rates too thousands
of radio and moobile terminalls per squaree kilometer
preseents several chhallenges. Thee key enablerss are:
• Sufficiennt spectrum, with associatted sharing
mechanissms.
• Coveragee with two teechnologies: parentp (2G,
3G, and WiMAX) forr real-time deelivery, and
discontinnuous Pico ccell for high h data rate
delivery.
• Fixed-moobile convergeence (for indo oor service).
• Network selection mecchanisms.
REFERENC
CES
[1] Wright, Joe; Jiim Harmening (2009) "15" ComputerC and
Information Secuurity Handbook M Morgan Kaufman nn Publications
Elsevier Inc p. 2557
[2] Simmonds, A; Sandilands, P; van Ekert, L (2004). "An
Ontology for Network
N Securityy Attacks". Lectture Notes in
Computer Science. Lecture Notees in Computer Science 3285:
317–323.
[3] "Introduction too Network Securrity". Interhack.nnet. Retrieved
2011-12-09.
[4] Hansell, Clarencce W., U.S. Patennt 2,389,432, "C
Communication
system by pulsess through the Eartth".

agwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar,, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 269

Bha
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Benefits of Hybrid Hosting

over Conventional Hosting
Azeem Haider Amrohi1 and Ashwani Kumar2
1
Department of Computer Science & Engineering,
IEC College of Engineering & Technology, Mahamaya Technical University, Uttar Pradesh–201306, India
2
Department of Information Technology,
IEC College of Engineering & Technology, Mahamaya Technical University, Uttar Pradesh–201306, India
e-mail: 1azeem_naqvi@yahoo.com, 2ashwani_1179@gmail.com

Abstract—Today organizations are performing most
of the work with the help of computers and internet.
Online application multiplies the business of the
organization with automation and accuracy. Cloud
provides the solution of nonstop working of the systems
and application around the world and around the clock.
Organizations choose cloud as because it is very helpful in
fast deployment of the application, secure access and
without much more costing on computing environment.
With the use of hybrid hosting organizations can take
benefits of public and private cloud and get and scalable
and elastic infrastructure for their dynamic modern
applications. Customer can choose the deployment model
according to their requirement and according to their
budget.
Keywords: Hybrid Hosting, Conventional Hosting,
Benefits of Hybrid Hosting / Cloud
I. INTRODUCTION
Cloud computing is very hot buzz today. The
number of industries using cloud is increasing day by
day. Cloud computing basically came from
telecommunication companies when the virtual private
network (VPN) technologies and services were
developed to provide security and lower cost in 1990s.
The cloud symbol was first introduced to delimit the
function or area between the provider and the users.
Later, the cloud extends this boundary and covers the
computing services and network infrastructure. In 1997
Chellappa first used the term “Cloud Computing” on
the INFORMS.
The main concerned of cloud computing is the
sharing and coordinated use of diverse resources in
distributed organizations cloud, which is consisted of
different, organizations and systems. Through this
technology organization large-scale controlled sharing
and interoperation among resources that are dispersedly
owned and managed. We can build scalable cloud
infrastructure in multiple data centers using dedicated
and cloud servers with elasticity load balancing and
cloud storage with the total control through automation
and self service. With the use of cloud organization can
add consistency reliability efficiency load balancing
features to their infrastructure. No doubt security is a
major Challenge in any cloud computing infrastructure,
because it is necessary to ensure that only authorized
access is permitted and secure behavior is accepted. [2].
04 (Four) Deployment models are available in the
cloud environment. Customer can choose any model
depending upon their requirement and budget
A. Private Cloud
1. The entire cloud based infrastructure is used
only for one customer. This is a type of Cloud
hosting that is usually chosen and managed by
an enterprise. In private cloud the entire cluster
of Cloud servers is leased by the enterprise,
which can be managed by them or the host
depending on a case to case basis.
2. This is a perfect solution for businesses who
wishes to use the infrastructure for carrying out
companies internal operations. This type of
Cloud can be considered to be most secure
amongst others as there is no outsider using the
cluster.
3. The enterprises can prefer to manage the
cluster on their own, where the hardware
management part can be taken care by the host.
Hence this type of solution is charged higher
where the enterprise is charged for the hosting,
server, security, power, cooling and other
hardware. Hence, only a large company or an
enterprise can afford this type of offering.
4. Strict control and compliance can be achieved
with a private cloud and the risks incurred due
to third parties can be greatly reduced.
5. Scalability being the core features of Cloud
can be achieved in this type of solution as well.
B. Public Cloud
1. The cloud infrastructure is for general public
or a large industry group
2. In public cloud website, files, applications,
data etc. are stored over the infrastructure
offered by a hosting provider. The host would
charge from customer for using their resources
which may usually be in two modes i.e. fixed

270 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2


monthly scheme similar to all other plans or
pay-per-use model. [5].
3. In public cloud customer not required to pay
an upfront cost for the hardware used.
The essential software’s are usually
pre-installed and are included with the package
4. With a managed Public Cloud, users tend to
enjoy multiple benefits such as on-demand
technical support, expert guidance, security of
our data, flexibility to upgrade or downgrade.
5. Customer gets to avail the incomparable
features such as scalability and reliability.
Few hosting providers would also offer
customer choices between the technologies
used over the cloud for example VMware
Hosting or Hyper Cloud.
C. Community Cloud
Several customers share the cloud infrastructure
and it supports a specific community with the same
concerns (e.g., resources and security requirements,
policy and compliance considerations, etc). [1].
D. Hybrid Cloud
1. Public and Private Cloud solves the
requirement for both Internal as well as
External solutions. But what if someone
wishes to use both the types to suffice the
requirements of a business? This can be
achieved by opting for a Hybrid Cloud wherein
some part of the information can be kept on a
private Cloud while information with the least
priority can be maintained over the public
cloud. [6].
2. Most Hybrid Cloud solutions make use of
virtual front end servers and physical database
servers.
3. Virtualization techniques can be implemented
over the existing infrastructure for reducing the
costs and increasing the reliability.[8]
4. The designing, implementation and
management of the virtual network over the
existing infrastructure needs to be taken care
by the enterprise, while having a public cloud
from a provider can reduce your costs over
employment of trained labor.
When choosing the best type of solution, we must
identify the requirement of the extent of control we
wish to have over our data. If we wish to keep
everything on a private network, we may opt for a
Private Cloud. But if we wish to keep your expenses
low, choosing a Public Cloud can best suffice our
requirements. Moreover, if we are too low on budget
and have a limited size of data yet wish to host our files
over a cloud, a Shared Cloud can be a perfect choice to
suffice the requirements.
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 271
Benefits of Hybrid Hosting over Conventional Hosting
II. BENEFIT OF HYBRID HOSTING
OVER CONVENTIONAL HOSTING
A. Meet Customer Demand without Capital
Expenditure
This is the one of the most important benefit of the
hybrid cloud computing environment as capability and
resources can be paid according to the usage of the
resources and facilities. Therefore, capital costs are
reduced and replaced by manageable, scalable operating
expenses. Support and maintenance cost reduced, as the
support and maintenance services provided by the cloud
provider. The cost of highly trained and expensive IT
personnel is also minimized. Ultimately customer can
reduce the large investment in computing infrastructure,
capital cost, support and maintenance cost, trained IT
personnel through using cloud computing as a tool.
In case of conventional hosting we have to incur
capital expenditure on the infrastructure needed for the
development as a result support and maintenance cost
also increased. Also highly trained and expensive IT
personnel are increased with the expansion of the
infrastructure. [6].
B. Custom Networking or Appliance Solutions
Hybrid hosting provides a Colocate a security,
mail, or transcoding appliance, and connects to the
cloud via a secure private network. With the use of
hybrid hosting we can save our cost which we have to
incur in case of conventional hosting.
C. Low Risk to our Business Application & Data
With the use of hybrid hosting user can make their
data and application which are running online more
reliable and accessible as and when needed. The hybrid
environment provides a secure way to today’s
organization that are running online application and
earning because of their application. Data is also very
important for the organization. Hybrid hosting provides
an environment in which our data is secure from the
risk of the data lost in case of failure of dedicated
server. Similarly applications will continuously working
even in case of failure of dedicated server. Dynamic
load balancing is also very important feature of hybrid
hosting.
In case of conventional hosting if the dedicated
server is down due to any reason the applications rely
on that particular server are stop. Data might not
recover in case of dangerous fault with the server such
as hard disk crash of the server. These risk covers
completely with the use of hybrid hosting.
D. Hardware Customization and Compliance
A major benefit of cloud computing is the
flexibility that is provided by the following:
1. Freedom from concerns about updating
servers.
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
2. Freedom from having to install software
patches for updating.
3. Automated provisioning of new services and
technologies.
4. Acquiring increased resources on an as-needed
basis.
5. Ability to focus on innovation instead of
maintenance details.
6. Device independence.
Cloud service provide offer a choice among a
number of computing and storage resource
configurations at different capabilities and costs, and
the cloud customer will have to adjust his or her
requirements to fit one of those models. Resiliency can
be achieved with the availability of multiple redundant
resources and locations.
Such choices and flexibilities are not possible in
case of conventional hosting.
E. Disaster Recovery
Disaster recovery in case of conventional hosting is
not powerful as in case of hybrid hosting. In case of
Hybrid Hosting there are compliance issues, a dedicated
server, or colocation environment can be created to
store data. And if certain conditions arise that leads to
disaster the data will be replicated to a secondary data
center. The ultimate user of the information not
acknowledges that there is some problem with the
original infrastructure. Disaster recovery and business
continuity planning techniques are employed by the
cloud provider in comparison to the local computer
environment of an organization. Cloud provider
employs more dynamic and skilled computer personnel
who are master in the disaster recovery process. As the
cloud serves to many client at the same time and
resources are used by so many users at the same time
hence cloud provider adopt more advance technique
and skills to handle disaster recovery.[3]
F. Scalability
With the Hybrid hosting we can take benefit of
both public and private cloud. The scope of scalability
is wider in case of hybrid hosing in cloud environment.
Cloud computing provides the solution according to the
scale of the organization or customers. The usage of
cloud can be decreased or increased according to the
user requirement on demand basis. The cloud provider
provides facility of scalability to the organizations as
they can expand or decrease their infrastructure
according to their requirement. All expansion and
decrease in the cloud usage may be according to their
(customer/ end user) requirement. Because the cloud
provider operates on a utility model, the client
organization has to pay only for the resources it is using
at the time. Cloud scalability provides for remote
optimization so that computing resources are organized
for maximum cost-benefit.
272 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
Scalability is also possible with the conventional
hosting with the limited scope. [4]
G. Flexibility
Hybrid hosting offers a great deal of flexibility
which is essential for today’s business world as
information technology needs are always changing and
evolving which requires changes in infrastructure. A
hybrid hosting plan is an effective solution as it offers a
simple streamlined data migration process that quickly
delivers quality ensuring that there is no loss of
productivity.
When using a hybrid solution, users can use the
cloud platform to develop and test which makes the
process of development much easier and more efficient.
Resources are available on-demand and on a pay-per-
use basis. In addition, if there are compliance issues, a
dedicated server, or colocation environment can be
created to store data. And if there is a disaster within the
infrastructure, information will be replicated to a
secondary data center to guarantee the security of data,
programs, and applications. These flexibilities are not
achievable with the conventional hosting. [10]
H. Better Data Security with Backups
Security measures adopted by cloud vendors are
very strict. These vendors serve a number of clients and
are capable of dealing with frequent security upgrades
and patches needed for the cloud security. In most
cases, backups of self-hosted solutions are performed
once a day. Data could be lost if a piece of hardware
fails and the most recent backup is close to 24 hours
old. Cloud computing providers ensures that very little
data will be lost if a hardware failure occurs because
backups are performed frequently. In some cases,
backups are performed in real-time. [8]
I. Quicker Deployment
Cloud computing can shorten deployment time for
business applications. Instead of the months it can take
with traditional setups, it can become a matter of weeks.
Having the infrastructure already in place means an
application will go live much quicker. Ultimately, cloud
computing will become a way of life for many
businesses. More and more companies are adopting
remote solutions for their enterprise applications.
Only Hybrid hosting with service provider allows
us to easily deploy dedicated servers to our cloud or
connect custom dedicated servers to our cloud
computing infrastructure for increased performance and
flexibility. [9]
J. No Maintenance
Ongoing software updates and security patches are
one of the most expensive aspects of a traditional in-
house server setup. Skilled IT personnel to manage
ongoing server maintenance also lead to increase in

maintenance cost. In contrast, with cloud computing
services such as take care of all maintenance
requirements, upgrades and patches, are done by the
cloud service provider.
K. Access to Data is Convenient and Continuous
Every business needs continuous, convenient
access to its data. With cloud computing, no matter
where a user is located or what time it is, if there's an
Internet connection the user will have instant access to
the company's data. [10]
III. CONCLUSION
Cloud computing helps the modern organization to
run their application with minimum chance of failure.
With the help of cloud customer can deploy their
application in very short time frame but there are risk
associated with it also. With the use of Hybrid Hosting
in a cloud environment modern organizations take
benefits of both Private and Public cloud. For non stop
working of the application over the internet hybrid
plays a very important role. With the use of Hybrid
Hosting we can secure our data and application even if
our dedicated server is down due to any reason.
Infrastructure cost and maintenance cost also reduced
due Hybrid hosting makes the availability criteria of the
data and the application wider. Performance also
increases with the use of hybrid hosting as the data is
stored over the dedicated servers and the cloud server.
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 273
Benefits of Hybrid Hosting over Conventional Hosting
Load balancing is also an effective feature of the hybrid
cloud. The data can be easily recovered even if our
dedicated application and DBMS server is down due to
any reason. In short we can say hybrid hosting has so
many benefits over the conventional hosting.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to express their cordial
thanks to Dr. Kazim Naqvi (System Analyst at Jamia
Millia Islamia, University, India) & Mr. Mujahid
Mashir CEO Bitinbit Technologies (India) for their
valuable advice and support to design architecture for
Hybrid Hosting.
REFERENCES
[1] IJCSNS International Journal of Computer Science and Network
Security, VOL.11 No.5, May 2011.
[2] NIST Special Publication 800-27 Rev A.
[3] IJCSNS International Journal of Computer 224 Science and
Network Security, VOL.11 No.1, May 2011.
[4] International Journal of Computer Networks (IJCN), Volume (3)
: Issue (5) : 2011.
[5] International Journal of Computer Science and Security (IJCSS),
Volume (5) : Issue (4) : 2011.
[6] www.gogrid.com/cloud-hosting/hybrid-hosting.php
[7] Journal of Service Science-2010 Volunte 3, Number 1.
[8] Communications of the ac m | April 2010 | vol. 53 | no. 4.
[9] P. Mell. T. Rrance “ The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing
(Draft)”, NIST Jan 2011.
[10] Ronald L. Krutz, Russell Dean Vines-Cloud Security A
Comprehensive Guide to Secure Cloud Computing 2010.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Tailoring RUP Use—Cases
and Scope to Three Case Studies
Kirti Mathur1, Harish Kumar2 and Ashwini Mathur3
1,2
Research Scholar Bhagwant University, Ajmer, BGI, New Delhi, India
3
Rajasthan University Jaipur, India
e-mail: kirti1369@gmail.com, 2hc78@rediffmail.com, 3xansa01@yahoo.com
1
Abstract—Since software’s are developed for every
small or big organization. Also with software development
tasks becoming easy and simple, software is now being
used widely in every field, and with its usage people are
getting benefits too. In this paper we are comparing three
different projects where RUP (Rational Unified Process) is
being used as a software development process. Case 1
depicts a project in which a software is developed for
hospital (Outpatient Department). Outpatient department
is the first place where patient steps in for treatment, and
then after consulting to patient doctor decides whether
patient should be admitted to hospital or not. Case 2
presents a project which is developed for tracking missing
cell phones. In this project cells are traced using their
IMEI number and Case 3 discusses a project which is
developed for a businessman consisting of a website,
developed for purchasing fresh vegetable and fruits online
and does home delivery. For developing these software
RUP (Rational Unified Process) is being used as a software
development process due to its core principles i.e.
architecture centric, and use case driven. Provides model
for user documentation and is an iterative and
incremental process model. RUP defines many artifacts
and roles which are very useful while developing software.
In our team no one had a thorough knowledge of using
RUP, but some had read literature and others have a
rough knowledge of RUP, gained while doing some
projects where RUP was used. In all these three cases RUP
was used effectively for software development. In this
paper all the three cases are compared and discussed how
RUP is tailored in all these three projects using UML
diagrams. All the three projects are developed for
different clients and for different purposes, it is been
shown in this paper how best, efficiently RUP can be used
to develop designs of different projects and how it is
tailored to achieve the projects requirements of developers
as well as customer for communication and other legal
requirements.
Keywords: RUP (Rational Unified Process); OPD
(Outpatient Department); UML (Unified Modeling
Language); IMEI (International Mobile Equipment
Identity).
I. INTRODUCTION
In this paper three different projects are discussed.
Case 1 is developed for OPD in hospital. The hospital is
very popular and contains 150 beds, due to some
privacy reason its name is not disclosed. Nowadays
274
hospital management is also considered very important
aspect which should be handled by hospital
administration, hospital management includes
management of all departments in hospital. In this paper
the department discussed is outpatient department. In
any hospital the outpatient facilities provide the linkage
of the hospital with the patients/ community. Outpatient
service has wide scope in providing medical services on
scheduled and unscheduled basis (Francis 1991).
Outpatient Department (OPD) is defined as a part of the
hospital with allotted physical, medical facilities, their
staff in sufficient numbers with regular scheduled hours
to provide care for patients who are not registered as
inpatient (Ross 1985). OPD is definitely a superb
service, facilitating doctors and patients. Improving it
by adding some advance technology or for making it
work more smoothly software is developed which will
help saving patient’s time and providing good service to
patient by facilitating doctor sitting inside to keep track
of patient queue waiting outside. In present scenario
doctor’s were unable to find the exact number of patient
waiting in queue for their turn. This software is a
desktop application in which the doctor’s assistant
enters the name of the patient who has came to visit him
and doctor has the list of people who are waiting for
their turn, when the patient has visited doctor its name
is removed from the list and the list refreshes after
every 5 minutes to have recent entry. Case 2 depicts a
project which is developed for a detective firm whose
name is also not disclosed. In this project a software is
developed which is used for tracking cell phones which
are lost with the help of the lost cell phones IMEI
number which is unique for each mobile. In this project
a software is developed in which details of the owner is
noted and their IMEI number is also noted and with the
help of IMEI number mobiles are traced and if found
then with the help of details noted cells are refunded to
their owners. Case 3 reveals a project which is a web
application developed for a business man. This website
is developed for online shopping of fresh fruits and
vegetables. With the help of this website, customers can
purchase fresh vegetables and fruits online and pay
payment online and then the stuff purchased is
delivered to their respective homes. The process model
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2

used for developing all the three projects is RUP. RUP
is a disciplined, iterative approach used to assign task
and responsibilities to software development team. Uses
UML (Unified Modeling Language) for visualizing
model. Different UML diagrams are required in all this
cases to explain the projects to their entirety. The RUP
is an adaptable process framework that is architecture-
centric and risk-driven. In RUP, software engineering
processes are organized into phases and iterations [1].
A. Case 1
Outpatient department is nowadays present in
almost every hospital, it is a very good initiative by
hospitals as it is also very beneficial to patient also,
OPD allow patients to take treatment by good doctors
without being admitting in hospital. OPD optimizes the
resources and is an outstanding service for effective
health care as patient get treated well without paying
any hospital charges for bed and other services, doctor
get full support from hospital administration and inner
department, they can send patient to surgeon if
necessary which are available inside hospital. Patient
also need not to stay hospital for days or weeks, they
can go to home after the doctor consultation and get
proper care at their homes as per doctor advices.
For OPD we developed an desktop application for
doctors sitting at OPD for knowing the number of
patients waiting outside for their turn, so that doctors
can arrange their schedule accordingly and if there are
many patients waiting outside for treatment they can
ask for some more doctor to come to OPD for handling
patients from hospital administration, so that every
patient can be consulted without overloading a single
doctor and patient also do not have to waste time by
sitting in queue and waiting for their turn. This software
helps patient saving their time by doctor getting the list
of patient waiting and by doctor taking appropriate
action.
The organization which developed this software is
a medium sized organization consisting of 50 people.
The organization name is not disclosed due to some
reason, organization has developed many projects for
public and private sector. Mainly project developed
belong to public sector like for police and hospital. This
project was developed by developing team consisting of
15 people including project leader, tester and
developers. Technology being used was PHP. Software
process model used was RUP. RUP is a software
engineering process used to develop software. It is an
iterative software development process framework
based on UML. No RUP mentor was appointed for
training. Some team members has RUP knowledge due
to reading literature and some has worked on project
using RUP before. UML (Unified Modeling Language)
diagrams were used for creating or visualizing models.
UML (Unified Modeling Language) is a standardized
general purpose modeling language in field of software
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 275
Tailoring RUP Use—Cases and Scope to Three Case Studies
engineering [2].The UML diagrams used are described
in next section.
B. Benefits of This Project
1) Benefits to doctor
This project really proved a boon for doctor, they
can now well manage their patients within the time
limit decided by them, as by knowing the number of
patients waiting for their turn. Doctor can decide his
schedule accordingly and by knowing the name of
patient doctor can manage its time by knowing how
much time the patient needs if the patient is a old
patient i.e. the patient that comes for regular checkup
and if that patient need to refer to a surgeon or to any
other department for any test than doctor can send the
patient to other department without wasting much of
patient’s time in waiting. Doctors get opportunity to
tackle different cases which increases their experience
and helps in diversifying their practice.
2) Benefits to patients
It was also beneficial for patient as if the queue is
long they can ask doctor assistant will their number will
come today or not and by seeing the name of patients
waiting doctor can give an estimation that after how
much time their number will come. This would
definitely save patient time. It also saves patient money
by providing good infrastructure and services at low
cost, saves hospital bed charges and other hospital
charges. It also saves patient from visiting to knapsack
doctor and ensures patients to be treated from
authenticate doctors.
3) Benefits to hospital
This project is also very beneficial for hospital as
their resources(beds and man power) are optimized.
Outpatient Department in any hospital is considered to
be shop window of the hospital [3, 4]. Now a day, the
patients are looking for hassle free and quick services in
this fast growing world. This is only possible with
optimum utility of the resources through multitasking in
a single window system in the OPD for better services
[5,6]. Hospital can earn well using OPD as patient feel
easy to go and get treated at OPD at low cost and by
good doctors without being admitted to hospital.
C. UML Diagram Used
RUP defines UML diagrams for better
understanding of project by developers and
stakeholders. Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a
standardized general-purpose modeling language in the
field of object-oriented software engineering [7]. Since
UML is not a methodology, it does not require any
formal work products. Yet it does provide several types
of diagrams that, when used within a given
methodology, increase the ease of understanding an
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

application under development [8]. In this project UML diagrams to visualize the workflow of a business use
diagrams are used for easy understanding of project case. A complete workflow description will have a
goals. The most useful, standard UML diagrams are: basic flow, and one or several alternative flows. This
use case diagram, class diagram, sequence diagram, workflow has a structure that we can define textually,
statechart diagram, activity diagram, component using informal if, if-then-else, or do-until statements of
diagram, and deployment diagram. But in this project various kinds. For a simple workflow with a simple
we have used only use case and activity diagrams. Out structure, such textual definitions may be quite
of 9 diagrams mentioned above only combination of use sufficient, but in the case of more complex structures,
case diagram and activity diagram are required to activity diagrams help to clarify and make more
explain the scope and functioning of our software. both apparent what the workflow is [12]. Activity diagram is
the diagrams are discussed below which will explain the used to show the flow of the events defined in project. It
software to its entirety. captures the dynamic behavior of the project.
4) Use case diagram
Use case diagrams are behavior diagrams used to
describe a set of actions (use cases) that some system or
systems (subject) should or can perform in
collaboration with one or more external users of the
system (actors). Each use case should provide some
observable and valuable result to the actors or other
stakeholders of the system.
Use case diagrams are used to specify:
• (external) requirements on a subject, required
usages of a system-to capture what a system
under construction is supposed to do;
• The functionality offered by a subject–what
system can do;
• Requirements the specified subject poses on its
environment-by defining how environment
should interact with the subject so that it will
be able to perform its services. [9]
Actors–Doctor’s Assistant, Doctor

