REVISED NINTH EDITION A Textbook of FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES $.1. Units Dr. R.K. BansalPublished by : LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD 113, Golden House, Daryagan), New Delhi-110002 Phone : 011-43 53 25 00 Fax : 011-43 53 25 28 www. laxmipublications.com info@laxmipublications.com Author : Dr. R.K. Bansal Compiled by : Smt. Nirmal Bansal © All rights reserved with Author and the Publishers. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. Price : Rs. 495.00 Only. First Edition : Sept. 1983 Ninth Edition : 2005 Reprint ; 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 Revised Ninth Edition : 2010 OFFICES © Bangalore 080-26 61 15 61 © Chennai 044-24 34 47 26 © Cochin 0484-237 70 04, 405 13 03 © Guwahati 0361-254 36 69, 251 38 81 © Hyderabad 040-24 65 23 33 (© Jalandhar 0181-222 12 72 © Kolkata 033-22 27 43 84 © Lucknow 0522-220 95 78 (© Mumbai 022-24 91 54 15, 24 92 78 69 © Ranchi 0651-221 47 64 EFM-0559-495-FLUID MECHANICS & HM-BAN c— Typesetted at © Shubham Composer, New Delhi Printed at » Repro India Ltd., Mumbai.CONTENTS Chapter Pages Chapter 1, Properties of Fluids 1-34 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Properties of Fluids 1 1.2.1. Density or Mass Density 1 1.2.2. Specific Weight or Weight Density 1 1.2.3, Specific Volume 2 1.2.4. Specific Gravity 2 Solved Problems 1,1—1.2 2 1.3. Viscosity a 1.3.1, Units of Viseosity 3 1.3.2, Kinematic Viscosity 5 1.3.3. Newton's Law of Viscosity 5 1.3.4. Variation of Viscosity with Temperature 6 1.3.5. Types of Fluids 6 Solved Problems 1.8—1.19 3 6 1.4. Thermodynamic Properties ies 17 14.1. Dimension of R 5 18 1.4.2. Isothermal Process a 18 1.4.3. Adiabatic Process se 18 1.4.4. | Universal Gas Constant ase 19 Solved Problems 1,20—1.22 ui 19 1.5. Compressibility and Bulk Modulus ay 21 Solved Problems 1.23—1.24 a 22 1.6. Surface Tension and Capillarity on 23 1.6.1. Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet on 23 1.6.2. Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble ea 24 1.6.3. Surface Tension on a Liquid Jet 3 24 Solved Problems 1.25—1.27 ei 24 1.6.4. Capillarity 2 25 Solved Problems 1.28—1.32 a 26 1.7. Vapour Pressure and Cavitation ae 29 Highlights os 30 Exercise a 30 Chapter 2. Pressure and Its Measurement 35-68 2.1. Fluid Pressure at a Point an 35 2.2. Paseal’s Law wai 35 2.3, Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest te 36 Solved Problems 2.1—2.7 a 37 (ix)24. 2.5. 2.6. 2.7. 2.8. Chapter 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 3.7. 3.8 (x) Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric and Vacuum Pressures. Solved Problem 2.8 Measurement of Pressure 2.5.1. Manometers 2.6.2. Mechanical Gauges Simple Manometers 2.6.1. Piezometer 2.6.2. U-tube Manometer Solved Preblems 2.9—2.13 2.6.3. Single Column Manometer Solved Problem 2.14 Differential Manometers 2.7.1. U-tube Differential Manometer Solved Problems 2.15—2.17 2.7.2. Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer Solved Problems 2.18—2.21 Pressure at a Point in Compressible Fluid 2.8.1. Isothermal Process 2.8.2. Adiabatic Process 2.8.3. Temperature at any Point in Compressible Fluid 2.8.4. Temperature Lapse-Rate (L) Solved Problems 2.22—2,26 Highlights Exercise 3. Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces Introduction Total Pressure and Centre of Pressure Vertical Plane Surface Sub-merged in Liquid Solved Problems 3.1—3.12 Horizontal Plane Surface Sub-merged in Liquid Solved Problem 3.13 Inclined Plane Surface Sub-merged in Liquid Solved Problems 3.14(a)—3.21 Curved Surface Sub-merged in Liquid Solved Problems 3,22—3,31 Total Pressure and Centre of Pressure on Lock Gates Solved Problems 3.32—3.33 Pressure Distribution in a Liquid Subjected to Constant Horizontal/Vertical Acceleration 3.8.1. Liquid Containers Subject to Constant Horizontal Acceleration Solved Problems 3.84—3.36 3.8.2. Liquid Containers Subjected to Constant Vertical Acceleration Solved Problems 3.37—3.38 Highlights Exercise 107 109 112 112 115 120 122 124 125(xi) Chapter 4. Buoyancy and Floatation 4.1. 