Dept. of Aero & Auto, M.I.T, Manipal

Dept. of Aero & Auto,M.I.
T, Manipal 1
ABRASIVE JET MACHINING
[AJM]
Dept. of Aero & Auto,M.I.T, Manipal 2

Characteristics of AJM
1. The metal removal rate of AJM is 0.015 cm3/min.
2. It can be used both hard and soft materials.
3. AJM have low tolerance +/- 0.12mm
4. By this process a good surface finish of 0.25-1.25µm
5. Steel up to 1.5mm thick & glass up to 6.3mm thick have been
possible to cut by AJM.
6. This process has a special application for machining thin-
sectioned brittle materials
Dept. of Aero & Auto,M.I.T, 3

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Apparatus required for AJM
1. Gas propulsion system
2. Abrasive feeder
3. Machining chamber
4. AJM Nozzle
5. Abrasives

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Gas Propulsion System
➢ Gas used are Air, Nitrogen or CO2
➢ The gas should be non toxic, cheap and easily available.
➢ It should not excessively spread when discharged from nozzle
into atmosphere.

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Abrasive feeder
➢ In Abrasive feeder the quantity of abrasive is controlled by
inducing vibration to the feeder.
➢ Material removal will occur due to the EROSIVE ACTION
of the jet of air-abrasive mixture impinging on the work-piece
surface
Machining Chamber
➢ Mixing chamber is equipped with a vacuum dust collector.
➢ Special consideration should be given to the dust collection
system if the toxic materials is being used

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AJM Nozzle
➢ Nozzle usually made up of tungsten carbide or sapphire.
➢ Usually the Nozzle life is 300hr
➢ The nozzle is made of either circular or rectangular
➢ The pressure in the nozzle is maintained 2-8.5bar
➢ With the increase in the wear of nozzle, the divergence of the
jet stream increases resulting in more stray cutting and high
inaccuracy.
➢ The stray cutting can be controlled by the masks made by soft
materials like rubber

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Abrasives
1. Aluminum Oxide [Al2O3]→Cleaning, cutting
2. Silicon carbide[SiC]
3. Glass beads → Matte finish
4. Crushed glass.
5. Sodium bicarbonate
Reuse of Abrasive is recommended or not?

NO
1. Abrasive get contaminated with metallic chips which may
block passage
2. Cutting ability of the used abrasive particle is very less

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Working Principles

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Working Principle of AJM
❖ The principle of machining / cutting by abrasive jet process is
explained through the following steps:
1. Abrasive particles of size between 10 µm to 50 µm (depending
upon the requirement of either cutting or finishing of the work
piece) are accelerated in a gas stream (commonly used gas
stream is air at high atmospheric pressures).
2. The smaller abrasive particles are useful for finishing and
bigger are used for cutting operations.
3. The abrasive particles are directed through the nozzle, towards
the work piece surface where-ever cutting or finishing is to be
done. The distance between the tip of the nozzle and the work
surface is normally within 1 to 8 mm.

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4. As the abrasive particles impact the surface of the work piece,
it causes a small fracture at the surface of the work piece. The
material erosion occurs by the chipping action.
5. The erosion of material by chipping action is convenient in
those materials that are hard and brittle.
6. As the particles impact the surface of work piece, it causes a
small fracture and wear, which is carried away by the gas
along with the abrasive particles.
7. The abrasive particles once used, cannot be re-used as its
shape changes partially and the work piece material is also
clogged with the abrasive particles during impingement and
subsequent flushing by the carrier gas.
Dept. of Aero & Auto,M.I.T, Manipal 12

Process Parameters

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Process Parameters
1. Stand of distance [SOD]
2. Abrasive flow rate
3. Grain size
4. Jet velocity
5. Nozzle Pressure
6. Mixing ratio

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Stand of distance [SOD]

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Abrasive flow rate

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Jet velocity
➢ The K.E of the abrasive jet is utilized for metal removal by
erosion.
➢ For the erosion of glass by silicon carbide(grain size 25µ), the
minimum jet velocity has been found to be around 150m/s

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Nozzle Pressure

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Grain Size
➢ Usually its about 10 to 50µ
➢ Aluminum Oxide → 12,20,25µ
➢ Silicon carbide → 25, 40µ
➢ Sodium bicarbonate →27µ
➢ Glass beads →0.635 to 1.27mm

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Mixing Ratio
Mixing ratio is the ratio of volume flow rate of abrasive
particles[Va] to the volume flow rate of carrier gas[Vg]
i.e M=

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Advantages
➢ AJM process is a highly flexible process wherein the abrasive
media is carried by a flexible hose, which can reach out to
some difficult areas and internal regions.
➢ AJM process creates localized forces and generates lesser heat
than the conventional machining processes.
➢ There is no damage to the workpiece surface and also the
process does not have tool-workpiece contact, hence lesser
amount of heat is generated.
➢ The power consumption in AJM process is low.