Use case diagram also depicting scope of our
project.
Activity Diagram–An activity diagram is a simple
and intuitive illustration of what happens in a workflow,
what activities can be done in parallel, and whether
there are alternative paths through the workflow.
Activity diagrams as defined in the Unified Modeling
Language [10] are derived from various techniques to
visually illustrate workflows. In the Rational Unified
Process [11] we talk about how you can use activity
D. Case 2
In this a software is developed which is developed
for a private detective agency for tracking the lost cell
phones . This software is developed by a team
consisting of 10 peoples including tester, coder and
project manager. this software was developed using C#
technology and for developing this project RUP was
used as s software process model.
The IMEI (International Mobile Equipment
Identity) number of a mobile phone is a 15 digit number
unique to a mobile handset. It is usually printed on the
compliance plate of the handset usually under the
battery. IMEI number can help in tracking or blocking
mobile phone if it is lost. When a phone is switched on,
the IMEI number is transmitted and checked against a
database in the network's EIR (Equipment Identity

276 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India


Register). The EIR has three categories namely the
"white lists", "grey lists" and "black lists". The operator
can block a handset by putting it in black list. Also by
using Global Positioning System an operator can track
the handset user also[13].
In this software details of the person whose cell
phone is noted like his name, address, alternate number,
city, state, model number and IMEI number. Then the
IMEI number is put in black list for blocking the
number and as soon as the cell phone is traced, it is
returned back to user through his/her details entered.
E. Benefits of this Project
1) Benefits to user
Users are benefited by this software very much as
cell phone is valuable thing and apart from mobile cost
it also contain valuable of information of person whose
cell phone is lost. With the help of this software they
can get back their cell phones.
2) Benefit to agency
With the help of this software, agency work has
become smoother as they don’t have to keep manual
record of their customer. They can now keep track of
people who have lost their cell phones. With the help of
this they can keep record of case solved and case
pending.
F. UML Diagrams Used
In this project the UML diagram used for
explaining this project to its entirety and for reducing
the development time by enabling developers to
understand the project completely is use case diagram.
G. Use Case Diagram
Use case diagram showing project scope
1) Case 3
In this project a website is developed for a
businessman for purchasing fresh vegetables and fruits
online. The fruits and vegetables available are shown in
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 277
Tailoring RUP Use—Cases and Scope to Three Case Studies
the website and their rates are tagged below the
respective items. Item which are out of stock is also
mentioned in the website, so the buyers can purchase
the stuff they needed without coming to market sitting
at their home. They can pay amount using their bank
cards and the purchased stuff will be delivered to their
respective homes.
This software was developed by a team of 15
members including coder, tester and project manager.
the technology used for developing this website was
Zend framework, it is a PHP framework. The software
is developed in 20 days and after testing it is installed to
user machine. Database is also created for noting the
customer details. Database used was MySql. RUP was
used to develop this software.
H. Benefits of this Project
2) Benefit to customer
Life nowadays is very busy, so people does not get
time to go to market everyday and buy fresh vegetable
and fruits, so they often stock vegetable and fruits for a
week. But it may cause adverse effect on health. So for
customer comfort this website will deliver fresh fruit
and vegetable to their home without wasting their time
to go to market and purchase the daily required food
stuff. They can now sitting at home or from their office
just select the food stuff needed, pay the amount and
their ordered stuff will be delivered to their home.
3) Benefit to trader
The trader can sell his food stuff now through
website too. It will definitely increase his sales. By
knowing which stuff is ordered more he can order that
stuff in bulk amount. It will save his investment money
also as by knowing his sales per day through his
website.
I. UML diagrams used
4) Use case diagram
Use case diagram depicting scope of project
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
J. Benefit to Developers
Developers by using RUP in all these three project
are also benefited, as RUP helped the developer in
understanding the problem statement and explaining the
solution for whom it is developed using UML diagrams,
as all the three project belong to different skill peoples
and project also differs from each other. UML diagram
help developer to understand the problem in its entirety.
UML diagrams made developer task easy and reduced
software development time by early eliciting all the
requirements from the respective stakeholders..
II. CONCLUSION
OPD is an effective step toward health care,
patients are benefitted by this a lot. The only problem
the patient faces in OPD is the long waiting time,
overcrowding and delay in consultation. For solving
this a software is developed which helps doctor in
keeping track of patient sitting outside. So that doctor
can call for some other staff as per need. This software
will help saving patient time. And hence will try to gain
patient satisfaction, which is very important for every
doctor and hospital. More patients can be treated by
knowing the number of patients and helps hospital to
manage the number of patients. After the patient is
visited his name is removed from the list and the list is
refreshed automatically after every 5 minutes, thus
ensuring fresh list after every 5 minutes.
Detective agency can now do their work even more
faster with the help of this project as with the help of
this software they can keep track of persons whose cell
phones has been lost. They can now search the details
of person more faster by searching with their names
through the list they have. With the help of IMEI
number the cell phone can be traced and handed to the
person to whom it belongs.
Vegetables and fruits can now be sale and purchase
through website, which save customer time and
increases trader sale. And fresh vegetable and fruits is
now easy to get through this website by sitting at home
or office without giving any extra charges.
III. FUTURE WORK
All the projects can be further be extended by
making activity and sequence diagrams for each project.
For these three use case diagrams and its corresponding
activity diagrams are needed to explain the project to its
entirety.
REFERENCES
[1] Evaluating RUP Software Development Processes through
Visualization of Effort Distribution, Werner Heijstek, Michel R.
V. Chaudron. 978-0-7695-3276-9/08 ©2008 IEEE.
278 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Rational_Unified_Process.
[3] Kunders GD. Hospitals–Planning, Design and Management,
Tata Mc Graw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi,
1998:328-42.
[4] Sakharkar BM. Principles of hospital Administration and
Planning, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd., New
Delhi, 1998:20-35 & 503-4.
[5] Srinivasan AV. Managing a Modern Hospital, Response Books
A Division of Sage Publishers India (P) Ltd., New Delhi,
2000:53-69.
[6] Llewelyn R. Davies. H.M.C. Macaulay Hospital Planning and
Administration, WHO, Geneva, 1996:105-11.
[7] UML Forum. UML FAQ. Retrieved 2011-10-14.
[8] UML basics: An introduction to the Unified Modeling
Language.
[9] Use Case Diagrams
[10] OMG UML Specification
[11] Rational Unified Process, version 5.1.1
[12] http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/rational/library/2802.
[13] http://www.india-cellular.com/lets-learn/imei-number.html
[14] A Study On Out Patient Satisfaction At A Super Specialty
Hospital In India Dr. S. K. Jawahar MHA (AIIMS), DNB
(Health Administration).
[15] “ Inter-Relationship between Clinical Departments in Treating
Outpatients ” Done by Dr. S.r. Shambulingaiah.
[16] Measuring patient satisfaction: A case study to improve quality
of care at public health facilities by Prahlad Rai Sodani1, Rajeev
K Kumar1, Jayati Srivastava2, Laxman Sharma1
[17] Managing Services Supply Chain: A Case Study of an OPD, Dr
Salma Ahmed.
[18] Francisco J,Felix Garcia, Mario Piattini March 2009. Key
processes to start software process improvement in small
companies, SAC '09: Proceedings of the 2009 ACM symposium
on Applied Computing.
[19] Suprika Vasudeva Shrivastava and Hema Date 2010.”
Distributed Agile Software Development: A Review, Journal Of
Computer Science And Engineering, Volume 1, ISSUE 1, MAY
2010 pp10-17.
[20] Granville G. Miller “The Characteristics of Agile Software
Processes” 2011 .Proceedings of the 39th Int’l Conf. and
Exhibition on Technology of Object-Oriented Languages and
Systems (TOOLS’01)
[21] Reiner R. Dumke, Andreas Schmietendorf, Martin Kunz,
Konstantina Gorgieva 2010. Software Metrics for Agile
Software Development.
[22] S. Bhalerao1, D. Puntambeka and M.Ingle, Generalizing Agile
Software Development Life Cycle /International Journal on
Computer Science and Engineering Vol.1(3), 2010, 222-226
[23] Shukhpal singh and Inderveer Chana 2012 Enabling Reusability
in Agile Software Development, International Journal of
Computer Applications (0975–8887) Volume 50–No.13, July
2012
[24] Laurie Williams1, Kenny Rubin2, Mike Cohn3 Driving Process
Improvement Via Comparative Agility Assessment2011.
[25] S. Bhalerao1, D. Puntambeka and M.Ingle, Generalizing Agile
Software Development Life Cycle /International Journal on
Computer Science and Engineering Vol.1(3), 2010, 222-226
[26] Shukhpal singh and Inderveer Chana 2012 Enabling
Reusability in Agile Software Development, International
Journal of Computer Applications (0975–8887) Volume 50–
No.13, July 2012
[27] Laurie Williams1, Kenny Rubin2, Mike Cohn3 Driving Process
Improvement Via Comparative Agility Assessment2011.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

TRACK V
ENERGY AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 3
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Study of Power Control of Doubly Fed

Induction Generator for Wind Power Stations
Jayati Vaish1 and Ravneet Kaur2
1
Water Resource Development and Management, Indian Institute of Technology,
Roorkee, Kasturba Bhawan, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India
2
Alternate Hydro Energy Center, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee,
Kasturba Bhawan, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India
e-mail: 1jayati_EE@yahoo.co.in, 2iitr.ravneet@gmail.com

Abstract—Renewable energy resources like
hydro/wind power plants play an important role in
upcoming future of power grids. Thereby, a full flexibility
of utilizing the grid capabilities in terms of active and
reactive power production in generating mode as well as
in motoring mode gains in significance. In order to
provide a continuous power delivery during voltage dips,
control of active and reactive powers generated is
desirable for the purpose of grid support. This paper
reviews available technique for power control of doubly
fed induction machine. The control strategies such as
vector control and direct torque control techniques are
analyzed and detailed in order to achieve the best overall
performance.
Keywords: Active and reactive powers, Asynchronous
machine, Doubly fed induction machine, direct torque
control, frame transformation, vector control.
I. INTRODUCTION
Due to the increasing concern about environmental
pollution and a possible energy shortage, the renewable
energy systems and generation have attracted great
interests in recent years [1]-[2].Countries where this
development first took place like Germany and
Denmark, started using wind as well as hydro energy as
a major consent for power generation. The considerable
amount of energy generated and delivered to the
interconnected electrical network depends
instantaneously on site weather conditions. For wind
power generation, experience tells that wide-spread
wind generation results in more stable average
generated powers [3], the dependency on the actual
wind conditions is still a risk factor for the balance
between energy offer and demand as a basic condition
for reliable operation of the electrical power system. On
the other hand the increased machine powers are
accompanied by a nearly proportional increase on the
losses. Electrical machines in the MW-class present
very high efficiency values reaching saturation with the
state-of-the-art materials and construction technology.
Therefore only slight augmentation on efficiency is to
be expected with the progressing generator rated power.
In order to avoid network stability problems power
companies launched guidelines for net connection of
wind turbines [4]. These grid codes established similar
requirements on usual generating plants to wind power
converters, i.e. supporting the network stability in
normal operation and during faulty conditions. During
normal operation this is translated into the capability of
frequency regulation through active power control and
of voltage regulation through reactive power control.
The work presented in this paper is concentrated on this
latter theme and proposes various control strategies for
the power flow in a doubly-fed induction generator
(DFIG) drive aiming the reduction of the electrical
power losses. In order to enable variable speed
operations with a lower rated power converter, doubly-
fed induction generator (DFIG) can be used as shown
on Fig. 1. The stator is directly connected to the grid
and the rotor is fed to magnetize the machine with the
help of two back-to-back PWM converters.
Fig. 1: Wind Turbine with Doubly Fed Induction Machine
In this paper, the control of electrical power
exchanged between the stator of the DFIG and the
power network by controlling independently the torque
(consequently the active power) and the reactive power
is presented [5]. Several investigations have been
developed in this direction using cycloconverters as
converters and classical proportional-integral regulators
[6]-[8]. In our case, after modelling the DFIG and
choosing the appropriate d-q reference frame, active
and reactive powers are controlled using respectively
Integral-Proportional (PI). Their performances are

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 281

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
compared in terms of reference tracking, sensitivity to
perturbations and robustness against machine's
parameters variations.
II. MODELING OF THE WIND TURBINE
DOUBLY-FED INDUCTION GENERATOR
The wind turbine and the doubly-fed induction
generator are shown in Fig. 1. The AC/DC/AC
converter is divided into two components: the rotor side
converter Crotor and the grid-side converter Cgrid.
Crotor and Cgrid are voltage-Sourced Converters that
use forced-commutated power electronic devices
(IGBTs) to synthesize an AC voltage from a DC
voltage source. A capacitor connected on the DC side
acts as the DC voltage source. A coupling inductor L is
used to connect Cgrid to the grid. The three-phase rotor
winding is connected to Crotor by slip rings and
brushes and the three-phase stator winding is directly
connected to the grid. The power captured by the wind
turbine is converted into electrical power by the
induction generator and it is transmitted to the grid by
the stator and the rotor windings. The control system
generates the pitch angle command and the voltage
command signals Vr and Vgc for Crotor and Cgrid
respectively in order to control the power of the wind
turbine, the DC bus voltage and the voltage at the grid
terminals.An average model of the AC/ DC/ AC
converter is used for real-time simulation. In the
average model power electronic devices are replaced by
controlled voltage sources. Vr and Vgc are the control
signals for these sources. The DC bus is simulated by a
controlled current source feeding the DC capacitor. The
current source is computed on the basis of instantaneous
power conservation principle: the power that flows
inside the two AC-sides of the converter is equal to the
power absorbed by the DC capacitor [9]. The power
flow illustrated in Fig. 2 is used to describe the
operating principle.
Fig. 2: Active and Reactive Power Flows
282 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
The mechanical power and the stator electrical
power output are:
Pm =Tm ωr
Ps =Tem ωs
For a lossless generator the mechanical equation is:
= −
In steady-state for a lossless generator we have:
= = +
from where it follows:
− = − = −
Where = is defined as the slip of the
generator.
Generally the absolute value of slip is much lower
than 1 and consequently Pr is only a fraction of Ps.
Since Tm is positive for power generation and since ωs
is positive and constant for a constant frequency grid
voltage, the sign of Pr is a function of the slip sign. Pr is
positive for negative slip (super-synchronous speed)
and it is negative for positive slip (sub-synchronous
speed). For supersynchronous speed operation Pr is
transmitted to DC bus capacitor and tends to rise the
DC voltage. For sub-synchronous speed operation, Pr is
taken out of DC bus capacitor and tends to decrease the
DC voltage. Cgrid is used to generate or absorb the
power Pgc in order to keep the DC voltage constant. In
steady-state for a lossless AC/ DC/ AC converter Pgc is
equal to Pr and the speed of the wind turbine is
determined by the power Pr absorbed or generated by
Crotor. The phase-sequence of the AC voltage
generated by Crotor is positive for sub-synchronous
speed and negative for super-synchronous speed. The
frequency of this voltage is equal to the product of the
grid frequency and the absolute value of the slip. Crotor
and Cgrid have the capability for generating or
absorbing reactive power and could be used to control
the reactive power or the voltage at the grid terminals.
III. DFIG CONTROL
A. Aim of Control
When the DFIG is connected to an existing
network, this connection must be done in three steps
which are presented below [10]. The first step is the
regulation of the statoric voltages with the network
voltages as reference (Fig.2). The second step is the
stator connection to this network. As the voltages of the
two devices are synchronized, this connection can be
done without problem. Once this connection is
achieved, the third step, which constitutes the topic of
this paper, is the power regulation between the stator
and the network (Fig.3).
 Study of Power Control of Doubly Fed Induction Generator for Wind Power Stations
Fig. 3: First Step of the DFIG Connection
Fig. 3: Third Step of the DFIG Connection
IV. CONTROL SCHEME OF DFIG
Many variable schemes use a power converter
between the induction generator stator and the supply
thus necessitating that the converter volt ampere rating
matches that of the generator output. Additionally if the
rotor current is controlled using vector methods then
fast decoupled control of stator active and reactive
power will result. The opportunity exists to produce
power at unity power factor without the need for
capacitor compensation. Schemes exists which operate
using controlled rectifiers [11] but the resulting current
waveforms have relatively high harmonic content. The
use of a twin PWM bridge inverter allows the inverter
network connection to contribute to high levels of
power quality through the use of a sinusoidal rectifier.
In this paper we examine the vector control scheme
for DFIG.
A. Mathematical Model of the DFIG
For a doubly-fed induction machine, the Park
transformation’s application to the traditional a,b,c
model allows to write a dynamic model in a d-q
reference frame as follows:
= + −
= + +
= + − Fig. 4: Active and Reactive Power Outer Control Loop Design
= + −
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 283
The stator and rotor fluxes can be expressed:
The mechanical and electromagnetic torque is
expressed with the following equations:
The active and reactive powers at the stator are
defined. as:
Also the active and reactive powers at the rotor are:
B. Stator Flux Oriented Vector Control Principle
Vector control can also possible with air gap flux
or stator flux orientation, but at the cost of a coupling
effect that demands decoupling compensation. Stator
flux oriented direct vector control has the advantage
that flux vector estimation accuracy is estimated by the
stator resistance Rs variation only. In this control we
developed a strategy for stator flux oriented vector
control by using the equations derived from d-q
equivalent circuits. If the stator flux is oriented on the d
axis, then the flux q-axis component Ψqs=0. In the
stator flux orientation, the active and reactive powers
are decoupled and can be controlled via the rotor
currents. By means of the direct current, we can control
the active power while the reactive power can be
controlled via the quadrature current.
C. Establishment of Control System
The control scheme for the doubly fed induction
generator consists of two cascaded control loops. The
outer loop is concerned with the control of active and
reactive power so that the power factor value
determined by the electric energy distribution company
is complied with as accurately as possible.
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
vector relative to the stator or supply voltage vector and
this is done through rotor current control as shown
in Fig. 4.
Where Kp and Ki are inner control loop PI controller
parameters.
On the other hand, the inner control loop task
consists in controlling independently the rotor current
direct idr and quadrature iqr components expressed
according to the reference frame fixed to the stator flux
linkages space phasor. In order to implement this inner
control loop, the stator flux oriented vector controls
based on two identical PI controllers are used [12] as
shown in Fig 5.
Fig. 5: Rotor Current Inner Control Loop Design
From Fig. 2 it is clear that we require two control
systems. One is grid side converter control system and
the other is rotor side converter control system.
1) Rotor side converter control
The rotor side converter is used to control the wind
turbine output power and voltage or the output power
and reactive power measured at the grid terminals as
shown in Fig.6.
Fig. 6: Control Structure of Rotor Side Converte
2) Grid side converter control
The Grid Side Converter (GSC) ensures the
regulation of the DC bus voltage and adjusts the power
factor on the grid side. The GSC is a bidirectional
converter which operates as a rectifier when the slip (S)
is positive (sub synchronous mode) and as an inverter
when the slip is negative (super synchronous mode).
284 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
Fig. 7 shows the schematic control of a Grid side
converter control.
Fig. 7: Control Structure of Grid Side Converter Control
V. CONCLUSION
This paper has presented method to control the
active and reactive powers of Doubly Fed Induction
Generator connected to the grid. We have also
established a two-phase mathematical model of the
DFIG. In order to control statoric active and reactive
power exchanged between the DFIG and the grid, a
vector-control strategy has been presented. The
application of vector control allows the independent
regulation of active and reactive power. The decoupling
is carried out using rotor current control in a
synchronous reference frame attached to the q-axis of
the supply.
Consequently, the use of doubly fed induction
machines is beginning to receive serious attention for
wind as well as hydro generation purposes. Since,
power generation over a range of speed means that
increased energy capture is possible due to higher
average aerodynamic efficiency.
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[5] L. Xu, W. Cheng, "Torque and reactive power control of a
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[8] B. Hopfensperger, D.J. Atkinson, R.A. Lakin, "Stator-flux-
oriented control of a doubly fed induction machine with and
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[9] Branislav Dosijanoski, "Simulation of Doubly-Fed Induction
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[10] L. Morel, A. Mirzaian, J.M. Kauffmann: "Field oriented control
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[11] Li, R., Wallace, A., and Spee, R. 1995.”Determination of
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Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 285