4.2. 4.3, 4.4. 4.5. 4.6. 4.7. 4.8. 4.9, Introduction Buoyancy Centre of Buoyancy Solved Problems 4.1—4.6 Meta-centre Meta-centric Height Analytical Method for Meta-Centre Height Solved Problems 4.7—4,11 Conditions of Equilibrium of a Floating and Sub-merged Bodies 4.7.1, Stability of a Sub-merged Body 4.7.2. Stability of a Floating Body Solved Problems 4.12—4.18 Experimental Method of Determination of Meta-centric Height Solved Problems 4.19—4.20 Oscillation (Rolling) of a Floating Body Solved Problems 4.21—4.22 Highlights Exercise Chapter 5. Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 5.4, 5.5. 5.6. 5.7. 5.8. A. KINEMATICS OF FLOW . Introduction . Methods of Describing Fluid Motion . Types of Fluid Flow 5.3.1. Steady and Unsteady Flows 5.3.2. Uniform and Non-uniform Flows 5.3.3. Laminar and Turbulent Flows 5.3.4. Compressible and Incompressible Flows 5.3.5. Rotational and Irrotational Flows 5.3.6, One, two and Three-Dimensional Flows Rate of Flow or Discharge (Q) Continuity Equation Solved Problems 5.1—5.5 Continuity Equation in Three-Dimensions 5.6.1. Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Polar Co-ordinates Solved Problems 5.5A Velocity and Acceleration 5.7.1. Local Acceleration and Convective Acceleration Solved Problems 5.6—5.9 Velocity Potential Function and Stream Function 5.8.1. Velocity Potential Function §.8.2. Stream Function §.8.3. | Equipotential Line 5.8.4. Line of Constant Stream Function 131-162 131 131 131 131 136 136 137 138 143 143 148 144 154 155 156 158 159 160 163-258 163 163 163 163 164 164 164 165 165 165 165 166 170 171 173 174 175 175 181 181 182 183 1835.10, 5.11. 5.12. 5.13. 5.14. 5.16. 5.17. (uti) 5.8.5. Flow Net 5.8.6. Relation between Stream Function and Velocity Potential Function Solved Problems 5.10—5.17 Types of Motion 5.9.1. Linear Translation 5.9.2. Linear Deformation 5.9.3. Angular Deformation or Shear Deformation 5.9.4. Rotation 5.9.5. Vorticity Solved Problems 5.18—5.19 Vortex Flow 5.10.1. Forced Vortex Flow 5.10.2. Free Vortex Flow 5.10.3. Equation of Motion for Vortex Flow 5.10.4. Equation of Forced Vortex Flow Solved Problems 5.20—5.25 §.10.5. Closed Cylindrical Vessels Solved Problems 5.26—5.31 5.10.6. Equation of Free Vortex Flow Solved Problem 5.32 (B) IDEAL FLOW (POTENTIAL FLOW) Introduction Important Cases of Potential Flow Uniform Flow §.13.1. Uniform Flow Parallel to x-Axis 5.13.2. Uniform Potential Flow Parallel to y-Axis Source Flow Sink Flow Solved Problems 5.33—5.35 Free-Vortex Flow Super-Imposed Flow 5.17.1. Source and Sink Pair Solved Problems 5.36—5.37 5.17.2. Doublet Solved Problem 5.38 5.17.3. A Plane Source in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Half-Body) Solved Preblems 5.39—5.41 5.17.4. A Source and Sink Pair in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Rankine Oval Body) Solved Problem 5.42 §.17.5. A Doublet in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Circular Cylinder) Solved Problems 5.43—5,44 Highlights Exercise 184 184 184 191 191 191 192 192 192 192 193 193 194 195 196 197 202 202 209 210 210 211 211 211 213 214 216 216 219 221 221 225 228 231 233 237 241 244 246 250 252 254(xiii) Chapter 6. Dynamics of Fluid Flow 6.1. Introduction 6.2. Equations of Motion 6.3. Euler's Equation of Motion 6.4. Bernoulli's Equation from Euler's Equation 6.5. Assumptions Solved Problems 6.1—6.6 6.6. Bernoulli's Equation for Real Fluid Solved Problems 6.7—6.9 6.7. Practieal Applications of Bernoulli's Equation te 6.7.1. Venturimeter ana Solved Problems 6,10—6,21 6.7.2. Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate Solved Problems 6.22 —6.23 6.7.3. Pitot-tube Solved Problems 6.24—6.28 6.8. The Momentum Equation Solved Problems 6.29—6.35 6.9. Moment of Momentum Equation Solved Problems 6.36—6.37 6.10. Free Liquid Jets Solved Problems 6.38—641 Highlights Exercise Chapter 7. Orifices and Mouthpieces 7.1. Introduction 7.2. Classifications of Orifices 7.3. Flow Through an Orifice 7.4. Hydraulic Co-efficients TAL Co-efficient of Velocity (C,) 7.4.2. Co-efficient of Contraction (C_) 7.4.3. Co-efficient of Discharge (C,) Solved Problems 7,.1—7.2 7.5. Experimental Determination of Hydraulic Co-efficients faa 7.5.1. Determination of Co-efficient of Discharge (C,,) ... 7.5.2. Determination of Co-efficient of Velocity (C,) ... 7.5.3. Determination of Co-efficient of Contraction (C,) Solved Problems 7,3—7.10 7.6. Flow Through Large Orifices 7.6.1, Discharge Through Large Rectangular Orifice Solved Problems 7.11—7.13 7.7. Discharge Through Fully Sub-merged Orifice Solved Problems 7.14—7.15 7.8. Discharge Through Partially Sub-merged Orifice Solved Problem 7.16 259-316 259 259 260 261 261 261 265 266 268 268 270 281 283 285 286 288 289 298 298 301 303 307 309 317-354 317 317 317 318 318 319 319 319 320 320 321 321 321 327 328 328 330 331 331 332(xt) 7.9. Time of Emptying a Tank Through an Orifice at its Bottom ts 332 Solved Problems 7.17—7.18 ka 333 7.10. Time of Emptying a Hemispherical Tank a 335 Solved Problems 7.19—7.21 wis 336 7.11. Time of Emptying a Circular Horizontal Tank _ 338 Solved Problems 7.22—7,23 - 339 7.12. Classification of Mouthpieces eu 341 7.13. Flow Through an External Cylindrical Mouthpiece oi 341 Solved Problems 7.24—7.25 vie 342 7.14. Flow Through a Convergent-Divergent Mouthpiece ‘ai 344 Solved Problems 7.26—7.28 aie 345 7.15. Flow Through Internal or Re-entrant on Borda's Mouthpiece =H 347 Solved Problem 7.29 = 349 Highlights 5 350 Exercise ie 352 Chapter 8. Notches and Weirs 355-386 8.1. Introduction ive 355 8.2. Classification of Notches and Weirs ui 355 8.3. Discharge Over a Rectangular Notch or Weir aa 356 Solved Problems 8.1—8.3 os 356 8.4. Discharge Over a Triangular Notch or Weir a 358 Solved problems 8.4—8.6 we 359 8.5. Advantages of Triangular Notch or Weir over Rectangular Notch or Weir a 361 8.6. Discharge Over a Trapezoidal Notch or Weir 8 361 Solved Problem 8.7 at 362 8.7. Discharge Over a Stepped Notch = 362 Solved Problem 8.8 a8 363 8.8. Effect on Discharge Over a Notch or Weir Due to Error in the Measurement of Head ra 364 8.8.1. For Rectangular Weir or Notch ae 364 §.8.2. For Triangular Weir or Notch a2 364 Solved Problems 8.9—8,11 a8 365 8.9. (a) Time Required to Empty a Reservoir or a Tank with a Rectangular Weir or Notch fal 366 (b) Time Required to Empty a Reservoir or a Tank with a Triangular Weir or Notch - 367 Solved Problems 8.12—8.14 om 368 8.10. Velocity of Approach i 370 Solved Problems 8.15—8.19 si 370 8.11. Empirical Formulae for Discharge Over Rectangular Weir ee 374 Solved Problems 8.20—8.22 adi 374 8.12. Cipolletti Weir or Notch si 376 Solved Problems 8.23—8.24 mal 377 8.13. Discharge Over a Broad-Crested Weir we 3788.14. 8.15. 