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Disadvantages
➢ The material removal rate is low
➢ The process is limited to brittle and hard materials
➢ The wear rate of nozzle is very high
➢ The process results in poor machining accuracy for
softer material.
➢ The process can cause environmental pollution if not
taken care.

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Applications
❖Metal working:
➢ De-burring of some critical zones in the machined parts.
➢ Drilling & cutting of the thin,hardened metal sections.
➢ Removing the machining marks, flaws, chrome & anodizing
marks.
❖Grinding:
➢ Cleaning the residues from diamond wheels, dressing wheels
of any shape and size.

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❖Glass:
➢ Cutting of the optical fibers without altering its wavelength.
➢ Cutting, drilling and frosting precision optical lenses.
➢ Cutting extremely thin sections of glass and intricate curved
patterns.
➢ Cutting and etching normally inaccessible areas and internal
surfaces.
➢ Cleaning and dressing the grinding wheels used for glass.
❖General
❖ Producing high quality surface
❖ Removing glue and paint from paintings and leather object
❖ Etching marking on glass cylinders

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WATER JET MACHINING
[WJM]

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Components present in WJM
➢ Pump
➢ Intensifier
➢ Tubing
➢ Tube-fittings
➢ nozzle

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Advantages
1. Water is cheap, non toxic, readily available and can be easily
disposed.
2. Water jet approaches the ideal single point tool
3. Any contour can be cut,
4. The process gives a clean and sharp cut
5. Does not generate heat
6. Beat suited for explosive environment.
7. Dustless atmosphere
8. Noise can be avoided
9. No moving parts are present, so less maintenance is required
10. Jet takes away all the cutting residue & hence there are no
pollution problem
11. Fluid can be reused after filtering
12. Only small amount of fluid is required[100-150lit/hour]
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Applications
➢ Cutting of coal and rocks
➢ Demolishing reinforced concrete structures
➢ Cutting antiskid grooves in airfield runways and roads
➢ Cleaning
➢ Cutting of asbestos is done by WJ to minimize airbone dust in
the atmosphere
➢ Cutting of fiber glass, polyethylene automotive parts
➢ WJ at lower pressure 69-200MPa has been used to cut
insulation of the cables without damaging the underlying
metallic components.

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Abrasive Water jet
Machining

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AWJM COMPONENTS
➢Pumping system
➢Abrasive feed system
➢Abrasive water jet nozzle
➢Catcher

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Abrasive WJ Cutting
➢ Used to cut much harder materials
➢ Water is not used directly to cut material as in Pure,
instead water is used to accelerate abrasive particles
which do the cutting
➢ Standoff distance between mixing tube and work part is
typically 0.010-0.200MM – important to keep to a
minimum to keep a good surface finish

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Abrasive WJ Cutting cont.
➢ Evolution of mixing tube technology

➢ Premium Composite Carbide lasts
100-150 hours
➢ Consumables include water,
abrasive, orifice and mixing tube