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
India and Smart Grid
Anil Kumar Pathak
Maharana Pratap Engineering College, Kanpur
e-mail: pathak.knit@gmail.com
Abstract—The purpose of this paper is to explain the
importance of Smart Grid Deployment in INDIA. The
paper throws the light on various problems and challenges
related to electricity grids that are faced in INDIA and
the solution to manage those problems by adopting the
vision of a ‘Smart Grid.’ The essence of this vision is ‘a
fully-automated power delivery network that can ensure a
two-way flow of electricity and information between the
power grids and appliances and all points in between’.
The further explanation is on the Ongoing and Future
Projects on Smart grid in INDIA. Finally, the paper
concludes with the suggestions and proposals for the
Regional Approach to Smart Grid Development that
explains the demand for Smart Grid capability within
INDIA.
I. INTRODUCTION
The Republic of India is the seventh-largest
country by geographical area and the second by
population. Like the United States, it has national,
regional and local governments, including 28 states and
7 union territories. It borders Pakistan to the west;
China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast; and
Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. India is one of the
fastest growing economies in the world cloaking an
average annual growth rate of 7%+ for last 6 years.
Simultaneously, the current Indian population at 1.1
Billion is growing at the rate of 1.4 % annually, and it is
estimated that India will be the largest populated
country by 2050 AD. Energy is the most critical issue
for human development and growth now. At present,
India is unable to meet the existing need of energy to
her inhabitants. Though electricity is available to 80%
of the population, it is irregular and insufficient. The
power interruption is a chronic problem with on average
17 power-cuts per month to manufacturing sector alone.
The total installed capacity is 210951.72 MW as of
December 2012 data published by Ministry of power on
its website. However, it is way shorter than the present
need and requires enormous investment to meet the
existing and future need of the growing population and
economy. This indicates that India is in dire need of
Energy. New power plants are being built and more will
require however, it want suffice the growing need.
Indian transmission and distribution losses are amongst
the highest in the world amounting 26% of the
production. If non-technical losses like theft are
included into total, it is around 50%, hence the total
effective distribution is only 105475.86 MW out of
210951.72 MW Installed capacity. Thus, India needs
286
smart grid technology more than any other country,
which if conservatively can reduce the losses to 20%
then it will provide enormous boost to growth.
II. SMART GRID
The essence of smart grid is a promise of
transforming our current electricity delivery system into
a more efficient and secure system that is able to better
integrate variable supply resources while giving the
end-user, the customer, greater autonomy in his/her
energy consumption.
According to the IntelliGrid Architecture Report,
the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) defines the
Smart Grid as:
• A power system made up of numerous
automated transmission and distribution
(T&D) systems, all operating in a coordinated,
efficient and reliable manner.
• A power system that handles emergency
conditions with ‘self-healing’ actions and is
responsive to energy-market and utility needs
• A power system that serves millions of
customers and has an intelligent
communications infrastructure enabling the
timely, secure, and adaptable information flow
needed to provide power to the evolving digital
economy.
From this definition, we can conclude that the
Smart Grid must be:
• Predictive (operationally and functionally) to
preclude emergencies.
• Self-healing to correct/bypass predicted/
detected problems.
• Interactive with consumers and markets.
• Optimizable to make the best use of resources
• Distributed in nature with both assets and
information.
• Transformational to turn data into information.
• Secure from threats and hazards.
III. GRID PROBLEMS IN INDIA
As is the case in most of the world, the Indian
national grid was not designed for high-capacity, long-
distance power transfer. India needs to interconnect
regional grids. Although coal and hydro-electric
potential has peaked in many parts of India, there are
still several regions with excess capacity. Large wind
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2

potential and increasing wind capacity in the south and
west also create a need for transmission infrastructure.
Unfortunately, regions are generally sectionalized, with
some asynchronous or HVDC links allowing for
minimal power transfer. India’s transmission grid only
reaches 80% of its population. According to its Ministry
of Power, India’s transmission and distribution losses
are among the highest in the world, averaging 26% of
total electricity production, with some states as high as
62%. When non-technical losses such as energy theft
are included in the total, average losses are as high as
50%. The financial loss has been estimated at 1.5% of
the national GDP, and is growing steadily. India’s
power sector is still largely dominated by state utilities.
Despite several attempted partnerships with foreign
investors, few projects have actually been implemented.
This lack of foreign investment limits utilities’ ability to
raise needed capital for basic infrastructure.
India’s grid is in need of major improvements. This
neglect has accumulated in a variety of system failures:
• Poorly planned distribution networks.
• Overloading of system components.
• Lack of reactive power support and regulation
services.
• Low metering efficiency and bill collection.
• Power theft.
IV. RECENT INITIATIVES TAKEN
BY INDIAN GOVERNMENT
1. The Indian National Government, in
cooperation with the State Energy Board, put
forward a road to improvement when it
announced the new Electricity Act of 2003,
aimed at reforming electricity laws and
bringing back foreign investment. The act had
several important measures:
• Unbundling the State Electricity Board’s
assets into separate entities for generation,
transmission, and distribution, with the
intention of eventual privatization
• Adding capacity in support of a projected
energy use growth rate of 12%, coinciding
with a GDP growth rate of roughly 8%
• Improving metering efficiency
• Auditing to create transparency and
accountability at the state level
• Improved billing and collection
• Mandating minimum amounts of
electricity from renewables
• Requiring preferential tariff rates for
renewables
• End use efficiency to reduce the cost of
electricity
2. The Government of India enacted the Energy
Conservation Act, 2001. This Act provides an
institutional arrangement and a regulatory
mechanism at the Central and State level to
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 287
India and Smart Grid
begin a drive to promote energy efficiency in
the country.
3. The Bureau of Energy Efficiency has also
come out with an Action Plan that includes
various schemes to promote saving of
electricity.
4. The Government of India is also working to
develop advanced technologies of renewable
energy such as: geothermal energy, ocean
energy, fuel cells, bio fuels and tidal energy to
satisfy future energy requirements.
5. Every year, National Energy Conservation
Award is conferred to companies who
contribute for conservation of energy.
6. Under National Program on Improved Chulha
(NPIC) (Smokeless cook-stoves), Government
of India provides smokeless and improved
wood cook-stoves (both portable & fixed) and
provides Central Subsidy.
7. Besides, day to day awareness campaign,
painting competition among school children on
energy saving day are organized.
8. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
(MNRE) has initiated certain comprehensive
programs for the development and utilization
of renewable energy.
V. REASONS FOR ADOPTING SMART
GRID IN INDIA
Six factors will drive the adoption of the smart grid
in India:
A. Supply Deficits
Demand, especially peak demand, continues to
outpace India’s power supply. The increasing
affordability of household appliances is adding to the
burden on the grid. Official estimates of India’s demand
shortfall are 12% for total energy and 16% for
peak demand. Managing growth and ensuring supply
is a major driver for all programs of the Indian
power sector.
B. Loss Diminution
India’s aggregate technical and commercial losses
are thought to be about 25-30%, but could be higher
given the substantial fraction of the population that is
not metered and the lack of transparency. While a smart
grid is not the only means of reducing losses, it could
make a substantial contribution.
C. Management of Human Error in System
Operations
Labor savings are not a prime driver for the smart
grid in India, as contracts for outsourcing are
inexpensive. However, automated meter reading would
lower recording and other errors, including what are
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
known elsewhere as ‘curbstone readings’ or ‘shade tree’
readings, or even deliberate errors, which are thought to
be significant reasons for losses.
D. Peak Load Management
India’s supply shortfalls are expected to persist for
many years. A smart grid would allow more
‘intelligent’ load control, either through direct control
or economic pricing incentives that are communicated
to customers in a dynamic manner. Such measures
would help mitigate the supply-demand gap.
E. Renewable Energy
India has supported the implementation of
renewable energy. Historically, much of its support was
for wind power, but the newly announced National
Solar Mission and its goal to add 20,000 MW of solar
energy by 2020 should be an accelerant. Spurred by
environmental concerns and the desire to tap into all
available sources of power, this move can also be a
smart grid driver.
F. Technological Sustainable Development
Perhaps the most intriguing driver for India is the
potential to ‘leapfrog’ into a new future for electricity,
as it did with telecommunications. Also, the ‘smart’ in a
smart grid is Information and Communication
Technology (ICT), an area of unique capability in India.
VI. VARIOUS SMART GRID GROUPS
A. India Smart Grid Forum
It is a non-profit, voluntary consortium of public
and private stakeholders set up by Government of India.
The prime objective of the forum is to accelerate
development of Smart Grid technology in India. India
Smart Grid Forum is also a member organization of
Global Smart Grid federation. Ministry of Power, India
is going to be the patron and Power finance Corporation
(PFC) and Rural Electric Corporation (REC) are
permanent invitee of the forum. Initially, the members
will be selected through invitation which will include
selected state power utilities, private power utilities,
empaneled System Integrators, SCADA Consultants
and Implementing Agencies of R-APDRP (Restructured
Accelerated Power Development and Reform
Programme), power sector PSUs (public sector
undertakings), selected educational and research
institutes, NGOs, Central Electricity Authority (CEA),
Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC),
Central Power Research Institute (CPRI), Federation of
Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (FICCI)
,and NASSCOM.
288 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
B. India Smart Grid Task Force
The Smart Grid Task Force (ISGTF) was
constituted under the Chairmanship of Shri Sam
Pitroda, Adviser to Prime Minister, Government of
India on Public Information Infrastructure and
Innovation. The Smart Grid Task Force is an inter-
ministerial group and serves as Government’s focal
point for activities related to ‘Smart Grid’. The main
functions of the Smart Grid Task Force to ensure
awareness, coordination and integration of the diverse
activities related to smart Grid technologies, practices
and services for Smart Grid Research and
Development; Co-ordinate and integrate other relevant
inter governmental activities; Collaborate on
interoperability frame work; Review and validate the
recommendations from India Smart Grid Forum etc.
C. Center for Study of Science, Technology,
and Policy (CSTEP)
It is a private, non-profit organization with an
objective to carry out research in science, engineering,
and technology that can be beneficial to country's
economic and human development. CSTEP will serve
as knowledge partner and adviser to Smart Grid India
Forum established by Government of India. CSTEP
published Smart Grid India white paper detailing the
Smart Grid in Indian environment.
D. Demand Response and Smart Grid Coalition
It is the trade association for companies that are
dealing in Demand Response, Smart Meter, and Smart
Grid technologies. DRSG plays supportive role to
educate policymakers, financial institution, utilities,
media, and other stakeholders that how the smart grid
technologies like demand response and smart meters are
going to benefit the consumers, the companies, and the
society as a whole. More than 50 companies and
associations like Zigbee Alliance and Universal
Powerline Association are the member of this
organization.
E. Smart Grid Consumer Coalition
It is a non-profit consumer advocacy organization.
The objective is to bring together utilities, suppliers,
vendors, consumer advocacy groups, and associations
to better understand consumer needs in the Smart Grid
Universe. The group will carry out consumer centric
research, educate them about Smart Grid, and will share
the best practices with the members.
VII. VARIOUS SMART GRID PROJECTS IN INDIA
A. Uttar Haryana Bijli Vitran Nigam (UHBVN)
This Pilot project is located in Panipat subdivision.
The pilot project covers 30,544 consumers and
distribution system of 531 DTs. The area has around
 India and Smart Grid

131.8 MU input energy consumption. The proposed E. Tripura State Electricity Corporation
project area is covered under RAPDRP Scheme for IT Limited (TSECL)
implementation and system strengthening. The
This pilot project, located in Electrical Division
functionality of Peak load management is proposed by
No.1, of Agartala town, covers 46,071 no. of
implementing Automated Metering Infrastructure
consumers. The proposed project area is covered under
(AMI) for Residential Consumers and Industrial
RAPDRP Scheme for IT implementation and system
Consumers.
strengthening. The functionality of Peak load
B. Chamundeshwari Electricity Supply management is proposed by implementing Automated
Corporation, Mysore (CSEC) Metering Infrastructure (AMI) for Residential
Consumers and Industrial Consumers.
This Pilot project located in Additional City Area
Division (ACAD), Mysore, involves 21,824 consumers F. Uttar Gujarat Vij Company Ltd. (UGVCL)
with a good mix of residential, commercial, industrial
This Project proposes covering 20,524 consumers
and agricultural consumers including 512 irrigation
in Naroda and 18,898 agricultural unmetered consumers
pump sets covering over 14 feeders and 473 distribution
in Deesa-II division and accounting for input energy of
transformers and accounting for input energy of 151.89
around 1700MU. The functionalities of Peak load
MU. The functionalities of Peak load management,
management, Outage Management, Power Quality
Outage Management are proposed by implementing
Management are proposed by implementing Automated
Automated Metering Infrastructure (AMI) for
Metering Infrastructure (AMI) for Industrial,
Residential Consumers and Industrial Consumers and
Commercial and Residential Consumers. Some
Integration to Distributed Generation/ Micro Grid
additional functionalities like Load forecasting and
Integration.
Asset Management are also proposed and
C. Electricity Department, Government functionalities of load forecasting, peak power
of Puducherry (PED) management and outage management are also
considered at utility level which will impact all
This project covers 87031 no. of consumers with consumers of utility (i.e. 27 lac consumers) indirectly.
dominant domestic consumers (79%). The area has Renewable energy integration has also been proposed to
around 367 MU input energy consumption. The be carried out at Patan Solar Park and few roof top
proposed project area is also covered under RAPDRP installations at some of the universities.
Scheme for IT implementation and system
strengthening which is likely to be completed in 2013. G. Andhra Pradesh Central Power Distribution
The module of Automated Metering Infrastructure Company Limited (APCPDCL)
(AMI) for Residential Consumers and Industrial
This project is located in Jeedimetla Industrial
Consumers are proposed to be implemented to assist
Area. The Project proposes covering 11,904 consumers.
with consumer issues like event management &
The proposed project area is covered under RAPDRP
prioritizing, billing cycle review and revenue collection
Scheme; DAS, IT and SCADA shall be implemented.
efficiency for Energy auditing and AT&C loss
The functionalities of Peak load management, Power
reduction.
Quality and Outage Management are proposed by
D. Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) implementing Automated Metering Infrastructure
(AMI) for Residential Consumers and Industrial
This pilot is proposed for around 25078 LT Consumers.
Industrial consumers of Selected Distribution Section
offices spread over the geographical area of Kerala H. Assam Power Distribution Company Ltd. (ASPCL)
State. The input energy for the total scheme area is
The pilot project covers 15,000 consumers
mentioned as 2108 MUs and for the LT Industrial
involving 90MUs of input energy in Guwahati
consumers is mentioned as 376 MUs. Part of this area is
distribution region. APDCL is in the process IT
covered in RAPDRP scheme. By implementing
Implementation under R-APDRP and SCADA/DMS
Automated Metering Infrastructure (AMI) it is proposed
implementation is also to be taken up shortly. APDCL
to provide quality service, prevent tampering and
has proposed the functionality of Peak Load
unauthorized usage of load, accurate and timely
Management using Industrial and Residential AMI,
metering and billing, avoiding costly field visits of Sub
Integration of Distributed Generation and Outage
Engineers for meter reading, reducing supply
Management system. The utility has envisaged that
restoration time, peak load management through load
Power Quality Monitoring will be a by-product of the
restriction for Remote Disconnection/Reconnection and
deployment.
Time of Day tariff.

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 289

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
I. Maharashtra State Electricity Distribution
Company Limited (MSEDCL)
Project proposes covering 25,629 consumers with a
mix of residential, commercial and industrial consumers
and input energy of 261.6 MU. The functionality of
Outage management is proposed by implementing
Automated Metering Infrastructure (AMI) for
Residential Consumers and Industrial Consumers. In
addition MSEDCL has proposed to leverage AMI for
Remote connect/disconnect of customers, Monitoring
the consumption pattern, Tamper detection, Contract
load monitoring, Load curtailment program i.e. reduced
power supply instead of no power scenario, Time of
Use Metering and Dynamic and Real Time Pricing,
Demand forecasting etc.
J. Chhattisgarh State Power Distribution
Company Limited (CSPDCL)
The pilot project includes installing smart meters at
508 H.T. & L.T Industrial Consumer premises as well
as Automatic Meter Reading (AMR) at 83 DTs. The
area has around 2140.86 MU input energy
consumption. The proposed project area is not covered
under RAPDRP Scheme. The functionality of Peak load
management is proposed by implementing Automated
Metering Infrastructure (AMI) for Industrial
Consumers.
K. Himachal Pradesh State Electricity
Board (HPSEB)
The pilot project covers 650 consumers and having
annual input energy of 533 MUs. The functionality of
peak load management and outage management is
proposed by implementing Automated Metering
Infrastructure (AMI) for Industrial Consumers,
Distribution Automation and Substation Automation
and power quality management by deploying Power
Quality meters at HT consumers
L. Punjab State Power Corporation Limited (PSPCL)
The functionality of Outage Management (OM) is
proposed to be implemented in the project area for all
the 85746 consumers and distribution system in area
using AMI by installing 9000 Smart Meters and by
Transformer Monitoring. The proposed project area is
covered under RAPDRP Scheme for SCADA
Implementation and GIS Mapping.
M. West Bengal State Electricity Distribution
Company Limited (WBSEDCL)
The pilot project proposes to take up 4 nos. of 11
KV feeders for implementation of Smart Grid covering
4404 consumers. The area has 42 MU input energy
consumption. The utility has proposed the functionality
290 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
of AT&C loss reduction and Peak Load Management
using Automated Metering Infrastructure (AMI) for
Residential and Industrial Consumers
N. Jaipur Vidyut Vitran Nigam Ltd. (JVVNL)
Project proposes covering 2646 no. of consumers,
dominated by Industrial consumers (56.46%) and
around 374.68 MU input energy consumption. Proposed
project area is also covered under RAPDRP Scheme for
IT implementation and system strengthening. The
functionality of Peak load management is proposed by
implementing Automated Metering Infrastructure
(AMI) for Residential Consumers and Industrial
Consumers.
VIII. CONCLUSION
‘Transform the Indian power sector into a secure,
adaptive, sustainable and digitally enabled ecosystem
by 2027 that provides reliable and quality energy for all
with active participation of stakeholders’, with this
vision India is steadily running towards splendid era of
Smart Grid. The Smart Grid presents opportunities for
utilities and consumers to benefit from efficient
management of energy and advanced equipment and
devices. It offers significant opportunities to wisely
manage the nation's fuel resources by potentially
reducing the national need for additional generation
sources, better integrating renewable and non-
renewable generation sources into the grid’s operations,
reducing outages and cascading problems, and enabling
consumers to better manage their energy consumption.
According to the US Energy Information
Administration, the world’s electricity generation is
projected to increase by 70 percent from 2012 to 2030.
So for India the need for grid improvements is
increasing. The country have to face significant
challenges in evaluating and shaping utility Smart Grid
proposals, since it represents a complex technical
challenge. Commission staffs, for the most part, do not
have personnel trained in this area and lack the finance
resources needed to hire outside consultants. Existing
electricity grids in India are not sufficient in terms of
capacity, efficiency, reliability, security, and
environmental impact to supply the electrical power
needs of modern societies. Therefore the need of the
hour and for modern revolutionizing societies of India
is to adopt Smart Grid Vision.
REFERENCES
[1] Economic Survey of India 2007–08.
http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2007-08/esmain.htm.
[2] Power Sector at a Glance "All India",
http://powermin.nic.in/indian_electricity_scenario/introduction.
htm
[3] The Indian Electricity Act, 2003,
http://www.powermin.nic.in/acts_notification/electricity_act200
3/preliminary.htm
 India and Smart Grid

[4] Smart Grid White Paper: The Home Appliance Industry’s [8] Global Smart Energy, ‘The Electricity Economy: New
Principles & Requirements for Achieving a Widely Accepted Opportunities from the Transformation of the Electric Power
Smart Grid, December 2009. Sector’, August 2008.
http://www.aham.org/ht/a/GetDocumentAction/i/44191\ [9] National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL),’A Systems
[5] Energy Information Administration, ‘Electric Power Annual View of the Modern Grid,’ January 2007.
2007: A Summary’ http://www.eia.doe.gov/ [10] NEMA,’ Defining Intelligence in the Intelligent Electricity
bookshelf/brochures/epa/epa.html, April 2009. Grid,’ Presentation, January 18, 2008.
[6] Detroit Edison, ‘DTE Energy Smart Grid White Paper,’ [11] Smart grids Advisory Council. "Driving Factors in the Move
February 24, 2009, Published. towards Smartgrids". European Smart grids Technology
[7] Department of Energy, the Grid wise Alliance, the Galvin Platform: Vision and Strategy, Published, 13 Mar, 2006.
Electricity Initiative and EPRI/Intelligrid, ‘The Smart Grid: an
Introduction’ Published.

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 291

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Solar Mission in India (Scope and Challenges)

Saurabh Kumar Bajpai1 and Mohit Kumar Pandey2
1
AIET, Faridkot
2
IET, Alwar
e-mail: saurabhbajpai897@gmail.com, 2mohitkumar_pandey@yahoo.co.in
1

Abstract—This paper deal with the mission of solar
energy in India with there scope and challenges. Solar
energy is a renewable energy source which is used to
generate electrical energy by using solar PV. most of the
country in the world generates their electricity by solar
energy. The demand of electricity increased day by day
but the generation capacity of electricity is limited and this
can be overcome by using solar energy. A schematic plan
is presented by this we can reduce the problem of
electricity.
Keywords: Solar PV, climate condition, challenge and
scope.
Wind, solar, biomass, geothermal, tidal energy is
knows as renewable sources. Wind and solar is play a
major contribution to overcome the problem of
electricity in India, but such sources are not used
effectively in India.
In India total number of solar plant in Gujarat is
maximum then other state in India.Gujrat is an example
in India for generation of electrical energy by using
solar energy effectively.

I. INTRODUCTION
Indian power sector face a major problem, that is
the utilization of electrical energy is much more as
compare to generation and this can be over come if we
increase our dependency in renewable sources. Most of
the generation in India is fossil based then nuclear,
hydro and a small contribution by using renewable
sources.

Fig. 3: State Wise Generation Capacity by using Solar PV

Fig. 1: Indian Power Sector
A. Solar PV
Photovoltaic’s is the field of technology and
research related to the devices which directly convert
sunlight into electricity. The solar cell is the elementary
building block of the photovoltaic technology.
Solar cells are made of semiconductor materials,
such as silicon. One of the properties of semiconductors
that makes them most useful is that their conductivity
may easily be modified by introducing impurities into
their crystal lattice.
When photons of light fall on the cell, they transfer
their energy to the charge carriers. The electric field
across the junction separates photo-generated positive
Fig. 2: Renewable Power Capacity
there are several types of solar cells. However, more

292 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2

 Solar Mission in In
ndia (Scope and
d Challenges)

than 90 % of the solar cells currentlyy made worlddwide 3) Mansoon

consist of wafer-based
w silicon cells.
The month off July to Octoober is known n as summer
seaso
on. In this seaason intensityy of light agaiin decreases
whicch effects on generation oof electrical energy.
e The
average temperatuure during thiss period is230c-27
c 0c.

Figg. 4: Solar PV

A number of solar cellss electrically connected to each

other and mounted
m in a single
s supportt structure or frame
f
is called a ‘photovoltaic module’. Moodules are desiigned
to supply electricity att a certain voltage,
v such as a
common 12 volt system. The currrent produceed is
directly deependent on the intensity of light reacching
the modulee.