8.16. (xv) Discharge Over a Narrow-Crested Weir Discharge Over an Ogee Weir Discharge Over Sub-merged or Drowned Weir Solved Problems 8.25—827 Highlights Exercise Chapter 9. Viscous Flow 9.1. Introduction 9.2. Flow of Viscous Fluid Through Circular Pipe Solved Problems 9.1—9.6 9.3. Flow of Viscous Fluid between Two Parallel Plates Solved Problems 9.7—9.12 9.4. Kinetic Energy Correction and Momentum Correction Factors Solved Problem 9.13 9.5. Power Absorbed in Viscous Flow 9.5.1. Viscous Resistance of Journal Bearings Solved Problems 9.14—9.18 9.5.2. Viscous Resistance of Foot-step Bearing Solved Problems 9.19—9.20 9.5.3. Viscous Resistance of Collar Bearing Solved Problems 9.21—9,22 9.6. Loss of Head Due to Friction in Viscous Flow Solved Problems 9.23—9,.24 9.7. Movement of Piston in Dash-pot Solved Problem 9.25 9.8. Methods of Determination of Co-efficient of Viscosity 9.8.1. Capillary Tube Method 9.8.2. Falling Sphere Resistance Method 9.8.3. Rotating Cylinder Method 9.8.4. Orifice Type Viscometer Solved Problems 9.26—9.32 Highlights Exercise Chapter 10. Turbulent Flow 10.1. Intreduction 10.2, Reynolds Experiment 10.3. Frictional Loss in Pipe Flow 10.3.1. Expression for Loss of Head Due to Friction in Pipes 10.3.2. Expression for Co-efficient of Friction in Terms of Shear Stress 10.4. Shear Stress in Turbulent Flow 10.4.1. Reynolds Expression for Turbulent Shear Stress 10.4.2. Prandtl Mixing Length Theory for Turbulent Shear Stress 379 379 379 380 381 383 387-432 387 387 391 397 400 404 404 407 407 408 411 412 412 413 414 415 417 418 419 419 420 421 422 423 427 429 433 433 434 434 436 437 437 438(xvi) 10.5. Velocity Distribution in Turbulent Flow in Pipes 10.6. 10.5.1. Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Boundaries 10.5.2. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Smooth Pipes 10.5.3. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Rough Pipes Solved Problems 10,1—10.4 10.5.4. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Terms of Average Velocity Solved Problems 10.5—10.6 10.5.5. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Smooth Pipes by Power Law Resistance of Smooth and Rough Pipes Solved Problems 10,7—10.13 Highlights Exercise Chapter 11. Flow Through Pipes 11.1. 11.2. 11.3. 11.4. 11.5. 11.6. 11.7. 11.8. 11.9. Introduction Loss of Energy in Pipes Loss of Energy (or head) Due to Friction Solved Problems 11.1—11.7 Minor Energy (Head) Losses 11.4.1. Loss of Head Due to Sudden Enlargement 11.4.2. Loss of Head Due to Sudden Contraction Solved Preblems 11.8—11.14 11.4.3. Loss of Head at the Entrance of a Pipe 11.4.4. Loss of Head at the Exit of Pipe 11.4.5. Loss of Head Due to an Obstruction in a Pipe 11.4.6. Loss of Head Due to Bend in Pipe 11.4.7. Loss of Head in Various Pipe Fittings Solved Problems 11.15—11.21 Hydraulic Gradient and Total Energy Line 11.5.1. Hydraulie Gradient Line 11.5.2. Total Energy Line Solved Problems 11.22—11.26 Flow Through Syphon Solved Problems 11,27—11,29 Flow Through Pipes in Series or Flow Through Compound Pipes Solved Problems 11,30—11.30A Equivalent Pipe Solved Problem 11.31 Flow Through Parallel Pipes Solved Problems 11.32—11.41 Flow Through Branched Pipes Solved Problems 11.42—11.44 438 440 441 442 442 446 448 450 450 453 461 462 465-558 465 465 465 467 471 471 473 474 482 482 482 483 483 483 491 491 491 491 498 498 502 503 507 508 508 509 524 52511.11. 11.12. 11.13. 11.14. (xvii) Power Transmission Through Pipes 11.11.1. Condition for Maximum Transmission of Power 11.11.2. Maximum Efficiency of Transmission of Power Solved Problems 11.45—11.47 Flow Through Nozzles 11.12.1. Power Transmitted Through Nozzle 11.12.2. Condition for Maximum Power Transmitted Through Nozzle 11.12.3. Diameter of Nozzle for Maximum Transmission of Power Through Nozzle Solved Problems 11.48—11.51 Water Hammer in Pipes 11.13.1, Gradual Closure of Valve 11,13.2. Sudden Closure of Valve and Pipe is Rigid 11.13.38. Sudden Closure of Valve and Pipe is Elastic 11.13.4. Time Taken by Pressure Wave to Travel from the Valve to the Tank and from Tank to the Valve Solved Problems 11.52—11.55 Pipe Network 11.14.1. Hardy Cross Method Solved Problem 11.56 Highlights Exercise Chapter 12. Dimensional and Model Analysis 12.1. 