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Setup

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When is it Practical?
The cutter is commonly connected to a high-
pressure water pump, where the water is then
ejected from the nozzle, cutting through the
material by spraying it with the jet of high-
speed water.
It’s practical to use it to cut any kind of
material. In water jet cutting, there is no heat
generated. This is especially useful for cutting
tool steel and other metals where excessive
heat may change the properties of the
material. Water jet cutting does not leave a
burr or a rough edge, and eliminates other
machining operations such as finish sanding
and grinding. It can be easily automated for
production use. Dept. of Aero & Auto,M.I.T, 37
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Advantages
➢ Cheaper than other processes.
➢ Cut virtually any material. (pre hardened
steel, mild steel, copper, brass, aluminum;
brittle materials like glass, ceramic, quartz,
stone)
➢ Cut thin stuff, or thick stuff.
➢ Make all sorts of shapes with only one
tool.
➢ No heat generated.
➢ Leaves a smooth finish, thus reducing
secondary operations. This part is shaped with waterjet
➢ Clean cutting process without gasses or using one tool. Slots, radii, holes
oils.
➢ Modern systems are now very easy to
learn.
➢ Are very safe.
➢ Machine stacks of thin parts allofatAero
Dept. once.
& Auto,M.I.T, 38
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Advantages (continued)
➢ Unlike machining or grinding, waterjet cutting
does not produce any dust or particles that are
harmful if inhaled.
➢ Waterjet cutting can be easily used to produce
prototype parts very efficiently. An operator can
program the dimensions of the part into the
control station, and the waterjet will cut the part
out exactly as programmed. This is much faster
and cheaper than drawing detailed prints of a
part and then having a machinist cut the part
out.
➢ Waterjets are much lighter than equivalent laser Get nice edge quality from different
cutters, and when mounted on an automated materials.
robot. This reduces the problems of accelerating

and decelerating the robot head, as well as
taking less energy.
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Disadvantages
➢ One of the main disadvantages of waterjet
cutting is that a limited number of
materials can be cut economically. While
it is possible to cut tool steels, and other
hard materials, the cutting rate has to be
greatly reduced, and the time to cut a part
can be very long. Because of this, waterjet
cutting can be very costly and outweigh
the advantages.
➢ Another disadvantage is that very thick
parts can not be cut with waterjet cutting
and still hold dimensional accuracy. If the Waterjet lag
part is too thick, the jet may dissipate
some, and cause it to cut on a diagonal, or
to have a wider cut at the bottom of the
part than the top. It can also cause a rough
wave pattern on the cut surface.
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Disadvantages (continued)
➢ Taper is also a problem with waterjet cutting in very thick
materials. Taper is when the jet exits the part at a different
angle than it enters the part, and can cause dimensional
inaccuracy. Decreasing the speed of the head may reduce
this, although it can still be a problem.
Stream lag caused inside corner damage to this 1-in.-

thick stainless steel part. The exit point of the stream
lags behind the entrance point, causing irregularities
on the inside corners of the part. The thicker the
material is or the faster an operator tries to cut it, the
greater the stream lag and the more pronounced the
damage.

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USM Process
➢ The USM process is performed using a desirable tool along-
with abrasives slurry as a media. The cutting tool oscillates at
high frequencies (typically 20-40 kHz)
➢ The shape of tool corresponds to the shape requirements in the
workpiece.
➢ The abrasive grains are driven by the high speed reciprocations
across the small gap, in between the tool and the workpiece.
➢ Uniform force is used to gradually feed the tool.
➢ The impact of abrasives is the energy source which is mainly
responsible in removal of material, through the form of small
wear particles which are carried away by the abrasive slurry.

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Mechanism of Material Removal
The main mechanisms responsible for the material removal in
USM are,
➢ Mechanical abrasion: Occurs due to the hammering effect of
abrasive particles on work piece through the tool.
➢ Impact: The freely moving particles impact with a certain
velocity on the work piece resulting in micro chipping.
➢ Erosion: Due to cavitation effect of the abrasive slurry,
erosion of the work surface occurs.
➢ Chemical: Due to fluid employed, chemical effect can come
into consideration.

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PARAMETERS

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Advantages of USM
➢ In USM process, there are no physical, chemical or thermal
changes. The microstructures reveal that there are also no
structural changes as the stresses induced are too less. The
cutting forces being low, workpiece is unstressed, undistorted
and free from heat effects.
➢ There is no direct contact of the tool and workpiece due to the
slurry used, it makes it a wet cutting process. The surfaces
produced are free from stress and damages.
➢ The process is free from burrs and distortions.
➢ The process is suitable for any materials, irrespective of
electrical conductivity
➢ The process is very much suitable for machining brittle
materials
➢ The process offers good surface finish and structural integrity.
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Limitations of USM
➢ Soft materials like lead and plastics are not suitable for
machining by the USM process,since they tend to absorb the
abrasive particles rather than to chip under their impact.
➢ The USM process consumes higher power and has lower
material-removal rates compared to traditional fabrication
processes.
➢ The tool wear rate in USM process is fast.
➢ The areas of machining and higher depths are the constraints
in USM.
➢ As the USM process continuous, the lateral wear of the tool
increases gradually and it tends to make the holes tapered. The
sharp corners of the tool get rounded off thereby requiring tool
replacement essential for producing accurate blind holes.
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➢ The accuracy of the machined surface gets lost due to setting
up of strong lateral vibrations. This occurs if the axis of the
tool and horn, which are brazed together, are not properly
aligned with the transducer axis. In such a case, the tool needs
to be redesigned.
➢ While producing deeper holes through USM method, there is
ineffective slurry circulation leading to presence of a active
grains under the tool face. Due to this, the bottom surfaces of
blind holes tend to become slightly concave.