Fig. 6: Annuaal Temperature inn India (Region Wise)

W

Fig.. 5: Schematic off a Bare-bones Offf-grid System

B. Climate Condition
Climatte conditionss play an im mportant role with
respect to solar generaation in Indiaa .whether chhange
time to tim
me which effeccts on the efficciency of the plant.
p
In India whhether is classsified into threee major part.
1. Winter.
W
2. Suummer.
3. Mansoon.
M
1) Winterr
The month
m of Noveember to Febbruary is know wn as
winter seasson. In this seeason the effeect of solar ennergy Fig. 7: Averagge Temperature iin India (Region Wise)
W
is reduced in comparisonn of summer, because sun is i not
C. Challenge-Laand
visible moost of the daays so the generation
g is also
effected .thhe average teemperature inn winter seasson is Is a scarce resource
r in Inndia and per capita land
about 100c-200c. availlability is low
w. Dedication oof land area fo
or exclusive
instaallation of solar arrays migght have to coompete with
2) Summer otherr necessities thhat require lannd.
The month
m of March to June iss know as sum mmer
D. Cost of Solar PV
season. Inn this season temperature increase andd this
period is best
b for generaation of electrricity. The average Cell is mucch higher, so initial inv vestment is
temperaturre in this seasoon is 350c-460c. increeased and Inddia is a develooping country
y so most of
the state
s is in deveeloping stage.

agwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar,, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 293

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Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
E. The Transmission
System in India is not much strong, most of the
power waist through transmission line.
F. Lack of Awarnace Related to Solar Energy
Is also a major reason that this conventional source
not successful in India.
G. Efficiency
Is also a major reason, because the efficiency is less
in comparison of conventional sources. Efficiency of
electrical energy which is generated from solar PV is
about 65%.
H. Scope-Gujarat
Is a best example in India for generation of
electrical energy through solar PV.
Gujarat has been a leader in solar power generation
and contributes 2/ 3rd of the 900 MW of photovoltaics
in the country. The State has commissioned Asia’s
biggest solar park at Charanka village. The park is
already generating 214 MW solar powers out of its total
planned capacity of 500 MW
Fig. 8: View of Solar Park in Gujarat
Next to Gujarat, Rajasthan is India's sunniest state,
and many solar projects have been proposed. The 40
MW photovoltaic Dhirubhai Ambani Solar Park was
completed in April 2012.[18] A 250 MW compact
linear Fresnel reflector (CLFR) plant is under
construction, consisting of two 125 MW.
294 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
I. Solar Lamps and Lighting
By 2012 46, 00,000 solar lanterns and 861,654
solar powered home lights have been installed. These
typically replace kerosene lamps and can be purchased
for the cost of a few months worth of kerosene through
a small loan. The Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy is offering a 30% to 40% subsidy for the cost of
lanterns, home lights and small systems up to 210 Wp.
20 million solar lamps are expected by 2022.
J. Agricultural Support
Solar PV water pumping systems are used for
irrigation and drinking water. The majority of the
pumps are fitted with a 200–3,000 watt motor that are
powered with 1,800 Wp PV arrays which can deliver
about 140,000 liters of water per day from a total head
of 10 meters.
K. Solar Water Heaters
Bangalore has the largest deployment of rooftop
solar water heaters in India. These heaters generate an
energy equivalent of 200 MW every day.
Solar power most effective source to minimize the
problem of electricity in India. It is an alternative
source.
II. CONCLUSION
The problem of electricity reduced if we adopt non
conventional sources like solar energy.Goverment
support is necessary for awarance of solar PV in Indian
community. Other state also learns the utilization of
solar energy from Gujarat and, Rajasthan.
There is a need of commercialization of solar PV.
REFERENCES
[1] "Small Photovoltaic Arrays". Research Institute for Sustainable
Energy (RISE), Murdoch University. Retrieved 5 February
2010.
[2] John Quiggin (January 3, 2012). "The End of the Nuclear
Renaissance |". National Interest.
[3] People building their own solar systems from kits.
Greenplanet4energy.com. Retrieved on 2012-04-23.
[4] Example of diy PV system with pictures. Instructables.com
(2007-11-05). Retrieved on 2012-04-23.
[5] Deshgujarat.com/state wise-per-capita-power-consumption-
figures.
[6] Types of PV systems. University of Florida.
[7] List of Eligible SB1 Guidelines Compliant Photovoltaic
Modules.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Future of Automobile Design and Materials
Ravindra Kumar Malviya1 and Dharmendra Dubey2
e-mail: 1rk_malviya2010@rediffmail.com
I. INTRODUCTION
Design and Materials are two different worlds and
still strongly related. Each very different in their being
and both equally important in shaping the physical
world around us. Design creates products and products
are made of materials. Design gives functions to
products and materials are chosen and formed to best
incorporate those functions. Design can also relate to
graphics and the virtual world observed on displays or
advanced visualization techniques. This trend study
however focuses on Design of the physical world,
shaped in 3D. The subject of this focus on automotive
products.
II. FUTURE PERSPECTIVE
A. Materials
1) Intelligent materials
Materials in future are not just dead construction
elements. They become alive to perform new functions.
A fascinating new technology trend also referred to as
'functional materials'.
Self healing materials: Like human beings this
category of materials has the ability to autonomously
restore damages. The technology is being developed for
coatings, thermoplasts, metals, composites and civil
engineering materials. There is an enormous potential
of further development in the number of times self
repair is possible and in now close the original material
properties can be met. Microcapsules with special
agents are embedded in the base material. They are
opened by the damage done to free the agent and start
the self healing chemical reaction.
Fig. 1
In automotive first applications can be expected in
the area of coatings. In future scratches on paint will
disappear in a few hours.
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
Coatings: More can be done with coatings. This is
the area where automotive uses nano technology.
Coatings can already make glass heat reflecting. Special
coatings are being developed to make materials like
glass water and dust repellent. Akzo-Nobel announced a
paint that through special elastic properties can reduce
the air drag of vehicles. It has already been applied to
race cars. On the other side of the spectrum very hard
material coatings, like ceramics, will improve wear and
friction characteristics of mechanical power train
components or make plastic front windshields withstand
the use of wipers. Nano technology opens an array of
possibilities in the area of sensors. Special ceramic
coatings can be developed to detect very small
concentrations of gas in vehicle interiors.
Memory materials: Shape memory is another way
of self repair. Materials are being developed that can
refined their original shape under influence of external
temperature. Most Shape Memory Polymers (SMP's)
can remember one original shape, but there are even
materials reported to be able to regain two different
shapes. In future such technologies could be applied to
repair dents in (plastic) fenders by simply applying
heat.
Shape Memory Alloys (SMA's) are special grade
alloys that use the change of crystalline structure to
remember their shape, also by applying heat. GM
showed how this can be used to operate the vanes of a
car grille or as a pop up mechanism for rear spoilers.
Electro responsive materials: Materials can also
change properties under the influence of electric
voltage. The Dutch startup company Ioniqa develops
the technology of magnetic substances dispersed in a
salt solution. When an electromagnetic field is applied
the viscosity of the liquid changes. The technology is
being developed for a.o. use in shock absorbers.
New coatings on glass can change color under
voltage to darken in case of sunlight. Daimler
introduced a sunroof option with electrochromic glass.
A small voltage causes the glass to darken. A reverse
voltage causes them to lighten again. The
electrochromic coating is built of up to seven layers
of materials.
Solar materials: Photovoltaic foils will be applied
on sunroofs and possibly other sun exposed surfaces to
generate energy. In an electric car, where energy is
scarce, a solar paneled roof can provide the energy to
295
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
keep the car ventilation going when parked in the sun.
This adds to comfort and reduces the amount of energy
needed to cool down the interior after return.
Fig. 2
2) New e-conductive materials
Copper is heavy and increasingly expensive. The
price of copper has seen a fourfold increase since 2003.
The complete wiring harness of a car weighs
approximately 40 to 50 kg. The number of e-
connections tend to increase while multiplexing
technology aims to bring the weight of the wiring
harness down. New materials are sought for
conductivity and insulation in wiring. Aluminum
instead of copper can save 4-7 kg on wiring per car but
has drawbacks on corrosion and needs a bigger cross
section (space). New insulation materials can reduce the
weight of a wire bundle by up to 40% (source: Delphi).
Signal wires can be printed on foil to reduce weight
and space.
Conductivity of materials will also be a
development in the world of coatings. Transparent
conductive layers are developed to create ice-free
windshields. New conductive coatings are also the base
of the OLED technology.
3) Materials for energy storage
New materials to store energy will be very
important for the future. The capacity and weight (and
costs) of batteries are still the major competitive
disadvantaged of electric vehicles compared to the
Internal Combustion Engine. The energy content of a
liter petrol is hard to beat. A fuel tank of 50kg will get a
car 25 times as far as a Li-ion battery of 50kg and
refueling takes only a fraction of the time of recharging.
Future technology will have to close this gap. Step by
step. Many different ways are explored. The University
of Maryland reported (January 2011) that they are able
to increase the capacity of a Li-ion battery by a tenfold
by using a genetically modified virus that is attached to
and coated with special metals. The virus looses life
during the production process.
In the quest for better batteries also the
construction of the battery is bound to change. The
Imperial Collage of London and Volvo have a research
296 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
project on body panels that serve as a battery. The body
panels are made of a sandwich material that is able to
store energy. The idea is to fight the 100kg penalty of
electric drive by giving the body this double function.
4) Biomaterials
Biomaterials have a long history in the automotive
industry. Leather upholstery has been there from the
start. Paneling has long been made of pressed wood
fibers and cotton and wool are well known as isolation
materials. New is the use of bioplastics. The technology
to produce bioplastics started with (non automotive)
degradable materials and has advanced to the point that
is possible to make parts up to automotive standards.
DSM has launched EcoPaXX in 2009 as a bio-based,
high performance engineering plastic. Approximately
70% of the polymer consists of building blocks derived
from castor oil. DSM proved EcoPaXX™ to be 100 %
carbon neutral from cradle to gate. Castor beans are not
fit for human consumption and hence the material does
not disturb the food production chain.
A relatively new trend in composites is to replace
glass or carbon fibers with natural fibers from plants.
There are various plants suited for this purpose. Most
used is hemp. Hemp fibers can be cut to be used as
filler in thermoplast injection molded materials. The PP
blend with 50% hemp fibers produced Greengran
creates parts that are stiffer, comparably strong, and
cheaper then the conventional glass filled alternatives.
The composite has fogging and humidity characteristics
and odor emission levels within present norms and a
further advantage in better sound deadening. Hemp can
also be used as base for long fiber reinforced
composites. The company Hempflax produced mats and
parts this way. As with Greengranfysical properties are
very comparable to glass filled alternatives while these
products are half made from plants. The next step is the
resin. In 2010 DSM introduced a biobased resin for
automotive composites. Palapreg is 55% biobased and
this content of renewable material can be increased in
the years to come. Palapreg also offers a solution to the
recycling of composites. Since it contains short cycled
carbon incineration can be regarded as CO2 neutral in
terms of climate change. When combined with hemp
fibers this opens the perspective that composites
components can be fully recyclable.
OEMs that promote the use of biobased materials
are Toyota, BMW and Daimler.
III. CONCLUSION
The Netherlands have a strong raw material
industry and a lot of design creativity. Hundreds of
Industrial Design graduated enters the market place
each year. It is a chance for the automotive industry to
attract them and give them a place to develop their
skills. Their creativity can be put to use to generate new
ideas for better products.

Design and Materials belong together. Many Dutch
automotive companies work with materials, but many
more of them can benefit by using the creativity of
designers. Design and materials shape the world around
us. But designers can do much more. Designers are
trained to think from the customer point of view. They
can think about how to improve the functionality of the
product, also when it is a technical component. New
create thinking on functions can improve the product
concept.
Thinking about the customer is thinking the
market. Designing products starts with thinking about
the future. Both in terms of market and technology.
Hence designers can support the product strategy
process of the company. And when product
development gets technical lateral thinking of designers
can spark new ideas for new solutions.
Design is a way to communicate quality. Design
expresses care and dedication to the product. Also for
hidden components there is always a moment when this
is important; when show in a brochure, at a sales
meeting when discussing price, at a show or even in the
hands of the person who mounts it in the car to inspire
him to handle with care.
Design and materials are both a way to create a
better product. The Dutch automotive industry can
benefit from the results of strong Dutch material
suppliers, creative research of knowledge institutes and
professional serve suppliers. A non exhaustive number
of very promising developments mentioned in this
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 297
Future of Automobile Design and Materials
report that Dutch industry members can use to innovate
their product range are listed below:
• Monomaterial composites Styron.
• Biobased materials DSM/ Greengran/
Hempflax.
• PC glazing Sabic.
• Fast reaction resins Styron.
• Solar/ oled/ smart foils Holst/ Solliance.
• New steel grades/ HSS Tata Steel/ M2i.
REFERENCES
[1] 2100 Science–Shape Memory Alloys:
http://www.2100science.com/Videos/Shape_Memory_Alloys.as
px
[2] Cars on a Diet: The Material and Energy Impacts of Passenger
Vehicle Weight Reduction in the U.S / Lynette W. Cheah
[3] Center for Transportation Analysis Research Brief “Automotive
Lightweight Materials Assessment”.
[4] Dutch Design Gallery; a gallery of Dutch automotive Designers
[5] Innovation Norway: Advanced light weight materials within the
automotive industry light-Appendix 1 global trends–January
7th, 2010.
[6] Volvo-Tomorrow's Volvo car: body panels serve as the car
battery:
http://www.volvocars.com/intl/top/about/corporate/volvo-
sustainability/pages/sustainability-news.aspx?itemid=209
[7] Volkswagen-Stress-free driving through the winter:
http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/ne
ws/2010/11/volkswagen_group_researches_ice-
free_windscreens.html
[8] Wikipedia-Shape memory polymer:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape_memory_polymer
[9] WorldAutoSteel–Reinventing Automotive Steel (Greet Designs
in Steel–May5, 2010).
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Wind Energy Conversion System

Goldy Sharma1, K.B. Mohd2, Umar Ansari3 and Satyendra Vishwakarma4
M.Tech (Electrical Power & Energy Systems), Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College, Ghaziabad, India
e-mail: 1goldysharmaacet@gmail.com, 2mumar28@gmail.com, 3satyendrav89@gmail.com

Abstract—Wind power capacity has experienced II. PARTS OF WIND TURBINE

tremendous growth in the past decade, thanks to wind
power's environmental benefits, technological advance, and
government incentives. This paper presents wind energy
conversion systems, and their social and environmental
benefits. The paper provides, a review of the interconnection
issues of distributed resources including wind power with
electric power systems.

I. INTRODUCTION
Electricity generation using wind energy has been
well recognized as environmentally friendly, socially
beneficial, and economically competitive for many
applications. Because of crucial fossil energy resources
shortage and environmental issues the wind energy is
very important resource for electricity production.
A. WECS Technology
A WECS is a structure that transforms the kinetic
energy of the incoming air stream into electrical energy.
This conversion takes place in two steps, as follows.
The extraction device, named wind turbine rotor turns
under the wind stream action, thus harvesting a
mechanical power. The rotor drives a rotating electrical
machine, the generator, which outputs electrical power.
Wind turbines are classified into two general types:
horizontal axis and vertical axis. A horizontal axis
machine has its blades rotating on an axis parallel to the
ground (Fig. 1). A vertical axis machine has its blades
rotating on an axis perpendicular to the ground (Fig 2).
Today, the vast majority of manufactured wind turbines
are horizontal axis with two or three blades, operating
either down-wind or up-wind.
Fig. 1: Horizontal Axis Fig. 2: Vertical Axis wind
wind Turbine Turbine
Fig. 3: Main Elements of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
Figure 3 illustrates the major components
placement in horizontal axis wind turbine.
A typical wind turbine consists of the following
components:
A. Blade
An important part of a wind turbine that extracts
wind energy.
B. Hub
Blades are fixed to a hub which is a central solid
part of the turbine.
C. Gear Box
Two types of gear box used in wind turbine:
1. Parallel shaft-It is used in small turbines,
design is simple, maintenance is easy, high
mass material and offset shaft.
2. Planetary shaft-It is used in large turbines,
complex design, low mass material and in line
arrangements.
D. Brakes
Two independent brakes sets or incorporated on the
rotor low speed shaft and high speed shaft.
The low speed shaft is Hydraulic operated .The
high speed shaft is self adjusted and spring loaded.

298 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2

 Wind Energy Conversion System

E. Nacelle with squirrel-cage induction generators (SCIG), soft

starter and capacitor bank and they are connected
The nacelle houses the generator, the gearbox, the
directly to the grid, as shown in Figure (4).
hydraulic system and yawing mechanism.
F. Generator
The conversion of mechanical power of wind
turbine into the electrical power can be accomplished
by one of the following type of the electrical machine:
1. Synchronous machine.
2. Induction machine.
G. Tower
Towers are made from tubular steel, concrete or Fig. 4: General Structure of a Fixed-Speed WECS
steel lattice. Because wind speed is getting higher with
SCIG are preferred because they are mechanically
the height, taller towers enable turbines to capture more
simple, have high efficiency and low maintenance cost.
energy and this way generate more electricity.
SCIG-based WECS are designed to achieve maximum
power efficiency at a unique wind speed. In order to
III. WIND TURBINE GENERATOR increase the power efficiency Fixed-speed WECS have
At the present time and in the near future, the advantage of being simple, robust and reliable, with
generators for wind turbines will be synchronous simple and inexpensive electric systems and well
generators, permanent magnet synchronous generators, proven operation. On the other hand, due to the fixed-
and induction generators, including the squirrel cage speed operation, the mechanical stress is important.
type and wound rotor type. For small to medium power An evolution of the fixed-speed SCIG-based
wind turbines, permanent magnet generators and WECS are the limited variable speed WECS. They are
squirrel cage induction generators are often used equipped with a wound-rotor induction generator
because of their reliability and cost advantages. (WRIG) with variable external rotor resistance; see
Induction generators, permanent magnet synchronous Figure 5. The unique feature of this WECS is that it has
generators and wound field synchronous generators are a variable additional rotor resistance, controlled by
currently used in various high power wind turbines. power electronics. Thus, the total (internal plus
Interconnection apparatuses are devices to achieve external) rotor resistance is adjustable, further
power control, soft start and interconnection functions. controlling the slip of the generator and therefore the
Very often, power electronic converters are used as slope of the mechanical characteristic.
such devices. Most modern turbine inverters are forced
commutated PWM inverters to provide a fixed voltage
and fixed frequency output with a high power quality.
Both voltage source voltage controlled inverters and
voltage source current controlled inverters have been
applied in wind turbines. For certain high power wind
turbines, effective power control can be achieved with
double PWM (pulse width modulation) converters
which provide a bi-directional power flow between the
turbine generator and the utility grid.

IV. POWER GENERATION SYSTEM
The electrical power generation structure contains
both electromagnetic and electrical subsystems. Besides
the electrical generator and power electronics converter
it generally contains an electrical transformer to ensure
the grid voltage compatibility.
V. FIXED-SPEED WECS
Fixed-speed WECS operate at constant speed. That
means that, regardless of the wind speed, the wind
turbine rotor speed is fixed and determined by the grid
frequency. Fixed-speed WECS are typically equipped
Fig. 5: General Structure of a Limited Variable-Speed WECS
VI. VARIABLE SPEED WECS
Variable-speed wind turbines are currently the
most used WECS. The variable speed operation is
possible due to the power electronic converters
interface, allowing a full (or partial) decoupling from
the grid.
The doubly-fed-induction-generator (DFIG) based
WECS (Figure 6), also known as improved variable-
speed WECS, is presently the most used by the wind
turbine industry.

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 299

Proceedingss of National Co
onference on Tre
ends in Signal Processing
P & Co
ommunication (TSPC’13) 12th–
–14th April 2013
3

speeds, and thuus the gearboox (Figure 7) can be

remo oved. This iss a big advvantage of PM MSG-based
WEC CS as the geearbox is a ssensitive device in wind
power systems. TheT same thinng can be achieved using
direcct driven multti pole PMSG with large diaameter. The
syncchronous natuure of PMSG G may causee problems
durinng start-up, syynchronization and voltagee regulation
and they need a cooling systtem, since th he magnetic
mateerials are senssitive to tempeerature and th
hey can lose
theirr magnetic properties if exposed to high
tempperatures.
Fig. 6: Genneral Structure off an Improved Vaariable-Speed WE
ECS

The DFIG
D is a WRIG
W with thhe stator winndings
connected directly to the three phase, constant-
frequency grid and the rotor windinngs connectedd to a
back-to-baack (AC–AC) voltage sourcce converter. Thus, T
the term “doubly-fed”
“ comes from the fact thaat the
stator volttage is applieed from the grid g and the rotor
voltage is impressed by b the poweer converter. This
system alloows variable-sspeed operatioon over a largee, but
still restriccted, range, with the geenerator behaaviour
being goveerned by the powerp electroonics converteer and Fig. 7: General Structure
S of a Fulll Variable-Speed
d WECS
its controollers. The power elecctronics convverter
comprises of two IGBT T converters, namely the rotor VIII. CONTROL OPTIONS
side and thhe grid side coonverter, connnected with a direct
d
current (DC C) link. The rotor
r side connverter controls the
generator ini terms of acctive and reacctive power, while w
the grid sidde converter controls
c the DC-link
D voltage and
ensures opperation at a large power factor. The stator
outputs poower into thee grid all thee time. The rotor, r
depending on the operattion point, is feeding
f powerr into
the grid when
w the slip is negative (over
( synchroonous
operation) and it absorbbs power from m the grid wheen the
slip is possitive (sub-syynchronous operation). In both
cases, the power flow in the rotorr is approxim mately
proportionaal to the slip. DFIG-based WECS are highly h
controllablle, allowing maximum
m pow wer extractionn over
a large rangge of wind speeds.
Full variable-speed
v d WECS aree very flexibble in
terms of which
w type of generator is used.
u As presented
in Figure 4,
4 it can be eqquipped with eithere an induuction Fig. 8: Mechanical
M Controol & Load Contro
ol
(SCIG) or a synchronoous generator. The synchroonous
generator can be eitheer a wound-rrotor synchroonous A. Mechanical Control
C of the Turbine Blad
de
generator (WRSG)
( or a permanent-m magnet synchroonous
generator (PMSG).
( Thee back-to-backk power inverrter is As the wind speed changees the pitch off the blades
rated to thee generator poower and its operation
o is siimilar or bllade tip is adjjusted to conttrol the frequ
uency of the
to that in DFIG-based
D W
WECS. Its rotoor-side ensurees the turbiine rotation.
rotational speed being adjusted withhin a large range, r The drawback of this method iis that power in the wind
whereas its grid-side traansfers the acctive power to t the is wasted
w and coontrol methodd can be exp pensive and
grid and attempts too cancel thee reactive power p unreliable.
consumptioon. The PMSG G is a good option to be ussed in B. Load Controll
WECS, duue to its self-exxcitation propperty, which allows
a
operation at a high poweer factor and efficiency. PMSG As the wind speed changges the electriical load is
does not require
r energyy supply for excitation, ass it is channged by rapid switching, soo the turbine frequency
f is
supplied byb the permaanent magnetss. The stator of a contrrolled. This method
m makess greater use of o power in
PMSG is wound
w and the rotor has a permanent magnet
m the wind
w because the blade pitcch s kept at th
he optimum
pole systemm. The salientt pole of PMS SG operates at a low angle.