12.2. 12.3. 12.4, 12.5. 12.6. 12.7. 12.8. Introduction Secondary or Derived Quantities Solved Problem 12.1 Dimensional Homogeneity Methods of Dimensional Analysis 12.4.1. Rayleigh’s Method Solved Preblems 12.2—12.7 12.4.2. Buckingham’s n-Theorem 12.4.3. Method of Selecting Repeating Variables 12.4.4, Procedure for Solving Problems by Buckingham’s n-Theorem Solved Problems 12.8—12.14 Model Analysis Similitude-Types of Similarities Types of Forces Acting in Moving Fluid Dimensionless Numbers 12.8.1, Reynold’s Number (R,) 12.8.2. Froude’s Number (F_) 12.8.3. Euler’s Number (E,,) 12.8.4. Weber's Number (W,) 12.8.5. | Mach’s Number (M) 530 531 531 531 535 537 537 538 539 541 542 542 543 545 545 547 548 549 552 554 559-610 559 559 560 561 561 561 562 565 566 566 568 578 579 580 581 581 582 582 582 58212.9. 12.10. 12.11. Chapter 13.1. 13.2. 13.3, 13.4. 13.5. 13.6, 13.7. (xviii) Model Laws or Similarity Laws 12.9.1, Reynold’s Model Law Solved Problems 12.15—12.18 12.9.2. Froude Model Law Solved Problems 12.19—12.27 12.9.3. Euler's Model Law 12.9.4. Weber Model Law 12.9.5. Mach Model Law Solved Problem 12.28 Model Testing of Partially Sub-merged Bodies Solved Problems 12.29—12.32 Classification of Models 12.11.1. Undistorted Models 12.11.2. Distorted Models 12.11.3. Scale Ratios for Distorted Models Solved Problem 12.33 Highlights Exercise 13. Boundary Layer Flow Introduction Definitions 13.2.1. Laminar Boundary Layer 13.2.2. Turbulent Boundary Layer 13.2.3. Laminar Sub-layer 13.2.4. Boundary Layer Thickness (6) 13.2.5. Displacement Thickness (5*) 13.2.6. Momentum Thickness (0) 13.2.7. Energy Thickness (8**) Solved Problems 13.1—13.2 Drag Force on a Flat Plate Due to Boundary Layer 13.3.1. Local Co-efficient of Drag [C,*] 13.3.2. Average Co-efficient of Drag [C,] 13.3.3. Boundary Conditions for the Velocity Profiles Solved Problems 13.3—13.12 Turbulent Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate Solved Problem 13.13 Analysis of Turbulent Boundary Layer Total Drag on a Flat Plate Due to Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layer Solved Problems 13.14—13.17 Separation of Boundary Layer 13.7.1, Effect of Pressure Gradient on Boundary Layer Separation 13.7.2. Location of Separation Point Solved Problem 13.18 583 583 584 587 590 595 596 596 597 598 600 604 604 605 605 606 606 607 611-656 611 612 612 613 613 613 613 615 615 616 619 622 622 622 622 638 638 641 641 642 645 648 649 650(xEx) 13.7.3. Methods of Preventing the Separation of Boundary Layer Highlights Exercise Chapter 14. Forces on Sub-merged Bodies 14,1. 14.2. 14.3. 14.4, 14.5. 14.6. 14.7. 14.8. 15.1. 15.2. Introduction Force Exerted by a Flowing Fluid on a Stationary Body 14.2.1. Drag 14.2.2. Lift Expression for Drag and Lift 14.3.1. Dimensional Analysis of Drag and Lift Solved Problems 14.1—14.15 14.3.2. Pressure Drag and Friction Drag 14.3.3. Stream-lined Body 14.3.4. Bluff Body Drag on a Sphere Solved Problem 14.16 Terminal Velocity of a Body Solved Problems 14.17—14.20 Drag on a Cylinder Development of Lift on a Circular Cylinder 14.7.1. Flow of Ideal Fluid Over Stationary Cylinder 14.7.2. Flow Pattern Around the Cylinder when a Constant Circulation [ is Imparted to the Cylinder 14.7.3. Expression for Lift Force Acting on Rotating Cylinder 14.7.4, Drag Force Acting on a Rotating Cylinder 14.7.5. Expression for Lift Co-efficient for Rotating Cylinder 14.7.6. Location of Stagnation Points for a Rotating Cylinder in a Uniform Flow-field 14.7.7. Magnus Effect Solved Problems 14.21—14.23 Development of Lift on an Airfoil 14.8.1. Steady-state of a Flying Object Solved Problems 14.24—14.25 Highlights Exercise Chapter 15. Compressible Flow Introduction Thermodynamic Relations 15.2.1. Equation of State 16.2.2. Expansion and Compression of Perfect Gas 651 651 653 657-692 657 657 658 658 658 659 660 670 671 671 671 672 673 673 677 677 678 678 680 682 682 683 683 683 686 687 687 689 690 693-736 693 693 693 69415.3. 