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Applications of USM
➢ USM process is used in machining hard and brittle metallic
alloys, semiconductors, glass, ceramics, carbides etc.
➢ In machining of advanced ceramics for applications in auto-
engine components.
➢ In machining, wire drawing, punching or blanking of small
dies
➢ Machining ceramic substrates for drilling holes in borosilicate
glass for the sensors used in electronic industries
➢ Drilling small holes in helicopter power transmission shafts
and gears.

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Chemical Machining
✓ Chemical Milling
✓ Chemical Blanking
✓ Photochemical Blanking

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Chemical Milling
Figure 27.2 (a) Missile skin-panel section contoured by chemical milling to improve the
stiffness-to-weight ratio of the part. (b) Weight reduction of space-launch vehicles by the
chemical milling of aluminum-alloy plates. These panels are chemically milled after the
plates first have been formed into shape by a process such as roll forming or stretch forming.
The design of the chemically machined rib patterns can be modified readily at minimal cost.
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Chemical Milling
➢ Produces shallow cavities on a work piece, usually to
reduce weight
➢ The area affected by the chemical reagent is

controlled by masking or by partial immersion

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Chemical Milling
Procedure:
1. Relieve residual stresses to prevent warping
2. Clean the material surface
3. Apply masking material
4. Remove the masking on regions that require etching
5. Apply the reagents
6. Wash the part
7. Remove remaining masking
8. Additional finishing or chemical milling procedures
may be used
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Chemical-Machining
Figure 27.3 (a) Schematic illustration of the chemical-machining process.

Note that no forces or machine tools are involved in this process. (b) Stages
in producing a profiled cavity by chemical machining; note the undercut.

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Etchant for Aluminium

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Chemical Machining
Design Considerations:
➢ Avoid sharp corners, deep narrow cavities, steep
tapers, folded seams and porous workpieces
➢ Most of the workpiece should be shaped by other
processes to speed production
➢ Variations may occur depending on humidity and
temperature
➢ Computerized designs must be converted to a format
compatible with the photochemical artwork
equipment

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Advantages
➢ In ChM the metal removal rate is uniform
➢ It is also to make tapered sheets & structural members with
close tolerance & good surface finish.
➢ Highly skilled operators are not required.
Dis-advantages
➢ Only few metals can be machined by this process because it is
not possible to find appropriate etchant and maskant for the
other materials.
➢ MRR is very low
➢ Chemicals used are corrosive in nature and may be toxic as
well.

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Thermal Machining
✓ Electrical discharge Machining[EDM]

✓ Electron Beam machining[EBM]
✓ Wire EDM
✓ Laser beam Machining[LBM]
✓ Plasma Arc Machining[PAM]

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ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE
MACHINING (EDM)

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History
➢ In 1770, Joseph Priestly a British scientist first discovered the
erosive effects of electrical discharges.
➢ In 1943, soviet scientists B. Lazarenko and N. Lazarenko had
exploited the destructive effect of an electrical discharge and
developed a controlled process for machining materials that
are conductors of electricity.