300 ‹ Bhag
gwant Institute of
o Technology, Muzaffarnagar,
M Uttar Pradesh, India
 Wind Energy Conversion System

VIII. CONCLUSION and leads to non-negligible variations in the

dynamic behaviour of the system over its
Energy crisis calls for a large penetration of
operating range. This is the reason why the
renewable energy resources, among which wind energy
control of variable-speed wind turbines is still
is a promising one. Voltage and frequency regulation is
in the phase of searching technical solutions
vital to meet the grid code. This paper has covered
suitable to be widely implemented in the wind
many key issues to compose the proposed wind energy
turbine industry.
system, including the system architecture, control
objective, and component design. However, there are still lots of issues needed to be
addressed and thus opens the possible research
A. Specifically
opportunities:
1. A family of wind energy system with
1. The high voltage and high power system
integrated active power transfer, reactive
operation is still not fulfilled yet, although
power compensation, and voltage-conversion
there is no technique limitation in this topic.
capabilities was proposed. Compared with the
2. Fault operating condition is not studied yet,
previous applications which utilize only the
which is a key issue in wind energy system.
active power transfer and voltage-conversion
Similar issues, such as how to realize the fault-
functionalities, reactive power compensation
ride through of the traditional wind energy
capability is fully investigated.
system, can also be studied in the SST-
2. The proposed family of wind energy system
interfaced wind system.
was demonstrated in the presence of squirrel-
cage induction generators, by far the most
REFERENCES
demanding case in terms of voltage fluctuation
and reactive power demand. Under the SST [1] “Renewable Energy Sources and Emerging Technologies”,
interface, the WF was rendered free of Eastern Economy Edition, D.P.Kothari, K.C.Singal and Rakesh
Ranjan.
distribution power transformer and mandatory [2] “Wind energy-the facts: a guide to the technology, economics,
passive and active static power compensators. and future of wind power”, the European Wind Energy
3. Variable-speed WECS is a highly nonlinear Association, 2009.
time variant system excited by stochastic [3] B.Wu, Y. Lang, N. Zargari, and S. Kouro, Power Conversion
and Control of Wind Energy Systems. Hoboken, NJ:
inputs which significantly affect its reliability Wiley, 2011.

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 301

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
FACTS Devices in Distributed Generation
K.B. Mohd1, Umar Ansari2, Goldy Sharma3 and Satyendra Vishwakarma4
M.Tech (Electrical Power & Energy Systems), Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering,
Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College, Ghaziabad, India
e-mail: 1mumar28@gmail.com, 2goldysharmaacet@gmail.com, 3satyendrav89@gmail.com
Abstract—The FACTS devices control the
interrelated parameters that rule the operation of the
transmission systems, including the serial impedance, the
derivation impedance, the current, the tension, the phase
angle and the muffling of oscillations to different
frequencies under nominal frequency. The FACTS
technology has a collection of controllers, that can be used
individually or co-ordinated with other control installed in
the network, thus permitting to profit better of the
network’s characteristics of control.
The configurations of compensators based on
switched inverters, called static compensators of reactive
power, are today the most used in the electric current
transmission systems. The application of high powered
electronic converters makes possible the generation or
absorption of reactive power without using banks of
condensers or inductors.
The STATCOM is a device used on alternating
current electricity transmission networks. It is based on a
power electronic voltage-source converter and can act as
either a source or sink of reactive AC power to an
electricity network. If connected to a source of power it
can also provide AC power. It is a member of the FACTS
family of devices. The function will depend on the type of
network in which it will be installed; it could fulfil
functions of reactive power control and power factor
regulator, or other functions as shock absorber of system
oscillations or filtering of harmonics, depending on the
system applications.
Keywords: FACTS, STATCOM, Custom power, Active
filter.
I. INTRODUCTION
The solutions to improve the quality of supply in
the electrical networks with distributed generation go
through the application of the developments in
semiconductor power devices, that is to say, the
utilization of static power converters in electrical
energy networks. The technological advances in power
semiconductors are permitting the development of
device that react more like an ideal switch, totally
controllable, admitting high frequencies of
commutation to major levels of tension and power.
On the other hand, large advances in auxiliary
technologies devices of digital control, DSP’s, circuits
of programmable logic and in techniques of advanced
control. These technological developments, united to a
tendency of reduction of cost of the power
semiconductors, are permitting to undertake a new
302
practical way to practice topologies of conversion of
capable energy to give competitive solutions to the
related problems, with the interconnection of new
energy sources in the networks of high and medium
tension and with improved the quality of the electricity
supply.
The concept of distributed generation is generally
associated to the development of the renewable energy
sources and other alternative sources as the fuel piles, is
another factor to keep in mind in the development and
configuration of the electrical system, that will need an
important electronic equipment based on power
converters that facilitate the integration of these sources
of energy, without damaging over the reception quality
of the users connected to the electricity network.
The use of static power converters in electricity
networks has the potential of increasing the capacity of
transmission of electric lines and improving the supply
quality of the electric energy. The devices used to
achieve this, are the FACTS.
According to the IEEE the definition of these
FACTS devices is the following: ‘a power electronic
based system and other static equipment that provide
control of one or more AC transmission system
parameters to enhance controllability and increase
power transfer capability.’
The FACTS controllers offer great opportunities to
regulate the transmission of alternating current (AC),
increasing or diminishing the power flow in specific
lines and responding almost instantaneously to the
stability problems. The potential of this technology is
based on the possibility of controlling the route of the
power flow and the ability of connecting networks that
are not adequately interconnected, giving the possibility
of trading energy between distant agents.
II. FACTS IN ACTIVE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
In the new market of Active Distribution, the
flexibility of the transmission depending on the prices
of the electric energy in each moment is imposed. The
fact that the energy can vary dynamically in the way
from generation to consumption requires a bigger
margin of the lines design, or at least, a major control of
the energy they transmit.
Narrowly related to the FACTS term is that of
CUSTOM POWER, controllers based on solid state
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
 FACTS Devices in Distributed Generation

technologies that are designed to operate in medium and Second generation: semiconductors with ignition
low tension levels, whose main objective is to improve and extinction controlled by door (GTO, IGBT, etc.).
the quality of service in distribution networks. The TABLE 1
solutions to improve the energy quality at the load side
FACTS Devices Attributes of Control
is of great important when the production processes get Static compensator of Voltage control and stability,
more complicated and require a bigger liability level, VAR’s (SVC, TCR, TCS, compensation of VAR’s, muffling of
which includes aims like to provide energy without TRS oscillations
interruption, without harmonic distortion and with Thyristor controlled series Currents control, muffling of
compensation oscillations, transitory, dynamic and of
tension regulation between very narrow margins. (TCSC, TSSC) tensions stabiles, limitations of fault
Among the FACTS, but that is different to them Current
because of their final use. In fact the topologies that Thyristor controlled Currents control, muffling of
they employ are identical to the ones in the FACTS Reactor series (TCSR, oscillations, transitory, dynamic and of
TSSR) tensions stabiles, limitations of fault
devices with little modifications and adaptations to Current
tension level; therefore they are most oriented to be Thyristor controlled Control of active power, muffling of
used in distribution networks of low and medium Phase shifting transformer oscillations, transitory, dynamics
tension, sometimes replacing active filters. (TCPST OR TCPR) transformer and of voltage stability
Thyristor controlled Control of reactive power, voltage
voltage regulator (TCVR) control muffling of oscillations,
III. ADVANTAGES AND OPERABILITY transitory, dynamics transformer and
OF FACTS DEVICES of voltage stability
Thyristor controlled Voltage limited limit of transitory and
The following features resume the main advantages voltage limited (TCVL) dynamics voltage
of the FACTS devices: Synchronous static Voltage control, compensation of
Better utilization of existing transmission system compensator (STATCOM VAR’s muffling of oscillations,
without storage) stability of voltage
assets: Cost of FACTS generally lower than that of new Synchronous static Voltage control and stability,
transmission lines. compensator (STATCOM compensation of VAR’s muffling of
Increased transmission system reliability and with storage) oscillations, transitory, dynamics and
of tension stability
availability: FACTS provide transmission systems with
Static synchronous series Current control, muffling of
robustness to endure contingencies. compensator (SSSC oscillations, transitory dynamics and of
Increased dynamic and transient grid stability: without storege) voltage stability, limitation of fault
Lower vulnerability to load changes, line faults. current
Increased quality of supply for sensitive industries: Static synchronous series Current control muffled of oscillations,
compensator (SSSC with transitory, dynamics and of tension
Through mitigation of flicker, frequency variations. storage) stability
Environmental protection: Smaller impact than the Unified power flow Control of active and reactive power,
installation of new lines. No waste production. controller (UPFC) voltage control, compensation of VAR
There are three factors to be considered before limitation of fault current
Interline power flow Control of reactive power, voltage
installing a FACTS device: controller (IPFC) or back control, muffling of oscillations
• The type of device. to back (BtB) transitory, dynamics and of voltage
• The capacity required. stability
• The location that optimize the functioning of First Generation Second Generation

the device. These two classifications are independent, existing

Of these factors, the last one is of great importance,
because the desired effect and the proper features of the
system depend on the location of FACTS.
IV. CLASSIFICATION
Depending on the type of connection to the
network. The FACTS device can differentiate four
categories:
• Serial controller.
• Derivation controller.
• Serial to serial controller.
• Serial derivation controllers.
Depending on technological features, the FACTS
devices can be divided into two generations:
First generation: uses thyristors with ignition
controlled by door (SCR).
for example; devices of a group of first classification
that can belong to various groups of the second
classification. In the table 1.you can see the summary of
the main devices.
V. TYPES OF NETWORK CONNECTION
A. Serial Controllers
It can consist of variable impedance as a condenser,
a coil, etc. or a variable electronics based source at a
fundamental frequency. The principle of operation of all
the serial controllers is to inject a serial tension to the
line. Variable impedance multiplied by the current that
flows through it represents the serial tension. While the
tension is in quadrature with the line current the serial
controller only consumes reactive power; any other
phase angle represents management of active power.

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 303

Proceedingss of National Co
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–14th April 2013
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A typpical controlleer is serial synchronous

s static power flow conttroller (UPFC C) which inncorporating
compensattor (SSSC). functions of filteering and coonditioning, becomes a
univ
versal power liine conditioneer (UPLC).

VI. SECOND GENERATION

N FACTS DEV
VICES

The first generation FAC CTS devices work like

passiive elements using impeedances or taap changer
transsformers conntrolled by thyristors. The T second
geneeration FACTS S devices worrk like angle and a module
contrrolled voltagge sources. The main difference
ween first and second geeneration devices is the
betw
capaacity to generaate reactive ppower and to interchange
Fig. 1: Serial Controllerss activ
ve power. In the
t first generration, these abilities
a are
excluusive for SV VC and TCSC, are comp pensators of
B. Contro
ollers in Deriivation reacttive but are not
n capable eexchanging acctive power
As it happens with
w the seriaal controller, the with the system, or in the casse of the TCS SP, the can
controller in derivatioon can consiist of a varriable exchhange active or
o reactive po ower, but are not n capable
impedancee variable, variable source or a geneerating reactive power. T The second generation
combinatiion of both. The
T operatio on principle of
o all has the inherent capacity, as a synchronou us machine,
controllers in derivatioon is to injeect current too the to exxchange activve and reactiive power an nd with the
system in n the poin nt of conn nection. Varriable systeem, furtherm more, to g generate or absorb it
impedancee connected to the line teension line causes auto
omatically, having
h as consequencee reactive
variable cuurrent flow, representing g an injectioon of comp pensation witthout condenssers or alternatting current
current too the line. While
W the injeected current is in coilss. The real po
ower has to bee exchanged through
t the
quadraturee with the liine tension, the controlleer in AC system.
s
derivation only consum mes reactive power; any other Simplifying, the differrence between these
phase anglle represents management
m t of active po
ower. geneerations of FAACTS devicees is the flex xibility and
A typical controlller is Synnchronous Static the response dy ynamic. The second gen neration of
Compensattor (STATCOM M). FAC CTS devices adapt to imp prove to chan nges in the
topoology or in thhe point of w work of the network
n and
the response dynnamics is faster. Neverth heless, the
secoond devices ofo this generaation of FACT TS are more
comp plex and expennsive.
The followinng controllerss belong to this t second
geneeration:
• STATCO OM (Sttatic Synchronous
Compenssator).
• SSSC (Static S
Synchronous Serious
Compenssator).
• UPFC (U Unified Powerr Flow Controller).
Fig. 2: Conntrollers in Derivaation The SSSC is i identical to the STAT TCOM (in
C. Serial--Serial Controollers equippment and operation)
o buut employs them in a
diffeerent disposition (serial)) and UPFC C has two
This tyype of controlller can be a combination
c o co-
of STAATCOM one serial
s and the oother in derivaation.
ordinated serial controlllers in a multiple transmiission
system, or can also be ann unified conttroller in whicch the VII. STAT
TCOM (STATIC
C SYNCHRONO
OUS
serial conttroller providde serial reacttive compenssation COMPENSATOR )
for each linne also transfeerring active power
p transmiission
capacity thhat presents a unified
u serial--serial controlller or It is a devicce connected in derivation n, basically
line feed power
p controlller. A typicaal controller is i the comp posed of a cooupling transfoormer, that serves of link
interline poower flow com mpensator (IPF FC). ween the elecctric Power system (SEP
betw P) and the
voltaage synchronoous controllerr (VSC), thatt generates
D. Serial--Derivation Controllers
C the voltage wav ve comparing g it to the one
o of the
electtric system tot realize thee exchange of reactive
This device
d can be a combination of seriall and
powwer.
derivation controllerss separatedd, co-ordinnately In its most general
g way, the STATCO OM can be
controlled or a unified power
p flow coontroller with serial moddelled as a regu ulated voltagee source Vi co
onnected to
and derivaation elementss. A typical coontroller is unnified

304 ‹ Bhag
gwant Institute of
o Technology, Muzaffarnagar,
M Uttar Pradesh, India
 FACTS Devicces in Distribute
ed Generation

a voltage bar Vs throuugh a transforrmer, as the figure

f lossees of the VSCC. A SSSC iss able to exchhange active
below show
ws in Fig. 3. and reactive poweer with the traansmission sysstem. But if
our only aim is to balance th he reactive power,
p the
enerrgy source could
c be quiite small. Th he injected
voltaage can be controlled in p phase and magnitude
m if
we have
h an enerrgy source th
hat is big enoough for the
purp
pose.

Figg. 3: Statcom

There can be a little active power exchhange

between thhe STATCOM M and the SE EP. The exch hange
between active
a power between thee inverter and d the
AC system m can be co ontrolled adju usting the output
voltage an ngle from thee inverter to thet voltage angle
a
of the AC A system. This T means that the inv verter
cannot pro ovide active power
p to the AC systems from
the DC acccumulated eneergy if the ou utput voltage ofo the
inverter gooes before thee voltage of thhe AC system m. On Fig. 5: SSS
SC
the otheer hand, the inverteer can abbsorb
the activee power of the t AC systeem if its voltage Thus, a SSSC C can work llike a controlllable serial
is delayed in respect to thhe AC systemms voltage. conddenser and a serial reactance. The main difference
d is
Figuree 4. shows a simplified configuration
c of a that the voltage innjected througgh a SSSC is not related
STATCOM M with a sourrce of energy coupled to th he DC to the line inntensity andd can be controlled
side. The innterface providdes the couplinng between thhe DC indeppendently. Thhis importantt feature meaans that the
side of the STATCOM and a other enerrgy sources thaat can SSSCC can be usedd with excelleent results with
h low loads
be of any kind of energ gy accumulattion device or o DC as well
w as with higgh loads.
source: baattery banks, DC generaators, photovo oltaic
B. UPFC (Unifieed Power Flow
w Controller))
systems, orr other powerr electronics device,
d where PmCD
represents the
t active pow wer of the DC source. The most complete FACT TS device is the unified
energgy flow contrroller. It is thee only devicee with serial
and parallel comppensation opeerated by a co ommon link
of direct
d current. The serial compensator has h a three-
phasse inverter andd voltage sourrce (2) that givves a serial-
to-th
he-line voltagge through thhe winding of a serial
transsformer.The derivation coompensator (basically
( a
F 4: STATCOM with a Source of Energy
Fig. STAATCOM) has an inverter(1)) connected to o a point of
the line through a shunt transforrmer.
When this FACTS device is applied in distribbution
systems is called D-STATCO OM (Distribbution
STATCOM M) and its toopology is thhe same one with
small moddifications annd adaptationns, oriented to a
possible fuuture amplificcation of its possibilities
p in the
distributionn
network att low and meddium voltages, implementinng the
function sos that we described
d as flicker dam mping,
harmonic filtering andd hole and short interruuption
compensattion. Fig. 6: UPF
FC

A. SSSC (Static Synchrronous Series Compensatorr)
This device
d works the same as the
t STATCO OM. It
has a volttage source converter
c seriially connected to
a transmiission line through
t a trransformer. It is
necessary an energy soource to provvide a continnuous
voltage thrrough a conddenser and too compensatee the
The converteer 2 has thee main functtion of the
UPF FC; it injects an
a AC voltagee to the transmmission line,
whicch magnitude and angle arre controllablee through a
seriaal transformer. The basic fuunction of the converter 1
is to give or absoorb the real poower that the converter 2
demaands in the common DC C link. The converter
c 2
suppplies or absorbbs locally the required reacctive power

agwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar,, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 305

Bha
Proceedingss of National Co
onference on Tre
ends in Signal Processing
P & Co
ommunication (TSPC’13) 12th–
–14th April 2013
3

and exchannges the activve power as a result of the serial This is of im

mportant interrest in lines th hat make a
injected vooltage which varies in moddule and angle, as ng use of distributed
stron d geeneration, in which the
we can seee in figure 7. qualiity of the traansmission coould be maim med by the
connnection of geeneration sysstems with lo ow or null
perfoormances to ensure
e the eneergy supply un nder certain
circu
umstances.
The developm ment of highh power inverters (more
than 100MVA) of o high perfoormances at low l cost is
neceessary to consolidate
c ccompensators such as
STAATCOM (Statiic Synchronoous Compensaator), SSSC
Fig. 7: Vj Vaariation through Vserie
V (Stattic Synchronoous Series C Compensator) and UPFC
(Uniified Power FlowF Controlller). The deevelopments
A UP PFC system can regulatee the active and spoill the potentiaalities of the m multi-level co
onverters to
reactive poower at the saame time. Gennerally it has three impllement FACT TS devices uusing the new west power
control varriables and can
c operate inn different modes.
m semiiconductor device
d technoology. The multi-level
The conveerter connected in derivation regulates the convverters are especially
e suiitable to work at high
distributionn bar voltagge and the serial connnected voltaages and loww switching frrequencies. The areas to
converter regulates
r the active, reactiive power annd the imprrove would bee these three:: the converteer topology,
voltage of the serial connnected point. the basic controll strategies aand the appllications of
multti-level FACT TS devices.
VIII. CONCLUSION
Due too the every tiime higher reequirements of o the REFERENC
CES
liability annd quality of the electricityy, the implanttation [1] Narain G. Hinngorani and Lasszlo Gyugyi. “U Understanding
of devices capable of guaranteeing
g t
these requirem ments FACTS. Concepts and Technologgy of Flexible AC C Transmission
Systems”. IEEE Press, (1999).
will keep inncreasing. Thhe power electtronic systemss with [2] M. Aredes, G. Santos Jr., “A Robust Control for Multiples
a Voltage Controlled
C Soource (VSC) toopology connnected STATCOMs”, Proceedings
P of IPEC 2000, Vol. 4, pp. 2163-
to the netw work have the ideal featurres to improvve the 2168, Tokyo, 20000.
capacity of o the electriic energy traansmission of the [3] Y.H. Song, A.T T. Johns, Flexiible ac transmisssion systems
(FACTS). IEE Poower and Energyy Series 30, 1999.
networks. [4] H. Fujita, S. Tominaga, H. Akaggi, “Analysis and Design of a
Even though thesee kinds of syystems have been DC Voltage- Coontrolled Static V Var Compensatorr Using Quad-
applied inn transport systems
s of high
h and meedium Series Voltage Source Inverterrs,” IEEE Trans. on Industry
voltages, thhe actual challenge it to impplement thesee very Applications, Vool. 32, No. 4, 19966.
same topoologies in thee electrical energy
e distribbution
networks.