15.4. 15.5, 15.7. 15.8. 15.9. 15.10. 15.11. (Gex) Basic Equations of Compressible Flow 15.3.1. Continuity Equation 15.3.2. Bernoulli's Equation Solved Problems 15.1—15.3 15.3.3. Momentum Equations Velocity of Sound or Pressure Wave in a Fluid 15.4.1. Expression for Velocity of Sound Wave in a Fluid 15.4.2. Velocity of Sound in Terms of Bulk Modulus 15.4.3. Velocity of Sound for Isothermal Process 16.4.4. Velocity of Sound for Adiabatic Process Mach Number Solved Problems 15.4—15.7 Propagation of Pressure Waves (or Disturbances } in a Compressible Fluid 15.6.1. Mach Angle 15.6.2. Zone of Action 15.6.3. Zone of Silence Solved Problems 15.8—15.10 Stagnation Properties 15.7.1. Expression for Stagnation Pressure (p,) 15.7.2. Expression for Stagnation Density (p,) 15.7.3. Expression for Stagnation Temperature (T,) Solved Problems 15,11—15,12 Area Velocity Relationship for Compressible Flow Flow of Compressible Fluid Through Orifices and Nozzles Fitted to a Large Tank 15.9.1. Value of n or ? for Maximum Value Py of Mass Rate of Flow 15.9.2. Value of V, for Maximum Rate of Flow of Fluid 15.9.3. Maximum Rate of Flow of Fluid Through Nozzle at 15.9.4. Variation of Mass Rate of Flow of Compressible Fluid with Pressure ratio (2) 15.9.5. Velocity at Outlet of Nozzle for Maximum Rate of Flow is Equal to Sonic Velocity Solved Problems 15.13—15.15 Mass Rate of Flow of Compressible Fluid Through Venturimeter Solved Problem 15.16 Pitot-Static Tube in a Compressible Flow Solved Problem 15.17 Highlights Exercise 695 695 695 697 702 702 702 704 705 705 705 706 708 709 710 710 710 711 711 715 715 716 718 719 721 721 722 723 723 724 727 728 730 731 731 734(xxt} Chapter 16. Flow in Open Channels 16.1. 16.2. 16.3. 16.4. 16.5. 16.6. 16.7. 16.8. Introduction Classification of Flow in Channels 16.2.1. Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow 16.2.2. Uniform Flow and Non-uniform Flow 16.2.3. Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow 16.2.4. Sub-critical, Critical and Super-Critical Flow Discharge Through Open Channel by Chezy’s Formula Solved Problems 16.1—16.7 Empirical Formulae for the Value of Chezy’s Constant Solved Problems 16.8—16.12 Most Economical Section of Channels 16.5.1. Most Economical Rectangular Channel Solved Problems 16.13—16.15 16.5.2. Most Economical Trapezoidal Channel Solved Problems 16.16—16.22 16.5.3. Best Side Slope for Most Economical Trapezoidal Section Solved Problems 16.23—16.24 16.5.4. Flow Through Cireular Channel Solved Problems 16.25—16.29 16.5.6. Most Economical Circular Section Solved Problems 16.30—16.32 Non-Uniform Flow through Open Channels Specific Energy and Specific Energy Curve 16.7.1. Critical Depth (h,) 16.7.2. Critical Velocity (V.) 16.7.3. Minimum Specific Energy in Terms of Critical Depth Solved Problems 16.33—16.35 16.7.4. Critical Flow 16.7.5. Streaming Flow or Sub-critical Flow or Tranquil Flow 16.7.6. Super-Critieal Flow or Shooting Flow or Torrential Flow 16.7.7. Alternate Depths 16.7.8. Condition for Maximum Discharge for a Given Value of Specific Energy Solved Problems 16.36—16.37 Hydraulic Jump or Standing Wave 16.8.1, Expression for Depth of Hydraulic Jump 16.8.2. Expression for Loss of Energy Due to Hydraulic Jump 16.8.3. Expression for Depth of Hydraulic Jump in Terms or Upstream Froude Number 737-802 737 737 737 737 738 738 739 740 744 745 749 749 750 752 154 762 763 766 766 771 775 T77 717 779 179 780 780 781 782 782 782 782 782 783 784 786 787(exit) 16.8.4. Length of Hydraulic Jump Solved Problems 16.38—16.42 16.9. Gradually Varied Flow (G,V.F.) 16.9.1. Equation of Gradually Varied Flow Solved Problems 16.43—16.44 16.9.2. Back Water Curve and Affux 16.9.3. Expression for the Length of Back Water Curve Solved Problem 16.45 Highlights Exercise Chapter 17. Impact of Jets and Jet Propulsion 17.1. Introduction 17.2. Force Exerted by the Jet on a Stationary 17.3. 