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EDM Machining elements
➢Electric supply
➢Dielectric fluid
➢Tool & work piece
➢Servo mechanism

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Power supply
➢ AC to DC power supply
➢ RC pulse generator which converts DC power into pulsed DC
➢ Transformer converts high voltage supply to low voltage
higher current supply
➢ High power pulsed output produces spark b/w the electrodes
➢ Power supply also controls electrical parameters such as V, I,

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Dielectric system
➢ Dielectric fluid
➢ Reservoir
➢ Filters
➢ Pump delivery devices
The main functions of the dielectric fluid are to,

1. Flush the eroded particles from the machining gap
2. Provide insulation between the electrode and the workpiece
3. Cool the section that was heated by the discharging effect

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➢ The main requirements of the EDM dielectric fluids are
adequate viscosity, high flash point, good oxidation stability,
minimum odor, low cost, and good electrical discharge
efficiency.
➢ For most EDM operations kerosene is used with certain
additives that prevent gas bubbles and de-odoring. Silicon
fluids and a mixture of these fluids with petroleum oils have
given excellent results.

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Tool material
➢ Graphite
➢ Copper
➢ Brass
➢ Tungsten
I. Low TWR
II. Higher MRR
III.Better surface finish

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EDM setup

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Working principle
➢ In this process, the workpiece and tool are submerged into a
non-conducting, dielectric fluid which is separated by a small
gap (for sparking).
➢ The dielectric fluid insulates the workpiece from the tool and
creates the resistance of electricity flow between the
electrodes.
➢ The dielectric fluid may be typical hydrocarbon oil (kerosene
oil) or de-ionized water. It also helps in cooling down the tool
and workpiece, clears the inter-electrode gap (IEG), &
concentrates the spark energy to a small cross sectional area
under the electrode.

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Techniques for proper flushing

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Process Parameters

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WEAR RATE OF THE ELECTRODE
TOOL
The wear rate of the electrode tool material Wt and the wear ratio
Rw, described by
Wt= ( 11x103)iTt -2.38
Rw = 2.25Tr -2.3
Where,
Wt = wear rate of the tool, mm3/min
i = EDM current, A
Tt = melting point of the tool electrode, °C
Tr = ratio of the workpiece to tool electrode melting points

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Advantages of EDM
➢ Any materials that are electrically conductive can be machined by
EDM.
➢ Materials, regardless of their hardness, strength, toughness and
microstructure can be easily machined / cut by EDM process
➢ The tool (electrode) and workpiece are free from cutting forces
➢ Edge machining and sharp corners are possible in EDM process
➢ The tool making is easier as it can be made from softer and easily
formable
➢ Materials like copper, brass and graphite.
➢ The process produces good accuracy and repeatability.
➢ Hardened work-pieces can also be machined since the deformation
caused by it does not affect the final dimensions.
➢ EDM is a burr free process.

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Limitations of EDM
➢ Material removal rates are low, making the process
economical only for very hard & difficult to machine
materials.
➢ Surface quality is very low.
➢ The EDM process is not suitable for non-conductors.
➢ The surfaces produced by EDM generally have a matt type
appearance, requiring further polishing to attain a glossy
finish.

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Characteristics of the Wire EDM
➢ Work piece should be electrically conductive
➢ Wire is being used as a tool
➢ Diameter of wire is very small 0.05-0.30mm
➢ Dielectric fluid is deionized water
➢ MRR is either by Melting/ Vaporization

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Elements of Wire EDM
➢Power supply
➢Dielectric system
➢Positioning system
➢Wire drive system

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Why deionized water is being
used
➢Low viscosity
➢No fire hazards
➢High cooling rate
➢High MRR

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Wire Electrical Discharge
Machining
• Electrical discharge machining

wire cutting (EDM-WC) is a
thermal mass-reducing process
that uses a continuously moving
wire to remove material by means
of rapid controlled repetitive
spark discharges.
• A dielectric fluid is used to flush
the removed particles, regulate
the discharge, and keep the wire
and workpiece cool. The wire
and workpiece must be
electrically conductive.
11/13/2017
Machining
• Schematic illustration of the

wire EDM process. As much as
50 hours of machining can be
performed with one reel of
wire, which is then discarded.
Typical EDM-WC products.
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Machining
➢ Utilizes a traveling wire that is
advance within arcing distance
of the workpiece (0.001 in.)
➢ Removes material by rapid,
controlled, repetitive spark
➢ Uses dielectric fluid to flush
removed particles, control
discharge, and cool wire and
workpiece
➢ Is performed on electrically
conductive workpieces
➢ Can produce complex two-
dimensional shapes
11/13/2017
Hybrid wire EDM
Feature 1: Start hole drilling by WJ
Waterjet nozzle Upper guide