306 ‹ Bhag
gwant Institute of
o Technology, Muzaffarnagar,
M Uttar Pradesh, India
 Procee
edings of Nation
nal Conference on Trends in Siignal Processing & Communica
ation (TSPC’13)), 12th–14th April 2013

M e on Clap onn
Move
Priti Verma1, Kannika Goyal2 and Richa Gupta
G 3
1,2
Deepartment of Electronics
E annd Communicaation,
Maharajaja Surajmal Institute
I of Tecchnology, Dellhi, India
3
Asst. Professsor, Departm
ment of Electro
onics and Commmunication,
Maharajaja Surajmal Institute
I of Tecchnology, Dellhi, India
richa1611@rediffmail.com

Abstract—The first ever World report on disab bility, II. HARDWARE SYSTEM
produced jointly by WH HO and the Woorld Bank, sugggests
that more than a billiion people in n the world today The hardwarre Design is based on ann embedded
experience disability. This paper describes the use u of systeem implemenntation usingg 8052 micrrocontroller
technology for speciallyy elderly and challenged peoplep fromm microchip. The
T block diaggram of hardw
ware system
almost everrywhere and ata anytime be it i be office, kittchen, is sh
hown in Fig 1.
bed room, study room through movee on clap on. This
paper dealss with motion sensors that track the moveement
of individu
ual along with h counter thatt count numb ber of
persons. In this wheneverr we enter in a room light an nd fan
d on. Now, fan
is switched n speed can bee regulated by clap.
The hardware and softwaare designed are oriented tow wards
microcontrroller based syystem, minimizzing the comp plexity
of system. The importan nt feature of this
t paper is tot use
clap sound to regulate thee speed of a fan
n.
Keywords: Microcoontroller, Bi-ddirectional M
Motion
Sensor and Clap Sensor Fig. 1: Block Diagram
D of Microocontroller Based
d Move
on Clap on D
Device

I. INTTRODUCTION The block diagram

d conssists of Micrrocontroller
8051
1, Bi-Directioonal Motion Sensor, Resset, Crystal
Technnology is beinng used everyw where in our daily Osciillator and Sevven Segment D
Display
life to fulfiill our requireements. One of
o the ideal waays of
using techhnology is to employ it for f elderly peeople. A. Microcontrolller 8052
Their physsical disabilitiees like diminiishing eyesighht and
frailing jooints might starts limiting their freedom to The 8052 iss an 8-bit m microcontrollerr originally
go [1]. deveeloped by Inttel in the latte 1970s. It includes
i an
This technology
t is highly useeful to physiically instrruction set off 255 operatiion codes (op pcodes), 32
challengedd people wiith either vision v impairrment ut/output liness, three userr-controllable timers, an
inpu
disease, trauma, or congenital or degenerrative integgrated and auutomatic serial port, and 25 56 bytes of
conditions that cannot be correctedd by conventtional on-chip RAM.
means, suuch as refracttive correctioon, medication, or The 8052 is designed
d suchh that control of
o the MCU
surgery[2][[3][4]. and input/output between thhe MCU an nd external
Two IRI transmitterr receiver pairs are used one o at devices is accoomplished prrimarily usin ng Special
Funcction Registerrs (SFRs). Eaach SFR has an address
entry and other at exxit of the passage. p One pair
betw
ween 128 andd 255. Addittional functio ons can be
comprises of IR traansmitter andd receiver photo p
addeed to new deerivative MCU Us by adding g additional
transistor. IR signals from IR LE ED falls on entry
SFRRs while rem maining compaatible with the t original
Passage off the room continuously.
c Whenever person 8052 2. This allowws the develloper to usee the same
passes by IR signals aree interrupted and clock puulse is softwware developpment tools w with any dev vice that is
generated for the microcontroller
m r. Microconttroller “80552-compatiblee.”
controls thhe counting and displays the numbeer of
persons in the room on sevens segmentt display. B. Bi-Directionaal Motion Senssor
Now, fan speed cann be regulated by clap. Fan speed
s Bi-Directionaal Motion Seensor is used d to sense
changes onn each clap .O On forth clap fan
f is switched off. movement of peopple, animals, oor other objects.
If we clapp further fan starts again. This is simillar to They are com mmonly usedd in burglar alarms and
manual fann regulator .O Only differencee is that this speed
s autom matically-actiivated lightinng systems. They are
regulator senses our clap and chhanges the speed s comm monly called simply ‘PIR,’’ or sometimes "PID," for
accordinglyy. Thus, makiing it fully auttomatic. 'passsive infrared detector'.
d

ISBN: 978-9
93-82880-20-2 307
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
Strictly speaking, individual PIR sensors do not
detect motion; rather, they detect abrupt changes in
temperature at a given point. As an object, such as a
human, passes in front of the background, such as a
wall, the temperature at that point will rise from room
temperature to body temperature, and then back again.
This quick change triggers the detection. Moving
objects of identical temperature will not trigger a
detection.
PIDs can be equipped with more than one internal
sensing element so that, with the appropriate
electronics, it can detect the apparent direction of
movement. As an object passes in front of adjacent
sensors in turn, this implies the direction of movement.
PIDs come in many configurations for a wide
variety of applications. The most common models have
numerous Fresnel lenses or mirror segments, an
effective range of about ten metres (thirty feet), and a
field of view less than 180 degrees. Models with wider
fields of view, including 360 degrees, are available--
typically designed to mount on a ceiling. Some larger
PIDs are made with single segment mirrors and can
sense changes in infrared energy over one hundred feet
away from the PID. There are also PIDs designed with
reversible orientation mirrors which allow either broad
coverage (110° wide) or very narrow ‘curtain’
coverage, or with individually selectable segments to
‘shape’ the coverage.
Fig. 2: Motion Tracker
C. Clap Sensor
In modern electronics, we find this clap-operated
remote control system quite useful in summers as it
would enable to control the speed of fan, besides
switching it on or off.
308 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
The sound operated switch has the advantage that
the transmitter is always with us. Further it can be used
in hospitals for handicapped and in houses too.
These switches may be used to control lights or
fans or anything else that does not produce too loud a
sound. To prevent an occasional loud sound from
causing malfunction, the circuit is normally quiescent.
The condenser microphone converts the sound of a
clap into an electric signal and supplies it to the base of
transistor BC148. The transistor provides a trigger pulse
to monostable multivibrator IC NE555 timer. The
duration for which the output of monostable
multivibrator remains high is given by the relationship
T = 1.1R*C*.
In this circuit, the values of R* and C* are so
chosen that the clock pulse duration is approximately
one second, so that no more than one clap within one
second can change the gear (and thus speed) of the fan.
III. SOFTWARE SYSTEM
This work is implemented using the following
software, Proteus–for designing circuit and simulation,
MPlab-for compilation, Embedded C–for programming
code, 8051 IDE–for dumping the programming code
into the microcontroller (Burner)
A. Microcontroller Software
In this case, the method consists of switching the
fan and lights by detecting motion and further
controlling the fan speed with sound of our clap. The
programming language used to program the
microcontroller is Embedded C. Many algorithms have
been investigated to choose the best fit method for the
microcontroller. The micro controller is programmed in
such a way that it takes input from the motion sensor
when anyone enters the room and displays the number
of people on seven segment display. Thus, switching
light and fan automatically by tracking the motion .
Now, fan speed can be regulated by clap.
IV. RESULTED CONCLUSION
In this paper, the implementation of an embedded
system, based on microcontroller for real time
automatic speed regulator and motion detector has been
done. The prototype has been tested successfully on
subjects of age group above 60 and disabled people.
The Clapping Sensor and bi-directional Motion Sensor
along with seven segment display which displays
number of people entering room is interfaced to
microcontroller. The goal of the paper is to provide help
to elderly people and physically challenged people.
Beside it can provide boon for senior citizen people
who depend on others for their daily needs. They can
themselves handle this easily by not making much
movement. This device can be used anywhere and at
anytime whether it be office, bedroom, kitchen, etc.
 Move on Clap on

V. FUTURE SCOPE [2] "Developing an objective definition of visual impairment." In

The work can be extended to provide help to
elderly people at night hours by switching the light on
[3]
and off by clap. This prototype can be extended for
other devices such cooler, music system in future.
[4]
REFERENCES
[1] www.livestrong.com/article/358682-top-ten-problems-the-
elderly-face-with-transportation/#ixzz2MpSJ6UvQ.
Vision '96: Proceedings of the International Low Vision
Conference (pp. 331–334). Madrid, Spain: Arditi, A., &
Rosenthal, B. (1998).
"Medicare Vision Rehabilitation Services Act of 2003 HR 1902
IH". Library of Congress. May 1, 2003. Retrieved August 11,
2012.
Larybellote.com

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 309

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Wireless Heart Beat Monitoring System

Priyanka Barthwal, Achhar Kanta and Richa Gupta*
Asst. Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication,
Maharaja Surajmal Institute of Technology, Delhi, India
e-mail: *richa1611@rediffmail.com

Abstract—There has been exponential increase in
health care cost in last decade. . Thus any improvements
in the diagnosis and treatment tools are welcomed by the
medical community. This paper describes the
development of reliable, cheap and accurate heart beat
monitor system through heart beat sensor. This paper
deals with signal conditioning and data acquisition of
heart rate signal. The hardware and software designed
are oriented towards microcontroller based system,
minimizing the complexity of system. The important
feature of this paper is to use fingertip sensor to monitor
and compute heart rate to be displayed on LCD
monitor.It is also possible to interface the device with
G.S.M. network to take assistance of a physician that is so
far from the place where the patient present and can
provide his advice for good treatment of the patient
according to his current condition of heart beat.
Keywords: Heart beat Sensor, microcontroller, heart
beat monitoring, GSM Modem
I. INTRODUCTION
Technology is being used everywhere in our daily
life to fulfill our requirements [1]. One of the ideal
ways of using technology is to employ it to sense
serious health problems so that efficient medical
services can be provided to the patient in correct time.
Changes in lifestyle and unhealthy lifestyles have
resulted in incidents of heart disease. Furthermore,
heart problems are being increasingly diagnosed on
younger patients. Hence there is a need that patient is
able to measure the hearth rate in home environment as
well.
The heart rate of a healthy adult at rest is around
72 bpm. Athletes normally have lower heart rates than
less active people. Babies have a much higher heart rate
at around 120 bpm, while older children have heart
rates at around 90 bpm.
Heart beat monitor and display system is a portable
and a best replacement for the old model stethoscope
which is less efficient. The heart beat rate is calculated
manually using stethoscope where the probability of
error is high because the heart beat rate lies in the range
of 70 to 90 per minute whose occurrence is less than 1
sec, so this device can be considered as a very good
alternative instead of a stethoscope. The functioning of
this device is based on the truth that the blood
circulates for every heart beat which can be sensed by
using a circuit formed by the combination of an LDR
and LED. This device consists of a micro controller [2]
which takes the input from the fingertip sensor and
calculates the heart rate of the patient. The micro
controller also takes the responsibility todisplay the
same on LCD, which is interfaced to it through LCD
drivers.SMS Module link will be used for sending the
captured diagnostic data[5].
The next section giveshardware system overview;
SectionIII introduces software used for implementation
of prototype fingertip heartbeat sensor. GSM Modem
explanation is given in IV. Result and Conclusion are
given in Section V, while future advancements are
given in the end.
II. HARDWARE SYSTEM
The hardware Design is based on an embedded
system implementation using PIC16F877A
microcontroller from microchip. The block diagram of
hardware system is shown in Fig 1.
Fig. 1: Block Diagram of Microcontroller based Heartbeat Monitor
with Display on LCD
The block diagram consists of Microcontroller
PIC16F877A, Heart Beat Sensor, Reset,
CrystalOscillator, LCDDriver, LCDDisplay, LCD
Intensity Control, LED Indicators and a GSM Modem.
A. Microcontroller 16F877A
A Microchip Microcontroller PIC 16F877A [3] is
used to collect and process data. It has 256 bytes of
EEPROM data memory, 2comparator, 8 channels 10
bit Analog to Digital Convertor. It has on chip 3 timers
and 8k flash program memory. The Heart beat Sensor
is interfaced to microcontroller via port pins. The
Output of Sensor is fed to microcontroller via ADC
(Analog to Digital Convertor).An LCD is used to
display data.

310 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2

 Wireless He
eart Beat Monitoring System

B. Heart Bear Sensor MPllab-for compilation, Embeddded C–for prrogramming

codee, Pickit2–forr dumping thee programmin
ng code into
Heart beat Sensor consists of supper bright LED D and
the microcontrolle
m er (Burner).
LDR.Itworrks on the prrinciple of ligght modulatioon by
the blood flow
f through finger at eachh pulse. The finger
fi A. Microcontrolller Software
is inserted in probe, shoown in Fig 2 and a red light from
high intenssity LED is alllowed to fall on the finger.. The In this case, the method consists of com mputing the
amount of red light absoorbed by fingeer varies accorrding hearrt rate of the person
p each m minute. A pree-processing
to the pulssatile blood flow in the finger. Therefore the step is needed to perform an am mplification of
o the signal
amount off light transm mitted varies according too the and hardware filtering tto remove unwanted
blood floww. The LDR placed
p on oppposite side of LED commponents. Thhe programm ming language used to
detects thhe transmitteed light. With W increasee in proggram the miccrocontroller is Embedded d C. Many
transmittedd light its resisstance decreasses and vice-vversa. algo
orithms have been
b investigaated to choosee the best fit
A voltage divider circuit is employed to get a vooltage methhod for the microcontroller
m r. The micro controller
c is
signal propportional to thhe resistance of the LDR. This proggrammed in suuch a way thaat it takes inp put from the
voltage siggnal consists of AC and DC componnents. hearrt beat sensorr when a finger is inserted into it and
Non-movinng structures (veins,
( blood capillaries, boones, plays the valuee on the LCD continuously..
disp
soft tissuees, non-pulsaatile blood) absorb connstant
amount off light and hence contriibute to the DC
componentt of voltagee signal. Ass it providess no
informationn about the bllood pulses, DCD componentts are
not neededd. Pulsatile bloood absorbs varying
v amouunt of
light and hence contrributes to AC A componennt of
voltage siggnal. AC compponents are ouur required siignal.
The magniitude of the DC D componennts is almost 100-
1000 timees higher thann the AC coomponents. Hence H
they needd to be rem moved in orrder for the AC
componentts to be connditioned prooperly furtherr on.
Therefore, a high pass filter circuit is employed after
the voltagge divider network to block the DC
componentts of the siggnal. The AC signal is now
amplified from mV rannge to V rangge. The ampllified Fig. 3: Harddware Design (wiithout GSM Mod
dule)
signal is given
g to a com mparator wheere it is comppared
against a set
s threshold value. The comparator
c ouutput IV. GSM MO
ODEM
consists of
o positive pulses correspponding to blood b
pulses. Thhe comparattor output is i given to the A. Theory
microcontrroller. The microcontrolle
m er calculates the Unlike mobiile phones, a GSM modeem doesn’t
time durattion between 2 successivee pulses and then havee a keypad anda display tto interact with.
w It just
computes the instanntaneous heeart rate. The acceepts certain commands
c thhrough a seriaal interface
microcontrroller then prooceeds to dispplay the calcuulated and acknowledgees for those. These com mmands are
heart rate on
o the LCD diisplay,as show wn in Fig 3. calleed as AT commands.
c T
There is a list
l of AT
commmands to innstruct the m modem to perform
p its
funcctions. Every command sttarts with "A AT". That’s
why y they are callled as AT coommands. AT T stands for
atten
ntion.

Fig. 2: Placing the Finger on Heart Beat

B Sensor

III. SOFTTWARE SYSTEM

M

This work
w is implemented usiing the following
software, Proteus–for
P deesigning circuuit and simulaation,
Fig. 4: The Idea of Transmission
T betw
ween Transmitter and Receiver

agwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar,, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 311

Bha
Proceedingss of National Co
onference on Tre
ends in Signal Processing
P & Co
ommunication (TSPC’13) 12th–
–14th April 2013
3

In ourr simple project, the progrram waits forr the
mobile nuumber to be entered throuugh the keyboard.
When a ten t digit mobile number is provided,, the
program innstructs the modem
m to sendd the text messsage
using a seqquence of AT commands
Fig. 5: Snappshot of the Deveeloped Module wiith GSM Technology
dispplay the heart beat rate. Thhe goal of the paper is to
reduuce the hospitaalization and assistance cosst.The pulse
rate can be usedd to check ooverall heart health and
fitneess level. Bessides it can pprove to be a boon for
seniior citizen people
p who won’t have to travel
distaances or wait in long queuees at the hospiitals to get a
meaasure of their heart beat. They can themselves
hand dle this devicce easily by sitting at ho ome. Health
mon nitoring appliccation is mainnly proposed to provide
alertts for mediccal health m monitoring staaff for the
patieents when neeeded. The reall-time monitoring system
for cardiac
c patiennt physical staates is based on wireless
senssor network technology. It can be taken by
patieentand keep the
t patient moovement intacct because it
is miniature
m and portable.
p The system can monitor
m and
recoord the physical states andd movement parameters
real--time, and theen provide ann auxiliary meeans for the
corrrect diagnosiis of doctorr. With the intelligent
diaggnosis softwarre, the sign off acute diseasee for patient
can be found earlly, and then tthe patient can n be helped
in tiime, the suddeen death of paatient can be avoided.The
a
low cost factor asssociated withh this device canc make it
a ho ousehold nam me. Temperatture sensor can c also be
inclu uded.

VI. FUTURE SCOPE

The further advancement which can be b added to
our project is thee improvemennt in its range to which it
Fig. 6: GSM Feeedback Message Example can transmit dataa by using som me powerful RF-module
B. Testingg your GSM Modem
M haviing good transsmission and reception ran nges, so that
the patient evenn being at hhis home caan get the
• Thhe GSM moddem can be tessted by connecting assisstance of a good doctor. It is possible to interface
T modem is equipped with
it with a PC. The w a the project to thhe personal ccomputer to display
d and
R
RS232 cable. Just use a Serial to USB anallyze the data for further rresults, to pro
ovide better
coonverter and connect
c it withh the PC. treattment to thee patient. TThe work caan also be
• N
Now you cann proceed with w sending the exteending to meeasure other vital body signals
s like
coommands to the modem using any serial s Bloo od pressure, breathing ratte temperaturre, etc. and
coommunicationn program likke HyperTerm minal, transmit them wirrelessly.
M
Mincom etc. Ensure
E the serrial parameterrs are
coonfigured to 8N1
8 and the baud
b rate is set
s to REFERENC
CES
96600bps. [1] Dhvani Parekh. “Designing heaart rate, blood pressure,
p body
• Foor each com mmand you send the moodem temperature sennsors for mobilee on-call system”.in Electrical
accknowledges with a messaage. Example: Just Engineering Bioomedical Capestoones, Paper 39, 20010.
tryy sending "AT T" to the moddem. It sends back [2] Mohamed Fezaari, MounirBousbbia-Salah, and MouldiBedda’s
M
“Microcontrollerr based heart ratte monitor”, Thee International
a result code "OK" whichh states thatt the Arab Journal ofo Information Technology, Vo ol. 5, No. 4,
m
modem is respoonding. If it’ss not working fine, October 2008.
it sends "ERRO OR". [3] Microchip Mannual, PIC16F87X XData sheet 28 8/40-Pin 8-bit
FLASH Microcoontrollers, Microcchip Technology Inc., 2001.
[4] Ming-ZherPoh*, Daniel J. M McDuff, and Rosalind W.
V. RESULT AND CONCLU
USION Picard“Advanceements in N
Noncontact, Multi-parameter
M
Physiological Measurements Using a Web bcam”, IEEE
In thiss paper, the im
mplementationn of an embeedded Transaction on biomedical
b enginneering, Vol. 58, No.
N 1, January
system, baased on microccontroller for real time anaalysis 2011.
of heart beeat rate has beeen investigateed. Thesystem
m has [5] Mohammad Faaaiz Bin Jamaluuddin. “Wirelesss Heart Rate
been testedd successfullyy on subjectss of differentt age Monitor”, Univversity Teknologyy Malaysia, Theesis (B. Eng),
2008
group. Thee heart beat seensor which deetects heart beeat is
interfaced to microconttroller along with LCD, which w

312 ‹ Bhag
gwant Institute of
o Technology, Muzaffarnagar,
M Uttar Pradesh, India
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Reactive Power Control
using Static-Compensator (STATCOM)
Amit Kumar1, Jai Prakash2, Kishan Kumar3 and Raghvendra Singh4
1,2,3,4
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engg., College of Engineering, Roorkee
e-mail: 1rohancoer@hotmail.com, 2kishansingh9092@gmail.com,
3
amitcaption@yahoo.com, 4jaiprakash2811@gmail.com
Abstract—A static compensator (STATCOM) is a
device that can provide reactive power support to a bus in
order to maintain its voltage profile. It consists of voltage
source converters connected to an energy storage device
on one side and to the power system on other side. In this
paper STATCOM is used for voltage stability and
compensation of reactive power. The 30 bus system and
standard line data provided ‘IEEE’ has been used with
Newton-Raphson method to obtain the bus voltages, with
and without STATCOM on different bus. Comparative
study between the per unit bus voltage with and without
STATCOM is carried out using MATLAB in this paper.
The result, with STATCOM shows that the per unit value
of bus voltage on which the STATCOM has been
connected becomes 1(p.u.) which means that the desired
voltage profile is maintained on the buses using
STATCOM.
Keyword: STATCOM, Newton Raphson, Reactive
Power
I. INTRODUCTION
Power Generation and Transmission is a complex
process, requiring the working of many components of
the power system in tandem to maximize the output.
One of the main components to form a major part is the
reactive power in the system. It is required to maintain
the voltage to deliver the active power through the lines.
Loads like motor loads and other loads require reactive
power for their operation. To improve the performance
of ac power systems, we need to manage this reactive
power in an efficient Way and this is known as reactive
power compensation. There are two aspects to the
problem of reactive power compensation: load
compensation and voltage support. Load compensation
consists of improvement in power factor, balancing of
real power drawn from the supply, better voltage
regulation, etc. of large fluctuating loads. Voltage
support consists of reduction of voltage fluctuation at a
given terminal of the transmission line. Two types of
compensation can be used: series and shunt
compensation. These modify the parameters of the
system to give enhanced VAR compensation. In recent
years, static VAR compensators like the STATCOM
have been developed. These quite satisfactorily do the
job of absorbing or generating reactive power with a
faster time response and come under Flexible AC
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
Transmission Systems (FACTS). This allows an
increase in transfer of apparent power through a
transmission line, and much better stability by the
adjustment of parameters that govern the power system
i.e. current, voltage, phase angle, frequency and
impedance.
A. Reactive Power
Reactive power is the power that supplies the
stored energy in reactive elements. Power, as we know,
consists of two components, active and reactive power.
The total sum of active and reactive power is called as
apparent power.
In AC circuits energy is temporarily stored in
inductive and capacitive element,which results in the
periodic reversal of direction of flow of energy between
source and load.The average power after completion of
one whole cycle of the AC waveform is real power and
this is the usable form of energy which is used to do the
work, whereas the portion of power flow which is
stored in magnetic or electric field and flow back and
forth in the transmission line due to capacitive and
inductive elements is called reactive power this is
unused power that the system has to incur to transmit
the power.
Inductors (reactors) are said to store or absorb
reactive power, because they store energy in the form of
a magnetic field. Therefore, when a voltage is initially
applied across a coil, a magnetic field builds up, and the
current reaches the full value after a certain period of
time. This in turn causes the current to lag behind
voltage in phase.
Capacitors are said to generate reactive power,
because they store energy in the form of an electric
field. Therefore when current passes through the
capacitor, a charge is built up to produce the full
voltage difference over a certain period of time. Thus in
an AC network the voltage across the capacitor is
always charging. Since, the capacitor tends to oppose
this change; which causes voltage to lag behind the
current.
B. Need for Reactive Power Compensation
The main reason for reactive power compensation
in a system is: 1) the voltage regulation; 2) increased
system stability; 3) better utilization of machines
313
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
connected to the system; 4) reducing losses associated
with the system; and 5) to prevent voltage collapse as
well as voltage sag. The impedance of transmission
lines and the need for lagging VAR by most machines
in a generating system results in the consumption of
reactive power, thus affecting the stability limits of the
system as well as transmission lines. Unnecessary
voltage drops lead to increased losses which needs to be
supplied by the source and in turn leading to outages in
the line due to increased stress on the system to carry
this imaginary power. Thus we can infer thatthe
compensation of reactive power not only mitigates all
these effects but also helps in better transient response
to faults and disturbances. In recent times there has
been an increased focus on the techniques used for the
compensation and with better devices included in the
technology, the compensation is made more effective. It
is very much required that the lines be relieved of the
obligation to carry the reactive power, which is better
provided near the generators or the loads. Shunt
compensation can be installed near the load, in a
distribution substation or transmission substation.
II. COMPENSATION TECHNIQUES
There are two types of compensation techniques.1)
Shunt compensation,2) Series compensation. The
principle of both Shunt and Series compensation are
described below:
A. Shunt Compensation
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
The figure 1.1 comprises of a source V1, a power
line and an inductive load. The figure 1.1 shows the
314 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
system without any type of compensation. The phasor
diagram of these is also shown above. The active
current IP is in phase with the load voltage V2. Here,
the load is inductive and hence it requires reactive
power for its proper operation and this has to be
supplied by the source, thus increasing the current from
the generator and through the power lines. Instead of
the lines carrying this, if the reactive power can be
supplied near the load, the line current can be
minimized, reducing the power losses and improving
the voltage regulation at the load terminals. This can be
done in three ways: 1) A voltage source. 2) A current
source. 3) A capacitor In this case, a current source
device is used to compensate IQ, which is the reactive
component of the load current. In turn the voltage
regulation of the system is improved and the reactive
current component from the source is reduced or almost
eliminated. This is in case of lagging compensation. For
leading compensation, we require an inductor.Therefore
we can see that, a current source or a voltage source can
be used for both leading and lagging shunt
compensation, the main advantages being the reactive
power generated is independent of the voltage at the
point of connection.
B. Series Compensation
Fig. 3
Series compensation can be implemented like shunt
compensation, i.e. with a current or a voltage source as
shown in figure 1.4. We can see the results which are
obtained by series compensation through a voltage
source and it is adjusted to have unity power factor at
V2. However series compensation techniques are
different from shunt compensation techniques, as
capacitors are used mostly for series compensation
techniques. In this case, the voltage Vcomp has been
added between the line and the load to change the angle
V2’. Now, this is the voltage at the load side. With
proper adjustment of the magnitude of Vcomp, unity
power factor can be reached at V2.
III. NEWTON-RAPHSON ALGORITHM
1. Form Ybus
2. We assumed bus voltage magnitude and its phase
angle equal to slack bus quantites |V 1|= 1.0,
δ1=0.
 Reactive Power Control using Static-Compensator (STATCOM)

