 In a cyclotron, high energy protons are directed towards a stationary target.

In the Large
Hadron Collider, beams of high energy protons circulating an opposite direction cross,
so that they collide. For the same total initial energy, colliding proton beams allow the
creation of particles of greater mass. Explain why, using principles of conservation of
momentum.

 With a stationary target, there is initial momentum whereas with colliding beam,
the total initial momentum = 0.
 So for LHC, the final momentum has to be 0, hence no Ek of particles after
collision.
 Therefore all of the energy goes to creation of particles for LHC according to
conservation of mass-energy.

 Assumption made when applying principle of conservation of momentum to collisions.

 No external force acting on the system.

 Because if external force act, there will be acceleration which will cause the
final momentum to be different from otherwise.

 In cyclotron, protons accelerated to a speed of 1.5 ∗ 107 𝑚𝑠 −1 . Time taken to reach

this speed? B = 1.67T, P.D = 13kV.

1
 Max Energy gained ⇒ ½ m v 2 = 2 ∗ 1.67 ∗ 10(−27) ∗ (1.5 ∗ 107 𝑚𝑠 −1 )2

 So Max Energy gained = 1.88 ∗ 10−13 J.

 Energy for 1 pass ⇒ EK = VQ = 2.08 ∗ 10−15 J
 No of pass = max energy/energy for 1 pass = 90.4
 T = 2 pi m/ BQ = 4.1 * 10^(-6) s
 So 1 cycle = 2 pass, 1 cycle = 90.4/2 cycle * 4.1 * 10^(-6) s = 1.85 * 10^(-6) s.

 T = 2*pi*m/ BQ,
Explain the significance of the expression to the operation of a cyclotron.
  Time spent in Dees is independent of radius and speed.
 So particles take same amount of time to complete one rotation.
 Hence a fixed frequency can be used for the alternating p.d since the field across
the gap is in the correct direction to increase the speed of particles as they cross
the dee each time.

 Explain why high energy particles are required to investigate the structure of nucleons.

 High energy particles have high momentum.

 High momentum so de Broglie wavelength is small.
 Studying nucleons require wavelength to be the size of nucleons.

 Explain how an electron beam is produced.

 Electrons are emitted from the heated filament (Thermionic emission), then
accelerated by an electric field. In that way, the electrons move in the form of a
beam.

 Suggest why the electron beam continues along a path of decreasing intensity and
decreasing diameter.

 Decreasing diameter due to Electrons colliding with helium atoms, so they are
losing energy, so speed decreasing, hence radius decreasing.
 Some electrons are absorbed by Helium atoms, so Intensity decreases.

 Electron, proton, muon, meson, neutron. Describe how these particles fit into the
standard model.

 Protons and neutrons are Baryons i.e it is made up of 3 quarks.

 Meson are made of a quark-antiquark pair.
  Hadrons are not fundamental particles and further categorized into Baryons and
mesons.
 Leptons are fundamental particles, and electron and muon are leptons.
 Muon is 2nd generation particle, and protons, neutrons and electrons are first
generation particles.

 When the first tube was made, the max freq for the supply was about 7MHz. Suggest
why it is an advantage to use a much high frequency than this.

 T = 1/F, so high F, means smaller T.

 So time spent in drift tube is shorter
 So it is possible to reach high speed with a shorter time.

 State why the alpha source and gold foil were contained in a vacuum.

 So that the air particles do not collide with the Alpha particles and stop them
from reaching the gold foil.

 Atom is mostly empty space. Explain this statement.

 The nucleus is much smaller than the atom. Hence atom is mostly empty space.

 Discuss the extent the results of the alpha particle scattering experiment justifies
replacing the plum pudding model with a nuclear model of the atom.
 When alpha particles were directed towards the gold foil, it was observed that,
 Most of the alpha particles were undefllected, and few were deflected through
a small angle. This could be proved by either of the model since in nuclear model,
atom is mostly empty space, and in Plum pudding model, mass is too evenly spread.
 A very small proportion was observed to be deflected through an angle greater
than 90º. This does not fit the Plum pudding model since high concentration of charge
is required to provide this large force of electrostatic repulsion, and high
 concentration of mass is required so the alpha particle is deflected, not the gold
nucleus.

 In terms of movement of electron, explain what happens to the capacitor as it becomes

fully charged.

 E moves from one plate to another

 As capacitor charges rate of flow of e decreases.
 When fully charged, equal and opposite charge on both plates.

 Function of a capacitor other than storing charge.

 Capacitors can store energy.

 They store positive and negative charge separately, hence the overall charge on
the capacitor is zero.
 It can maintain constant output voltage.

 Explain why the charged ball experiences a horizontal force of constant magnitude
while its between the plates.

 As F=EQ, electric field between the plates is uniform, hence magnitude of force
is constant.

 Advantages of Banked tracks.

 Higher speed can be used.

 Smaller tracks can be used.
 Less likely to skid
 Maximum centripetal force is larger.