Wire
Lower guide
Workpiece
Initial hole drilling Wire threading

Wire EDM setup

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Wire is made up of??
➢ Dia of 0.15 to 0.30mm copper or brass
➢ Small diameters wires are made up of Molybdenum steel
❖ STRATIFIED WIRE??????
✓ Copper + Zinc

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Applications of Wire-Cut EDM
➢ Aerospace, Medical, Electronics and Semiconductor
applications
➢ Tool & Die making industries.
➢ For cutting the hard Extrusion Dies
➢ In making Fixtures, Gauges & Cams
➢ Cutting of Gears, Punches and Dies
➢ Manufacturing hard Electrodes.
➢ Manufacturing micro-tooling for Micro EDM, Micro-USM
and such other micromachining applications.

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Overall EDM hazard potential

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ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING

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Introduction
➢ The earliest work of material removal utilizing an electron
beam was attributed to Steigerwald who designed a prototype
machine in 1947.
➢ Electron beam machining (EBM) has been used in industry
since the 1960s, initially in nuclear and aerospace welding
applications.
➢ Drilling small holes, cutting, and heat treatment are a set of
modern applications used in semiconductor manufacturing as
well as micromachining areas.

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Basic facts of EBM
➢ It is one of the thermal type non traditional machining
➢ This is process can be used to machine both electrically
conductive as well as nonconductive materials.
➢ Generally the MRR of EBM is not significantly influenced by
the properties of w/p material.
➢ Small holes 0.1mm to 1.4mm can be machined
➢ It is again classified into two types
1. Thermal EBM
2. Non thermal EBM

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Elements of EBM
➢Electron Beam gun
➢Power supply
➢Vacuum system and Machining chamber

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SETUP

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Process Parameters
➢ Current
➢ Duration of pulse
➢ Beam deflecting signals
❖ MRR= η P/W
✓ η------ Cutting efficiency

✓ P------ Power [J/s]
✓ W----- Specific energy [J/Kg]

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Parameters affecting EBM
performance.

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Advantages
➢ Drilling is possible at high rates (up to 4000 holes per
second).
➢ No difficulty is encountered with acute angles.
➢ Drilling parameters can easily be changed during machining.
➢ No limitation is imposed by workpiece hardness, ductility,
and surface reflectivity.
➢ No mechanical distortion occurs to the workpiece since there
is no contact.
➢ The process is capable of achieving high accuracy and
repeatability of 0.1 mm for position of holes and 5 percent for
the hole diameter.
➢ The process produces the best surface finish compared to
other processes.
➢ The cost is relatively small compared to other processes used
to produce very small holes. 103
Disadvantages
➢High capital equipment cost
➢ Long production time due to the time needed
to generate a vacuum
➢ The presence of a thin recast layer
➢ Need for auxiliary backing material

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PLASMA ARC MACHINING
[PAM]

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What is Plasma????
➢ Plasma is glowing, ionized gas that results from heating of a
material to extremely high temperature.
➢ It is composed of free electrons dissociated from the main gas
atoms.
➢ Its is electrically conductive as well as responsive to
magnetism.
➢ The temperature of plasma can be of the order of 28,000oC to
33,000oC

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Key Process variables
➢ Current : 600A
➢ Cutting speed: 200-3000mm/min
➢ Gas flow rate (This critical variable must be carefully
controlled based upon the current, orifice, diameter and shape,
gas mixture, thickness
➢ Torch height: 2.54-7.72mm
➢ Cutting oxygen pressure: 1.2Mpa

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SETUP

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Plasma arc cutting system
I. Non-transferred Arc
II. Transferred Arc

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Elements of plasma arc cutting
system
I. Power supply
II. Gas supply
III. Cooling water supply
IV. Plasma torch

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Different types of plasma torch
used
✓Air plasma torch
✓Oxygen injected torch
✓Dual gas torch
✓Water injected plasma torch

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Air Plasma torch

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Oxygen injected torch

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Dual gas torch

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Water injected torch

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Advantages of PAM
➢ PAM has been employed to cut materials as thick as 200mm.
➢ It is a faster process
➢ Can be used to machine any material
➢ Excessively high temperature are generated for use
Disadvantages of PAM
➢ Initial cost of the equipment is high
➢ Adequate safety precautions should be given to the operator
➢ The work surface may undergo some metallurgical changes