3. We set a convergence criterion = i.e. if the inductance, the active power flows from the leading
largest of absolute of the residues exceeds, the source to the lagging source and the reactive power
process is repeated, or else its terminated. flows from the higher voltage magnitude source to the
4. Set the iteration count k = 0. lower voltage magnitude source. The phase angle
5. Set the bus count p = 1. difference between the sources determines the active
6. Calculate the real and reactive powers Pi and Qi…
power flow and the voltage magnitude difference
.Pi = Vi Vk Yik cos ( δi − δk − θik) between the sources determines the reactive power
flow. Thus, a STATCOM can be used to regulate the
Qi = Vi Vk Yik sin (δi − δk − θik)
reactive power flow by changing the magnitude of the
7. Compute the schedule errors ΔPI and ΔQI. VSC voltage with respect to source bus voltage.
ΔPir =Pisp– Pi r(cal)
ΔQir = Qi sp– Qir (cal)
If the calculated value of Qi is within limits, only
ΔPiis calculated. If the calculated value of Qi is beyond
the limits, then an appropriate limit is imposed and
ΔQiis also calculated by subtracting the calculated value
of Qi from the appropriate limit
8. Compute the elements of the jacobian matrix
Fig. 4
using the estimated |Vi| and δifrom step 2.
9. Obtain Δδ and Δ|Vi|.
V. PROPOSED WORK
10. Using the values of Δδi andΔ|Vi|, modify the
voltage magnitude and phase angle at all load In this paper the per unit voltage and angle of 30
buses. bus system is used to carry out the comparative study.
11. Start the next iteration cycle at step 2 with these This comparative study is done using Newton Raphson
modified |Vi| and δi. algorithm with and without STATCOM.The per unit
12. Continue until scheduled errors ΔPir and ΔQir for bus voltage and angle plot with and without STATCOM
all load buses are within a specified tolerance.
is shown below:
IV. STATIC COMPENSATOR (STATCOM) A. Without STATCOM
One of the many devices under the FACTS family, xnlf=[1 1.0600 0.0000
a STATCOM is a regulating device which can be used 2 1.0430 -5.3543
3 1.0196 -7.5308
to regulate the flow of reactive power in the system 4 1.0104 -9.2840
independent of other system parameters. STATCOM 5 1.0100 -14.1738
has no long term energy support on the dc side and it 6 1.0096 -11.0581
cannot exchange real power with the ac system. In the 7 1.0020 -12.8649
8 1.0100 -11.8193
transmission systems, STATCOMs primarily handle 9 1.0392 -14.0644
only fundamental reactive power exchange and provide 10 1.0215 -15.6706
voltage support to buses by modulating bus voltages 11 1.0820 -14.0644
during dynamic disturbances in order to provide better 12 1.0496 -15.1245
13 1.0710 -15.1245
transient characteristics, improve the transient stability 14 1.0320 -16.0018
margins and to damp out the system oscillations due to 15 1.0251 -16.0084
these disturbances. A STATCOM consists of a three 16 1.0304 -15.6251
phase inverter (generally a PWM inverter) using SCRs, 17 1.0188 -15.8687
18 1.0114 -16.6067
MOSFETs or IGBTs, a D.C capacitor which provides 19 1.0066 -16.7658
the D.C voltage for the inverter, a link reactor which 20 1.0095 -16.5502
links the inverter output to the a.c supply side, filter 21 1.0082 -16.2178
components to filter out the high frequency components 22 1.0120 -15.9811
23 1.0085 -16.2294
due to the PWM inverter. From the d.c. side capacitor, a 24 0.9991 -16.3007
three phase voltage is generated by the inverter. This is 25 1.0032 -16.0720
synchronized with the a.c. supply. The link inductor 26 0.9852 -16.5038
links thisvoltage to the a.c. supply side. This is the basic 27 1.0145 -15.6559
28 1.0078 -11.7163
principle of operation of STATCOM 29 0.9944 -16.9077
For two AC sources which have the same 30 0.9828 -17.8067]
frequency and are connected through a series

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 315

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013

C. Voltage (p.u.)with and without STATCOM

Fig. 5

B. With STATCOM Fig 7

stat=[1 1.0600 0.0000
2 1.0430 -5.3525 VI. CONCLUSION
3 1.0200 -7.5318
4 1.0108 -9.2848 The study of the basic principles of the STATCOM
5 1.0100 -14.1692 is carried out as well as basics of reactive power
6 1.0101 -11.0627 compensation using STATCOM. A power flow model
7 1.0023 -12.8655 of the STATCOM is attempted and it is seen that the
8 1.0100 -11.8168
9 1.0402 -14.0508
modified load flow equations help the system in better
10 1.0231 -15.6455 performance. The bus system shows improved plots and
11 1.0820 -14.0508 thus we can conclude that the addition of a STATCOM
12 1.0503 -15.0935 controls the output of a bus in a robust manner.
13 1.0710 -15.0935
14 1.0330 -15.9691
VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
15 1.0263 -15.9809
16 1.0315 -15.5967 We would like to thank Mrs. Anuradha Singh and
17 1.0202 -15.8422
Mr. Rohit Kumar Assistant prof, COER for the
18 1.0128 -16.5781
19 1.0080 -16.7371 opportunity to work with them, and also for their
20 1.0110 -16.5223 encouragement, trust and untiring support.
21 1.0102 -16.1952 We are also thankful to Mr. A.S. Yadav, HOD
22 1.0147 -15.9655 Electrical Deptt. COER for their continous inspiration
23 1.0106 -16.2084 during this project work.We thank and owe our deepest
24 1.0033 -16.3066
25 1.0125 -16.1605
regards to all who have helped us directly or indirectly.
26 1.0000 -16.7794
27 1.0240 -15.7112 REFERENCES
28 1.0091 -11.7434
29 1.0076 -17.0359 [1] STATCOM–its control algorithm, Sandeep Gupta, A.K.Sharma,
Deparment of electrical engineering, Jabalpur engg. College.
30 1.0000 -18.0205]
[2] Genetically tuned statcom for voltage control and reactive
power compensation, Naveen Goel, R.N.Patel, member, IEEE,
Saji T. chacko.
[3] Understanding facts by N.G.Hingorani.
[4] Reactive power control in electric system by T.J.E.Miller.
[5] Modelling and simulation of statcom using simulink’s power
system, SubirDatta, Dr. A.K.Roy, NIT Silchar.

Fig. 6

316 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Study of Retrieval Method based

on Query by Image Content
Vibhor Kumar Bhardwaj1, Amita Thakur1, Abhijeet Kumar1 and Aanchal Agarwal2
1
Department of Electronics & Communication, Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, U.P., India
2
Department of Electrical & Electronics, Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, U.P., India

Abstract—This paper studies about the research on
ways to extend and improve query methods for image
databases is widespread. we have developed the QBIC
(Query by Image Content) system to explore content-
based retrieval methods. To achieve the high efficiency
and effectiveness of CBIR we are using two type of
methods for feature extraction like SVM(support vector
machine)and NPRF(navigation-pattern based relevance
feedback).By using svm classifier as a category predictor
of query and database images, they are exploited at first to
filter out irrelevant images by its different low-level,
concept and key point-based features. Thus we may
reduce the size of query search in the db then we may
apply NPRF algorithm and refinement strategies for
further extraction then we may combine the color and the
texture of the given query image to Obtain optimal
solution.
Despite the power of the search strategies, it is very
difficult to optimize the retrieval quality of CBIR within
only one query process. The hidden problem is that the
extracted visual features are too diverse to capture the
concept of the user’s query. To solve such problems, in
the QBE system, the users can pick up some preferred
images to refine the image explorations iteratively. The
feedback procedure, called Relevance Feedback (RF),
repeats until the user is satisfied with the retrieval
results. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: A
review of past studies is briefly described in Section 2.
In Section 3, we describe the details of our proposed
method. Empirical evaluations of the proposed method
are expressed in Section 4. Finally, we conclude the
paper in Section 5.

Keywords: navigation-patterns, color based approach, II. PRIOR AND RELATED WORK
texture based approach, SVM
Relevance feedback [5], [2], [12], in principle,
I. INTRODUCTION refers to a set of approaches learning from an
assortment of users’ browsing behaviours on image
With the advent of imaging, care could be
retrieval [10]. Some earlier studies for RF make use of
significantly impacted with improved image handling.
existing machine learning techniques to achieve
In recent years, rapid advances of software and
semantic image retrieval, including Statistics, EM,
hardware technology have eased the problem of
KNN, etc. Although these forerunners were devoted to
maintaining large medical image collections. These
formulating the special semantic features for image
images constitute an important source of anatomical
retrieval, e.g., Photo book [11], QBIC [1], Visual SEEK
and functional information for the diagnosis of diseases,
[16], there still have not been perfect descriptions for
medical research, and education. Effectively and
semantic features. This is because of the diversity of
efficiently searching in these large image collections
visual features, which widely exists in real applications
poses signif-general histogram equalization (GHE) and
of image retrieval. Therefore, active query refinement,
local histogram equalization (LHE) [1]–[4], [5]
based on the analysis of usage logs, attracts researchers’
brightness preserving dynamic histogram equalization
attention in this area of RF.
(BPDHE) or SVE.BPDHE is obtained from dynamic
It is very difficult to derive an adaptive and perfect
histogram specification [10] which generates the
measuring function. A specific measuring function
specified histogram dynamically from the input image.
indeed cannot cover all target groups with various
The proposed method can remove impulse noise of any
visual contents. Moreover, the modified query point of
density from the satellite images and enhance the
each feedback probably moves toward the local optimal
contrast of the image.
centroid. Thus, global optimal results are not easily
Content-Based Image Retrieval (CBIR) is the
touched in QPMlike work spreading in the broad
mainstay of current image retrieval systems. In general,
the purpose of CBIR is to present an image feature space. As a result, diverse results for the same
conceptually, with a set of low-level visual features concept are difficult to obtain. For this reason, the
such as color, texture, and shape. These conventional modified version of MARS [9] groups the similar
approaches for image retrieval are based on the relevant points into several clusters, and selects good
computation of the similarity between the user’s query representative points from these clusters to construct the
and images via a query by example (QBE) system [11]. multipoint query.

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 317

Proceedingss of National Co
onference on Tre
ends in Signal Processing
P & Co
ommunication (TSPC’13), 12th
h–14th April 2013

One ofo the hybrid RF strategies is IRRL. IR RRL,

proposed by Yin et al. [18], addressses the impoortant
empirical question of how to preccisely capturee the
user’s inteerest at each feedback. In IRRL, explooiting
knowledgee from the lonng-term experiience of userss can
facilitate thhe selection of
o multiple RF F techniques to
t get
the best ressults. The derrived problemms from IRRL L are:
the selectiion of optim mal RF techniique cannot avoid a
the overheead of long itterations of feedback.
f Alsoo, the
visual diversity existinng in the gloobal feature space
cannot be resolved wiith an optim mal RF technnique
alone.
NST Sai, et.al [3] , describes two t approachhes to
content baased image retrieval
r (CBIIR) that reprresent
each imagee in database by a vector of o feature valuues. It
applies DC CT on averaage value of row and coolumn
vector andd DCT on pixel p distribuution of row
w and
column veector. Featuree vector eacch image is DCT
coefficientts. The drawbback is it doees not displayy the
images in ranked mannner. It considers only the color
features, sos scale orienntation is noot possible inn this
method.
III. PROPPOSED SYSTEM
M
F 1: Navigation Patterns based onn the Graph
Fig
Partitionning for Modeling
Fig. 1 gives the ovverview of thee proposed meethod
CNPM (C Combined Naavigation Patttern Mining) with
Relevance Feedback whhere both thee color and teexture
features are combined too yield better iterative resuults. It
consists off four modulees modules: Navigation
N Paattern
Mining, Color
C Based Immage Retrievval ,Texture Based
B moree than in anny other brannch of compu
Image Retrrieval and Rellevance Feedbback.
Fig. 2: Naviigation Pattern Mining
M unifoormity meaninng that numerrical distancess within the
Fig. 3:
3 Color based Im
mage Retrieval
A. Navigation Paattern Miningg
The main obbjective of thhis module is mining of
user’s Navigationn pattern. A uuser navigation n pattern is
comm mon browsinng characterisstics among a group of
userss. Since manyy users may haave common interests up
to a point duringg their navigaation, navigatiion patterns
shouuld capture the overlappping interessts or the
inforrmation needss of these userrs. In addition, navigation
patteerns should also
a be capabble to distinguuish among
web pages based on their diffeerent significaance to each
patteern [15]. The large majority of method ds that have
beenn used for navvigation patterrn mining from m Web data
are clustering
c metthods. Clusterring aims to divide a data
set into groups thhat are very ddifferent from m each other
and whose
w membeers are very similar to each h other. The
detaiils of the Navvigation Patteern Mining arre described
as fo
ollows:
Query Point Generation: The basic id dea of this
operration is to findd the images nnot only with the specific
simillarity functionn. By recursivvely modifyinng the query
poinnt, the search direction
d can move toward d the targets
graddually. Assum me that a set of images is fo ound by the
querry point at thee preceding feeedback. Nextt, the visual
featu
ures of the poositive exampples G picked d up by the
user are first averaaged into a neew query pointt.
B. Color Based Image
I Retrievval
Colour is thee first and moost straightforw
ward visual
featu
ure for indexinng and retrievval of images (Swain and
Ballaard, relativelyy robust and ssimple to represent. It is
also the most com mmonly used ffeature in the field. Color
has been
b an activve area of reseearch in imagge retrieval,
uter vision.
Coloor makes the image take vvalues in a colorc vector
space.
The choice off a color systeem is of great importance
for the purpose off proper image retrieval. An n important
criterion is that thhe color systeem is indepen
ndent of the
undeerlying imagiing device. This is requ uired when
imagges in the imaage database aare recorded byb different
imagging devices such as scannners, cameraa's and cam
recorrder (e.g. imaages on Internnet). Another prerequisite
p
mighht be that the color
c system sshould exhibitt perceptual

318 ‹ Bhag
gwant Institute of
o Technology, Muzaffarnagar,
M Uttar Pradesh, India