17.4. Vertical Plate 17.2.1. Force Exerted by a Jet on Stationary Inclined Flat Plate 17.2.2. Force Exerted by a Jet on Stationary Curved Plate Solved Problems 17.1—17.6 Force Exerted by a Jet on a Hinged Plate Solved Problems 17.7—17.10 (a) Force Exerted by a Jet on Moving Plates 17.4.1. Force on Flat Vertical Plate Moving in the Direction of Jet 17.4.2. Force on the Inclined Plate Moving in the Direction of the Jet Solved Problems 17.11—17.13 17.4.3. Force on the Curved Plate when the Plate is Moving in the Direction of Jet Solved Problems 17.14—17.17 17.4.4. Foree Exerted by a Jet of Water on an Unsymmetrical Moving Curved Plate when Jet Strikes Tangentially at one of the Tips Solved Problems 17.18—17.23 17.4.5. Force Exerted by a Jet of Water on a Series of Vanes 17.4.6. Force Exerted on a Series of Radial Curved Vanes Solved Problems 17,24—17,26 17.5. Jet Propulsion 17.5.1. Jet Propulsion of a Tank with an Orifice Solved Problems 17.27—17.28 17.5.2. Jet Propulsion of Ships Solved Problems 17.29—17.33 Highlights Exercise 187 187 790 790 792 793 794 795 796 799 803 803 804 805 807 809 810 814 815 815 816 818 $19 823 826 833, 834 837 840 841 843 843 844 849 850Chapter 18.1. 18.2. 18.3. 18.4. 18.5. 18.6. 18.7. 18.8. 18.9. 18.10. 18.11. 18.12. 18.13. (exiit) 18. Hydraulic Machines—Turbines Introduction Turbines General Layout of a Hydroelectric Power Plant Definitions of Heads and Efficiencies of a Turbine Classification of Hydraulic Turbines Pelton Wheel (or Turbine) 18.6.1. Velocity Triangles and Work Done for Pelton Wheel 18.6.2. Points to be Remembered for Pelton Wheel Solved Problems 18.1—18.10 18.6.3. Design of Pelton Wheel Solved Problems 18.11—18.13 Radial Flow Reaction Turbines 18.7.1. Main Parts of a Radial Flow Reaction Turbine 18.7.2. Inward Radial Flow Turbine 18.7.3. Degree of Reaction 18.7.4. Definitions Solved Problems 18.14—18.20 18.7.5. Outward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine Solved Problems 18.21—18.22 Francis Turbine 18.8.1. Important Relations for Francis Turbines Solved Problems 18.23—18.26 Axial Flow Reaction Turbine 18.9.1. Some Important Point for Propeller (Kaplan Turbine) Solved Problems 18.27—18.33 Draft-Tube 18.10.1. Types of Draft Tubes 18.10.2. Draft-Tube Theory 18.10.3. Efficiency of Draft-Tube Solved Problems 18.33 (a)—18.35 Specific Speed 18.11.1. Derivation of the Specific Speed 18.11.2. Significance of Specific Speed Solved Problems 18.36—18.41 Unit Quantities 18.12.1. Unit Speed 18.12.2. Unit Discharge 18.12.3. Unit Power 18,12.4, Use of Unit Quantities (N,,, Q,,. P,,) Solved Problems 18.41 (a@)—18.45 Characteristic Curves of Hydraulic Turbines 18.13.1, Main Characteristic Curves or Constant Head Curves 18.13.2. Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves 853-944 853 853 853 853 856 857 859 861 862 873 874 877 877 878 880 884 884 892 893 895 896 896 903 905 905 915 915 916 916 917 920 920 921 921 927 927 927 928 928 929 933 933. 93418.14. (xxiv) 18.13.3. Constant Efficieney Curves or Muschel Curves or Iso-Efficiency Curves Governing of Turbines Highlights Exercise Chapter 19. Centrifugal Pumps 19.1. 19.2. 19.3. 19.4, 19.5. 19.6. 19.7. 19.8. 19.9. 19.10. 19.11. 19.12. 19.13. 