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LASER BEAM MACHINING

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Introduction
➢ LASER stands for “LIGHT AMPLIFICATION BY
STIMULATED EMISSION OF RADIATION”.
➢ The working principle of laser was first put forward by Albert

Einstein in 1917 though the first industrial laser for
experimentation was developed around 1960s.
➢ Laser beam can very easily be focused using optical lenses as

their wavelength ranges from half micron to around 70
microns.
➢ A highly collimated, monochromatic, and coherent light beam

is generated and focused to a small spot.
118
➢ Focussed laser beam can have power density in excess of 1
MW/mm2.
➢ Laser Beam Machining or more broadly laser material

processing deals with machining and material processing like
heat treatment, alloying, cladding, sheet metal bending etc.
➢ Such processing is carried out utilizing the energy of coherent

photons or laser beam, which is mostly converted into thermal
energy upon interaction with most of the materials.

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➢ As laser interacts with the material, the energy of the photon is
absorbed by the work material leading to rapid substantial rise
in local temperature. This in turn results in melting and
vaporisation of the work material and finally material removal.
➢ Nowadays, laser is also finding application in rapid

prototyping as in processes like stereo-lithography, selective
laser sintering etc.

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Laser Beam Machining – The Lasing
Process
➢ Lasing process describes the basic operation of laser, i.e.
generation of coherent beam of light by “LIGHT
AMPLIFICATION” using “STIMULATED EMISSION”.
➢ In the model of atom, negatively charged electrons rotate around

the positively charged nucleus in some specified orbital paths.
➢ The geometry and radii of such orbital paths depend on a variety

of parameters like number of electrons, presence of neighbouring
atoms and their electron structure, presence of electromagnetic
field etc. Each of the orbital electrons is associated with unique
energy levels.
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➢ At absolute zero temperature an atom is considered to be at
ground level, when all the electrons occupy their respective
lowest potential energy.
➢ The electrons at ground state can be excited to higher state of

energy by absorbing energy from external sources like
increase in electronic vibration at elevated temperature,
through chemical reaction as well as via absorbing energy of
the photon.
➢ Fig. 1 shows schematically the absorption of a photon by an

electron. The electron moves from a lower energy level to a
higher energy level.
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Figure 1, Energy bands in materials

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➢ Sometimes such change of energy state puts the electrons in a
meta-stable energy band. Instead of coming back to its ground
state immediately it stays at the elevated energy state for micro
to milliseconds.
➢ In a material, if more number of electrons can be somehow

pumped to the higher meta-stable energy state as compared to
number of electrons at ground state, then it is called
“Population Inversion”.
➢ Such electrons, at higher energy meta-stable state, can return

to the ground state in the form of an rapid flow provided
stimulated by a photon of suitable frequency or energy. This is
called Stimulated Emission.

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➢ If it is stimulated by a photon of suitable energy then the electron
will come down to the lower energy state and in turn one original
photon will be produced. In this way coherent laser beam can be
produced.
➢ Fig. 2 schematically shows working of a laser.

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➢ There is a gas in a cylindrical glass vessel. This gas is called
the lasing medium.
➢ One end of the glass is blocked with a 100% reflective mirror

and the other end is having a partially reflective mirror.
Population inversion can be carried out by exciting the gas
atoms or molecules by pumping it with flash lamps.
➢ Then stimulated emission would initiate lasing action.

Stimulated emission of photons could be in all directions.
➢ Most of the stimulated photons, not along the longitudinal

direction would be lost and generate waste heat. The photons
in the longitudinal direction would form coherent, highly
directional, intense laser beam.
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Principle of electromagnetic lens

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➢ Fig. presents the factors which affect the LBM process. The factors
can be related to LBM Drilling process and are discussed below:
➢ Assist Gases: The gas jet is normally directed with the laser beam
into the interaction region to remove the molten material from the
machining region and obtain a clean cut. Assist gases also shield the
lens from the expelled material by setting up a high-pressure barrier
at the nozzle opening. Pure oxygen causes rapid oxidation and
exothermic reactions, causing better process efficiency. The
selection of air, oxygen, or an inert gas depends on the workpiece
material and thickness.
➢ Material Properties and Environment: These include the surface

characteristics such as reflectivity and absorption coefficient of the
bulk material. Additionally, thermal conductivity and diffusivity,
density, specific heat, and latent heat are also considered.