color space can be related to human perceptual
differences. This is important when images are to be
retrieved which should be visually similar (e.g. stamps,
trademarks and paintings databases).
C. Texture Based Image Retrieval
Texture based image retrieval is characterised by
three steps. First, for each image in the image
collection, a feature vector of size ten, characterizing
texture of the image is computed based on the Wavelet
transformation method. The Wavelet transformations
are used because they capture the local level texture
features quite efficiently, where feature vectors are
stored in a feature database. Second, using clustering
algorithm to construct indexed image database based on
the texture feature vectors obtained from wavelet
transformation, and finally, given a query image, its
feature vector is computed and compared to the feature
vectors in the feature database, and relevant images to
the query image from the image database returned to
the user[17]. Every care has been taken to ensure that
the features and the similarity measure used to compare
two feature vectors are efficient enough to match
similar images and to discriminate dissimilar ones. The
main aim of this approach is that not often used jointly.
The proposed model focuses on combining the
color and texture feature jointly to improve the users
navigation pattern along with relevance feedback.
IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
In this section, a selection of experimental results is
presented to demonstrate the effectiveness of the
proposed approach. The performance of the system was
assessed in terms of precision (number of retrieved
relevant images over) and recalls (percentage of
relevant images retrieved across all iterations with
respect to the number of class samples). The precision-
recall curves are calculated after all the iterations. All
the precision-recall curves are calculated considering
the ranked images. MATLAB is used to evaluate the
proposed scheme. Dataset of about 70 images are taken
and computation time for retrieval is analyzed for both
color and texture Based retrieval system. Results and its
retrieval accuracy are analyzed for various distant
measures.
The performance of image retrieval is measured
using: two major criteria, namely precision and recall
are used to measure the related experimental
evaluations. They are defined as follows,
Precision =
Recall =
Even a single relevant image should be missed in
the output as well as to minimize the number of
irrelevant images.
Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 319
Study of Retrieval Method based on Query by Image Content
D. Relevance Feedback
The basic RF mechanism consists in iteratively asking the
user to discriminate between relevant and irrelevant images
on a given set of results [8]. The collected feedback is then
used to drive different adaptation mechanisms which aim at
better separating the relevant image cluster or at
reformulating the query based on the additional user input.
In the first case, we may apply feature re-weighting [9] or
adaptation [10] algorithms, which modify the solution
space. metrics, giving more importance to some features
with respect to others. In the second case, also known as
query shifting, we will move the initial user query towards
the centre of the relevant image cluster to obtain a new
“virtual query”, which takes into account the multiple
inputs of the user across iterations. Feature re-weighting and
query shifting are:
Fig. 4: The Average Precision of Combined Navigation Pattern
Mining with Relevance Feedback
Fig.4 and Fig.5 shows the association between
average recall and precision values on CNPM based
image set values. Recall value increases as the number
of returned images increases.
V. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
This paper describes the new image retrieval
system named Combined Navigation Pattern Mining
(CNPM) where both combinations of color and texture
features are taken to achieve the high efficiency and
effectiveness of CBIR in coping with the large-scale
image data using Navigation-Pattern with Relevance
Feedback .The proposed system refines the retrieved
images to narrow down the images. The performance of
our approach has been demonstrated for a bag-of-
features-based image search system. A large set of
experiments shows that the accuracy is significantly and
consistently improved by the CDM for two different
data sets. It also analyzes several variants and the
impact of the main parameters of our image search
system. Our final system significantly outperforms the
state of the art on both data sets.
Fig. 5
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
REFERENCES
[1] A. Pentalnd, R.W. Picard, and S. Sclaroff, “Photobook: Content-
Based Manipulation of Image Databases,” Int’l J. Computer
Vision (IJCV), vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 233-254, June 1996.
[2] T. Qin, X.D. Zhang, T.Y. Liu, D.S. Wang, W.Y. Ma, and H.J.
Zhang, “An Active Feedback Framework for Image Retrieval,”
Pattern Recognition Letters, vol. 29, pp. 637-646, Apr. 2008.
[3] J.J. Rocchio, “Relevance Feedback in Information Retrieval,”
The SMART Retrieval System—Experiments in Automatic
Document Processing, pp. 313-323, Prentice Hall, 1971.
[4] Y. Rui, T. Huang, and S. Mehrotra, “Content-Based Image
Retrieval with Relevance Feedback in MARS,” Proc. IEEE Int’l
Conf. Image Processing, pp. 815-818, Oct. 1997.
[5] Y. Rui, T. Huang, M. Ortega, and S. Mehrotra, “Relevance
Feedback: A Power Tool for Interactive Content-Based Image
Retrieval,” IEEE Trans. Circuits and Systems for Video
Technology, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 644-655, Sept. 1998.
[6] J.R. Smith and S.F. Chang, “VisualSEEK: A Fully Automated
Content-Based Image Query System,” Proc. ACM Multimedia
Conf., Nov. 1996.
[7] G. Salton and C. Buckley, “Improving Retrieval Performance by
Relevance Feedback,” J. Am. Soc. Information Science, vol. 41,
no. 4, pp. 288-297, 1990.
320 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
[8] H.T. Shen, S. Jiang, K.L. Tan, Z. Huang, and X. Zhou, “Speed
up Interactive Image Retrieval,” VLDB J., vol. 18, no. 1, pp.
329-343, Jan. 2009.
[9] V.S. Tseng, J.H. Su, J.H. Huang, and C.J. Chen, “Integrated
Mining of Visual Features, Speech Features and Frequent
Patterns for Semantic Video Annotation,” IEEE Trans.
Multimedia, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 260-267, Feb. 2008.
[10] V.S. Tseng, J.H. Su, B.W. Wang, and Y.M. Lin, “Web Image
Annotation by Fusing Visual Features and Textual Information,”
Proc. 22nd ACM Symp. Applied Computing, Mar. 2007.
[11] K. Vu, K.A. Hua, and N. Jiang, “Improving Image Retrieval
Effectiveness in Query-by-Example Environment,” Proc. 2003
ACM Symp. Applied Computing, pp. 774-781, 2003.
[12] L. Wu, C. Faloutsos, K. Sycara, and T.R. Payne, “FALCON:
Feedback Adaptive Loop for Content-Based Retrieval,” Proc.
26th Int’l Conf. Very Large Data Bases (VLDB), pp. 297-306,
2000.
[13] P.Y. Yin, B. Bhanu, K.C. Chang, and A. Dong, “Integrating
Relevance Feedback Techniques for Image Retrieval Using
Reinforcement Learning,” IEEE Trans. Pattern Analysis and
Machine Intelligence, vol. 27, no. 10, pp. 1536-1551, Oct. 2005.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013
Study of Millimeter-wave Performance based
on Gummel Blue Approach
Ankit Goel1 and Aanchal Goel2
1,2
Department of Electronics and Communication,
Krishna Institute of Engg & Technology, Ghaziabad, U.P, India
e-mail: 1et.ankit@gmail.com
Abstract—In this paper the authors have proposed a
simple method to study the change in the millimeter-wave
performance of IMPATTs operating in MITATT mode
from the shift of avalanche transit time (ATT) phase
delay. A generalized double iterative computer method
based on Gummel-Blue approach incorporating the effect
of tunneling is used to obtain admittance characteristics
and negative resistivity profiles of silicon based double
drift region (DDR) device structures operating at different
mm-wave frequencies in the presence of tunneling. It is
observed that a shift of ATT phase delay occurs when
tunneling is taken into account. This shift is obtained from
the spatial variation of the negative resistivity profiles in
the depletion layer of the device. The results show that the
shift of ATT phase delay increases at higher operating
frequencies of the device, which in turn leads to larger
degradation of the mm-wave performance of the device at
higher frequencies.
Keywords: Admittance characteristics; ATT phase
delay; MITATT; Millimeter-wave; Tunneling.
I. INTRODUCTION GHG
The tunneling current in IMPATT device operating
at higher millimeter-wave frequencies causes
considerable degradation of RF performance of the
device. The thinner depletion layer (W < 0.80 μm) of
mm-wave IMPATT device and the higher peak electric
field (Em > 6×107 V/m) near the junction are the
favorable conditions for tunnel generation of electron
hole pair (EHP) provided vacant states are available in
the conduction band opposite to the filled states of the
valance band. Both the tunnel generated and the
avalanche generated carriers move in the drift region to
produce the necessary transit time delay for IMPATT
device is known as mixed tunneling avalanche transit
time mode or MITATT mode. W. T. Read was first
considered the tunnel current in IMPATT operation in
his famous paper [1]. Other researchers [2] followed by
him carried out the theoretical analysis of IMPATT
device based on the simplifying assumption of equal
ionization rates of electrons and holes in the respective
semiconductors. Elta and Haddad [3] used an effective
ionization rate of charge carriers in their analysis on
MITATT device by introducing the concept of dead
space. Luy et al [4] considered a time dependent tunnel
current and observed that the DC to RF conversion
ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2
efficiency of the device decreases due to tunneling
induced phase distortion. A generalized method of
small-signal analysis based on Gummel-Blue technique
[5] was first reported in [6], where the authors carried
out simulation on the high frequency negative resistivity
profiles in the depletion layer of the IMPATT devices.
The effect of tunneling was incorporated in the above
reported small-signal analysis by Dash and Pati [7] to
study the high frequency admittance characteristics and
negative resistivity profiles of IMPATT devices
operating in MITATT mode.
In this paper the authors have proposed a simple
method of calculating the tunneling induced shift of
ATT phase delay from a study of shift of negative
resistivity peaks due to tunneling in the depletion layer
of the device. This method of obtaining shift of ATT
phase delay in DDR IMPATTs due to the effect of
tunneling is described in the next section. Using this
method the tunneling induced ATT phase delays of
silicon DDRs operating at different mm-wave
frequencies are calculated and results are presented in
section III. Finally the paper is concluded in section IV.
II. METHOD
The avalanche transit time (ATT) phase delays of
the mm-wave DDR devices can be calculated from the
corresponding R(x) profiles for the following two cases
from which the shift of ATT phase delay due to
tunneling current can be computed: (i) without
considering the tunneling current; which gives ATT
phase delay in pure avalanche mode and (ii) considering
the tunneling current; which gives ATT phase delay in
mixed mode.
The R(x) profiles of the devices for the above two
cases exhibit negative specific resistance peaks in the
drift layers, but the magnitudes and locations of these
maxima change when tunneling effect is taken into
account in MITATT mode.
The spatial shift of the negative specific resistance
maxima for a particular base material determines the
shift of ATT phase delay of MITATT due to tunneling
current. If the distances of the peaks from the junction
on the p-side of ATT device in the avalanche and mixed
mode are xpa and xpm and the corresponding optimum
frequencies fa and fm respectively, then the phase delays
321
Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
on the p-side of the device at xpa and xpm for cases (i)
and (ii), are obtained from the following relations:
(1)
Similarly the phase delays on the n-side of the
device can be obtained from the following relations:
(2)
The shifts of ATT phase delays (in MITATT
device) due to the effect of tunneling are determined
from the following relations:
(3)
(4)
The results presented in the next section show that
the effect of tunneling causes an effective shift of the
R(x) profile towards the p-side of the device. That is
why on the p-side of the device, ϕ pm > ϕ pa ; which
means δp is positive. But on the n-side of the device
ϕnm < ϕna; which means δ n may be negative or
positive. Generally p-side of the device is
predominantly affected by the tunneling than the n-side
of that [7]. Thus the value of δ p is greater than the
value of δ n (i.e. δp / δn > 1 ). The overall shift of ATT
phase delay in MITATT device is obtained by
averaging over δp and δn given by,
(3)
Double Drift Region (DDR) IMPATT devices
based on silicon are designed and optimized for CW
operation at different millimeter-wave frequencies. The
method of analysis presented in [6-7] is used to
simulate the DC and RF properties of DDR IMPATT
devices designed for optimum performance. The design
parameters of the devices are given in Table I.
Table III shows the simulated DC and small-signal
parameters of the devices in both IMPATT and
MITATT modes. It can be observed that all the DC
parameters like peak electric field, breakdown voltage,
DC to RF conversion efficiency as well as all the small
signal parameters like magnitude of peak negative
conductance, negative resistance, RF power output are
decreased in MITATT mode of operation of the
devices. Another interesting fact is that the optimum
322 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
frequency of the device increases in MITATT mode of
operation.
Figure 1 shows the peak avalanche generation rate
and peak tunneling generation rate versus frequency (in
MITATT mode) graphs. It can be observed from Figure
1 that initially at the lower frequencies avalanche
generation dominates over tunneling generation. But at
higher frequencies (above 380 GHz) tunneling
generation begins to dominate over avalanche
generation. Another thing can be observed from Figure
1 and Table II that the ratio of the peak tunneling
generation rate to the peak avalanche generation rate
(gTpeak/gApeak) increases with operating frequency of
the device. It is interesting to note that the degradation
of the RF performance of the device is strongly related
to the gTpeak/gApeak – ratio of the corresponding device.
As the frequency of operation of the device in MITATT
mode increases, gTpeak/gApeak – ratio also increases which
leads to more degradation of the mm-wave performance
of the device.
Fig. 1: Peak Avalanche Generation Rate and Peak Tunneling
Generation Rate Versus Frequency
Figure 2 shows the small-signal admittance
characteristics or conductance-susceptance plots of the
devices in both IMPATT and MITATT modes. It can be
observed from Figure 2 that the magnitude of negative
conductance decreases in the MITATT mode, which in
turn reduces the RF power output of the device. Figure
2 also shows that the optimum frequency of the device
shifted upward in MITATT mode of operation.
These decrement of magnitude of negative
conductance and upward shift of operating frequency in
MITATT mode is more prominent at higher
frequencies. Table III shows that the percentage of
decrement of magnitude of negative conductance and
percentage of increment of optimum frequency are
6.4% and 24.5% respectively in the device operating at
122GHz, while the same are 8% and 60% respectively
in the device operating at 480 GHz.
 Study of Millimeter-wave Performance based on Gummel Blue Approach

TABLE 1: STRUCTURAL AND DOPING PARAMETERS

DESIGN SYMBOLS n-EPITAXIAL p-EPITAXIAL n-EPITAXIAL p-EPITAXIAL SUBSTRATE
FREQUENCY USED IN LAYER LAYER LAYER DOPING LAYER DOPING LAYER DOPING
GRAPHS THICNESS THICNESS
(μm) (μm) (×1023 m-3) (×1023 m-3) (×1026 m-3)
TABLES
98 DDR-1 0.3200 0.3000 1.450 1.750 1.0
139 DDR-2 0.2800 0.2450 1.800 2.100 1.0
173 DDR-3 0.2400 0.2200 2.200 2.500 1.0
225 DDR-4 0.1750 0.1500 3.950 4.590 1.0
300 DDR-5 0.1400 0.1100 5.200 6.800 1.0
TABLE 2: PERCENTAGE OF TUNNELING GENERATION RATE OVER AVALANCHE GENERATION RATE OF THE DEVICES
DIODE BIAS CURRENT DENSITY, PERCENTAGE OF TUNNELING GENRATION
RATE
J0 (×108 Amp/m2)
gTpeak/gApeak (%)
DDR-1 5.0 33.75
DDR-2 6.5 38.96
DDR-3 12.0 54.43
DDR-4 15.0 81.11
DDR-5 18.0 132.35
TABLE 3: ‘SIMULATED DC AND SMALL-SIGNAL PARAMETERS
PARAMETERS DDR-1 DDR-2 DDR-3 DDR-4 DDR-5
IMPATT MITATT IMPATT MITATT IMPATT MITATT IMPATT MITATT IMPATT IMPATT
BIAS CURRENT 5.0 5.0 6.5 6.5 12.0 12.0 15.0 15.0 18.0 18.0
DENSITY,
J0 (×108 Amp/m2)
PEAK ELECTRIC 6.3249 6.3098 6.6249 6.6103 6.7499 6.7193 8.1249 8.1094 8.9500 8.9235
FIELD,
Em (×107 Volt/m)
BREAKDOWN 21.14 20.88 19.20 18.89 18.39 17.97 13.82 13.14 11.75 11.32
VOLTAGE,
VB (Volt)
EFFICIENCY, 9.83 9.54 9.03 8.67 7.71 7.36 7.21 6.65 6.55 5.89
η (%)
PEAK OPTIMUM 98 122 139 186 173 240 225 345 300 480
FREQUENCY,
fp (GHz)
PEAK -6.8425 -6.4045 -8.5459 -7.8376 -12.8323 -11.9872 -19.9445 -18.1243 -25.1231 -23.1020
CONDUCTANCE,
GP (×107 S/m2)
PEAK 10.9183 14.7890 16.6800 20.2678 21.1201 32.7890 44.4338 57.5569 76.7113 91.6713
SUSCEPTANCE,
BP (×107 S/m2)
QUALITY 1.59 2.31 1.95 2.58 1.65 2.73 2.22 3.17 3.05 3.96
FACTOR,
Qp = (-BP/GP)
NEGATIVE -0.4121 -0.2466 -0.2433 -0.1660 -0.2101 -0.0984 -0.0841 -0.0498 -0.0386 -0.0268
RESISTANCE,
ZR (×10-8 Ohm.m2)
RF OUTPUT 0.1039 0.0996 0.1126 0.1065 0.1701 0.1587 0.1495 0.1311 0.1385 0.1200
POWER
DENSITY,
PRF (×1010
Watt/m2)

Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India ‹ 323

Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13) 12th–14th April 2013
Fig. 2: Small-signal Admitance Charateristics of the Devices in both
IMPATT and MITATT Modes
Fig. 3: Negative Resistivity Profiles of the Devices in both IMPATT
and MITATT Modes
Figure 3 shows the negative resistivity profiles of
the devices in both IMPATT and MITATT modes.
Magnitude of negative resistivity at each space point
in the depletion layer of the device decreases in
MITATT mode and negative resistivity profiles are
slightly shifted towards the p-side of the device. This
spatial shift of the negative resistivity profile in
MITATT mode is actually the measure of the tunneling
induced shift of ATT phase delay. The authors have
evolved a simple method for calculating the tunneling
induced shift of ATT phase delay from a study of the
shift of negative resistivity peaks due to tunneling in the
depletion layer of the device. The principle of
calculating shift of ATT phase delay due to tunneling
is outlined in section II. The magnitudes of ATT
phase delay shifts for silicon based MITATT devices
operating at different mm-wave frequencies are
calculated and plotted against the optimum frequency
of the corressponding devices in Figure 4. It can be
324 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
observed from Figure 4 that the tunneling induced shift
of ATT phase delay increases as the operating
frequency of the device increases. Thus higher
gTpeak/gApeak – ratio corresponds to higher shift of ATT
phase delay; which in turn leads to greater deterioration
of device performance due to tunneling.
Fig. 4: Tunneling Induced Shift of ATT Phase
Delay Versus Frequency
III. CONCLUSION
A Simple method is proposed by the authors in this
paper to calculate the tunneling induced shift of ATT
phase delay in MITATT device. Results show that as
the frequency of operation of the device increases the
shift of ATT phase delay due to tunneling increases
which leads to greater degradation of the RF
performance of the device.
REFERENCES
[1] W.T. Read, “A proposed high-frequency negative resistance
diode”, Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 37, pp. 401-466, 1958.
[2] M. Chive, E. Constant, M. Lefebvre and J. Pribetich, “Effect of
tunneling on high efficiency IMPATT avalanche diode”, Proc.
IEEE (Lett.), vol. 63, pp. 824-826, 1975.
[3] M.E. Elta and G.I. Haddad, “Mixed tunneling and avalanche
mechanism in p-n junctions and their effects on microwave
transit time devices”, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 25, pp.
694-702, 1978.
[4] J.F. Luy and R. Kuehnf, “Tunneling assisted Impatt operation”,
IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 36, pp. 589-595, 1989.
[5] H.K. Gummel and J.L. Blue, “A small-signal theory of
avalanche noise in IMPATT diodes”, IEEE Trans. on Electron
Devices, vol. 14, no. 9, pp. 569-580, 1967.
[6] S.K. Roy, J.P. Banerjee and S.P. Pati, “A computer analysis of
the distribution of high frequency negative resistance in the
depletion layers of impatt diodes” Proc. of NASECODE-IV
Conf. on Numerical Analysis of Semiconductor Devices
(Dublin: Boole Press), pp. 494, 1985.
[7] G.N. Dash and S. P. Pati, “A generalized simulation method for
MITATT-mode operation and studies on the influence of tunnel
current on IMPATT properties”, Semicond. Sci. Technology,
vol. 7, pp. 222-230, 1992.
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

TRACK VI
ABSTRACTS

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 3
 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Role of Dialog Technique in Philosophy

for Children in India
Neetu Singh Dhidonia
M.Ed, Beacon Institute of Technology, Meerut, India
e-mail: singhneetu29@rediffmail.com

In paper investigation that Philosophy for Children
stems from the work analysis by Neetu Singh for
primary school students. It involves teacher modeling of
exploratory talk in relation to a complex stimulus then
has been students discuss together in pairs, larger
groups, and the whole class to achieve consensus
through advanced technology systems. The effects of
Philosophy for Children on quantity and quality of
interactive more type dialog on 5- 10-year old children
in primary mainstream classes in (Agra )India. the
investigated Video recordings of teacher-led and pupil-
pupil classroom dialog before, and six months into,
participation in the program were analyzed. Changes in
intervention classes included increased use of open-
ended questions by the teacher, increased participation
of pupils in classroom dialog technique , and improved
children reasoning in justification of opinions. There
were no changes in comparison classes. Increases were
found in the amount of teacher-student dialog and the
amount of student-student dialog, with decreases in the
amount of teacher-whole-class talk. This study found
gains in cognition which were sustained from
elementary school into high school even when no
further Philosophy for Children was done. Socio-
emotional aspects of learning has been also improved.
Investigation of process found changes in teacher
behavior and child behavior. Implications for future
research, policy and practice are outlined, particularly
for enhancing consistency and expanding the program.

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 327

 Proceedings of National Conference on Trends in Signal Processing & Communication (TSPC’13), 12th–14th April 2013

Applying Genetic Algorithm to Analyze

the Efficiency of Data Flow Testing
Rabins Porwal
Associate Professor, Department of IT,
Institute of Technology & Science (ITS), Mohan Nagar, Ghaziabad
e-mail: rabinsp@rediffmail.com

The success or failure of the entire software
development process relies on software testing activity
which is responsible for ensuring that the software is
free from bugs. One of the major labor intensive
activities of software testing is the automatic generation
of test data that satisfy a given adequacy criterion for
the purpose of applying the testing methodologies.
Many approaches have been tried and tested for
automating the process of generating the test data.
Meta-heuristics have been applied extensively for
improving the efficiency of the process. This paper
analyses the effectiveness of applying genetic algorithm
(GA) for generating test data automatically using data
flow testing approach. The GA conducts its search by
constructing new test data from previously generated
test data that are evaluated as effective test data.
Finally, the paper presents the results of the
experiments that have been carried out to evaluate the
effectiveness of the proposed GA.

328 ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2

 Author Index
Agarwal, Aanchal, 317 Gupta, Satish, 7
Agarwal, Punit, 90, 225 Gurjar, Sanjay, 119
Agarwal, Shobhit, 260 Jain, Deepti, 103
Agrawal, Monika, 15 Jain, Neeraj, 154
Ahmad, Khaleel, 126 Janstch, Axel, 3
Ahmed, Aijaz, 29 Jindal, K.D., 103
Amrohi, Azeem Haider, 270 Joshi, Abhimanyu, 15
Ansari, K.B. Mohd. Umar, 106
Ansari, Umar, 265, 298, 302 Kanta, Achhar, 310
Arjunarora, 260 Kanth, Rajeev Kumar, 3
Arora, Arjun, 146 Kaur, Navdeep, 221
Arya, Meenakshi, 37, 136 Kaur, Ravneet, 281
Avasthi, Sandhya, 161 Krishna, Garima, 245
Kumar, Abhijeet, 64, 317
Babu, B., 141 Kumar, Amit, 100, 313
Bahuguna, Renu, 255
Kumar, Anil, 82
Bajpai, Saurabh Kumar, 292
Kumar, Arun, 19
Bansal, Priyanka, 60
Kumar, Ashutosh, 126
Barthwal, Priyanka, 310
Bhardwaj, Akshansh, 172 Kumar, Ashwani, 270
Bhardwaj, Ankur, 126 Kumar, Avinash, 130
Bhardwaj, Vibhor Kumar, 64, 317 Kumar, Hanny, 64
Bhatt, Divya, 234 Kumar, Harish, 3, 37, 274, 136
Bijalwan, Anchit, 176 Kumar, Kishan, 313
Bisaria, Akanksha, 203 Kumar, Manish, 113
Kumar, Mithilesh, 7, 11, 33
Chanyal, Himanshu, 184, 249 Kumar, Mohit, 113
Chauhan, Alkesh, 136 Kumar, Rajeev, 46
Chauhan, Shantanu, 198 Kumar, Ravindra, 110
Chauhan, Shivani, 90 Kumar, Sanjeev, 172, 198, 240
Chen, Qiang, 3 Kumar, Sanjiv, 260
Choudhary, Ankit, 146 Kumar, Suneet, 146, 260
Dasgupta, Abhijeet, 23 Kumar, Vikash, 119
Dhidonia, Neetu Singh, 327 Kumar, Vipin, 103
Diwan, Ritesh, 96 Kumari, Rani, 167
Dubey, Dharmendra, 295 Liljeberg, Pasi, 3
Dwivedi, Avinash, 161
Malhotra, Rashi, 146
Gadicha, Ajay B., 75 Malik, Kanika, 188
Garg, Neha, 176, 234
Malviya, Ravindra Kumar, 295
Gautam, Shweta, 11, 33
Mandoria, Hardwari Lal, 184, 249, 255
Goel, Aanchal, 321
Mathur, Ashwini, 274
Goel, Ankit, 321
Mathur, Kirti, 274
Gomathy, C., 141
Goyal, Kanika, 307 Mehra, Raghav, 225
Goyal, Shikha, 210 Mehta, Yogesh, 66
Gupta, Priti, 79 Mishra, R.A., 79
Gupta, Ravindra Prakash, 60, 66 Mishra, Vandana, 214
Gupta, Richa, 307, 310 Modi, Ruchi, 60
Gupta, Riddhi, 214 Mohd, K.B., 265, 298, 302

ISBN: 978-93-82880-20-2 329

Author Index

Nag, A. Krishna, 71 Singh, Raghvendra, 313

Nagpal, Abhiruchi, 40 Singh, Sandeep, 26
Naruka, Khushboo, 43 Singh, Saurabh, 167
Neelima, N., 85 Singh, Soumya, 154
Negi, Vinay, 26 Singhal, P.K., 40, 49, 57, 60
Nigam, Manoj Kumar, 71 Singodiya, Prashant, 15
Solanki, Lakhivinder Singh, 46
Pandey, Mohit Kumar, 292 Sylvia, J.I., 141
Pandya, Avani, 191
Pant, Shivani, 203 Tayal, Pranavi, 184, 249, 255
Pathak, Anil Kumar, 286 Tenhuen, Hannu, 3
Poornapushpakala, S., 141 Thakur, Amita, 37, 317
Porwal, Rabins, 225, 328 Thapliyal, Meenakshi, 176
Prakash, Jai, 313 Tharik, H.K. Yasar, 85
Tiwari, Anand, 113
Rai, Rohinee, 214 Tiwari, Ritika 43
Rana, Pradeep, 100 Tomar, Saurabh, 26
Rani, Vibha, 3 Trapasiya, Sameer, 191
Ranjan, Nikhil, 245 Tripathi, Mayank, 113
Rawat, Ramesh, 203, 234 Tripathi, S.L., 79
Rochani, Bharat, 15 Tripathi, Subodh Kumar, 100
Rudresh, 214
Upadhayay, M.D., 7
Saini, Abhishek, 64
Sarif, Moh. Atif, 37 Vaish, Jayati, 281
Shah, Sanjeev Kumar, 26 Vaishnav, Divya, 96
Sharma, Goldy, 106, 265, 298, 302 Varshney, Leena, 3
Sharma, Prabhat, 19 Verma, Diksha, 123
Sharma, Sanjeev, 103 Verma, Nitin, 240
Sharma, Surbhi, 66 Verma, Priti, 307
Sharma, Virendra Kumar, 66 Verma, Vimlesh, 49, 57, 60
Shera, Nitin, 82 Virmani, Sunita, 53
Singh, Arjun, 19 Vishwakarma, Satyendra, 298, 302
Singh, Kh. S., 103 Yadav, Ajit, 11, 33
Singh, M.L., 231 Yadav, Devaki Nandan, 46
Singh, Manish, 100
Singh, Meghendra, 149 Zaidi, M.G.H., 136
Singh, Navpreet, 231 Zheng, Lirong, 3

330 ‹ Bhagwant Institute of Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India