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Electrolysis of copper sulphate solution

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Lasing Medium- Heart Of LASER
➢ Many materials can be used as the heart of the laser.
Depending on the lasing medium lasers are classified as solid
state and gas laser.
➢ Solid-state lasers are commonly of the following type

o Ruby which is a chromium – alumina alloy having a
wavelength of 0.7 μm
o Nd-glass lasers having a wavelength of 1.64 μm.
o Nd-YAG laser having a wavelength of 1.06 μm.
➢ (Nd-YAG stands for Neodymium-doped Yttrium aluminium
garnet; Nd:Y3Al5O12)
➢ These solid-state lasers are generally used in material

processing. Dept. of Aero & Auto,M.I.T, 130
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➢ The generally used gas lasers are:
– Helium – Neon
– Argon
– CO2 etc.
➢ Lasers can be operated in continuous mode or pulsed mode.

Typically CO2 gas laser is operated in continuous mode and
Nd – YAG laser is operated in pulsed mode.

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Schematic diagram of Laser Beam Machine
Figure 3
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Material Removal Mechanism In LBM
Fig.4. Physical processes

occurring during LBM
133
➢ As presented in Fig. 4, the unreflected light is absorbed, thus heating
the surface of the workpiece.
➢ On sufficient heat the workpiece starts to melt and evaporates.
➢ The physics of laser machining is very complex due mainly to

scattering and reflection losses at the machined surface.
Additionally, heat diffusion into the bulk material causes phase
change, melting, and/or vaporization.
➢ Depending on the power density and time of beam interaction, the

mechanism progresses from one of heat absorption and conduction
to one of melting and then vaporization.
➢ Machining by laser occurs when the power density of the beam is

greater than what is lost by conduction, convection, and radiation,
and moreover, the radiation must penetrate and be absorbed into the
material.
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Application
➢ Laser can be used in wide range of manufacturing applications

➢ Material removal – drilling, cutting
– Welding
– Cladding
➢ Drilling micro-sized holes using laser in difficult to machine

materials is the most dominant application in industry. In laser
drilling the laser beam is focused over the desired spot size. For thin
sheets pulse laser can be used. For thicker ones continuous laser
may be used.

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Parameters Affecting LBM

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Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages: Disadvantages:
➢ Excellent control of the laser beam ➢ The material being cut gets very
with a stable motion system hot, so in narrow areas, thermal
achieves an extreme edge quality. expansion may be a problem.
Laser-cut parts have a condition of ➢ Distortion can be caused by
nearly zero edge deformation, or oxygen, which is sometimes used
roll-off as an assist gas, because it puts
➢ It is also faster than conventional stress into the cut edge of some
tool-making techniques. materials; this is typically a
➢ Laser cutting has higher accuracy problem in dense patterns of holes.
rates over other methods using ➢ Lasers also require high energy,
heat generation, as well as water making them costly to run.
jet cutting. ➢ Lasers are not very effective on
➢ There is quicker turnaround for metals such as aluminum and
parts regardless of the complexity, copper alloys due to their ability to
because changes of the design of reflect light as well as absorb and
parts can be easily accommodated. conduct heat. Neither are lasers
Laser cutting also reduces wastage. appropriate to use on crystal, glass
and other transparent materials.
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What is the difference between ARC
& SPARK?
➢ An electric arc is an electrical breakdown of a gas which produces an
ongoing plasma discharge, resulting from a current flowing through
normally nonconductive media such as air.
➢ A spark is triggered when the electric field strength exceeds
approximately 4–30 KV/cm—the dielectric field strength of air.
➢ Arc is continuous discharge whereas spark is momentary. Voltage
developed due to arc is comparatively lower.

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Dept. of Aero & Auto, M.I.T, Manipal

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Dept. of Aero & Auto,M.I.

Dept. of Aero & Auto,M.I.T, Manipal 2

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Reuse of Abrasive is recommended or not?

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➢ Evolution of mixing tube technology

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robot. This reduces the problems of accelerating

Stream lag caused inside corner damage to this 1-in.-

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➢ The area affected by the chemical reagent is

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Figure 27.3 (a) Schematic illustration of the chemical-machining process.

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✓ Electrical discharge Machining[EDM]

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The main functions of the dielectric fluid are to,

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