19.14, Introduction os Main Parts of a Centrifugal Pump Work Done by the Centrifugal Pump (or by Impfller) on Water Definitions of Heads and Efficiencies of a Centrifugal Pump Solved Problems 19.1—19.12 Minimum Speed for Starting a Centrifugal Pump Solved Problems 19.13—19.15 Multistage Centrifugal Pumps 19.6.1. Multistage Centrifugal Pumps for High Heads 19.6.2. Multistage Centrifugal Pumps for High Discharge Solved Problems 19.16—19.17 Specific Speed of a Centrifugal Pump (N,) 19.7.1. Expression for Specific Speed for a Pump Model Testing of Centrifugal Pumps Solved Problems 19,18—19,22 Priming of a Centrifugal Pump Characteristic Curves of Centrifugal Pumps 19.10.1. Main Characteristic Curves 19.10.2. Operating Characteristic Curves 19.10.3. Constant Efficiency Curves Cavitation 19.11.1. Precaution Against Cavitation 19.11.2. Effects of Cavitation 19.11.3. Hydraulic Machines Subjected to Cavitation 19.11.4. Cavitation in Turbines 19.11.5. Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps Solved Problem 19.23 Maximum Suction Lift (or Suction Height) Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) Cavitation in Centrifugal Pump Solved Problem 19,24 Highlights Exercise Chapter 20. Reciprocating Pumps 20.1. 20.2. 20.3. Introduction Main Parts of a Reciprocating Pump Working of a Reciprocating Pump 935 936 937 939 945-992 945 945 947 948 951 965 966 968 968 969 969 971 971 972 973 978 978 978 979 979 980 980 981 981 981 981 982 983 985 985 986 987 989 993-1040 993 993 994(xxv) 20.3.1. Discharge Through a Reciprocating Pump 20.3.2. Work Done by Reciprocating Pump 20.3.3. Discharge, Work Done and Power Required to Drive a Double-acting Pump 20.4. Slip of Reciprocating Pump 20.4.1. Negative Slip of the Reciprocating Pump 20.5. Classification of Reciprocating Pumps Solved Problems 20,1—20.2 20.6. Variation of Velocity and Acceleration in the Suction and Delivery Pipes Due to Acceleration of the Piston 20.7. Effect of Variation of Velocity on Friction in the Suction and Delivery Pipes Solved Problem 20.3 20.8. Indicator Diagram 20.8.1. Ideal Indicator Diagram 20.8.2. Effect of Acceleration in Suction and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram Solved Problems 20.4—20.9 20.8.3. Effect of Friction in Suction and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram 20.8.4. Effect of Acceleration and Friction in Suction and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram Solved Problems 20,10—20,12 20.8.5. Maximum Speed of a Reciprocating Pump Solved Problem 20.13 20.9. Air Vessels Solved Problems 20.14—20.18 20.10. Comparison between Centrifugal Pumps and Reciprocating Pumps Highlights Exercise Chapter 21. Fluid System 21.1. Introduction 21.2. The Hydraulic Press 21.2.1. Mechanical Advantage 21.2.2. Leverage of the Hydraulic Press 21.2.3. Actual Heavy Hydraulic Press Solved Problems 21,1—21.5 21.3. The Hydraulic Accumulator 21.3.1. Capacity of Hydraulic Accumulator Solved Problems 21.6—21.11 21.3.2. Differential Hydraulic Accumulator 21.4. The Hydraulic Intensifier Solved Problems 21,12—21.13 21.5. The Hydraulic Ram Solved Problems 21.14—21.15 994 995 995 996 997 997 997 998 1001 1001 1003 1008 1004 1004 1012 1013 1015 1019 1020 1021 1030 10387 1037 1038 1041-1070 1041 1041 1042 1042 1042 1043 1045 1046 1047 1051 1051 1053 1053 105521.6. 21.7. 21.8. 21,9, 21.10. 21.11. (xxv) The Hydraulie Lift 21.6.1, Direct Acting Hydraulic Lift 21.6.2. Suspended Hydraulic Lift Solved Problems 21.16—21.17 The Hydraulic Crane Solved Problems 21.18—21.20 The Fluid or Hydraulic Coupling The Hydraulic Torque Converter The Air Lift Pump The Gear-Wheel Pump Highlights Exercise Objective Type Questions Appendix Subject Index 1056 1057 1057 1058 1060 1060 1063 1064 1065 1066 1067 1068 1071-1094 1095-1096 1097-1102PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS p> i.1 INTRODUCTION Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of the fluids (liquids or gases) at rest as well as in motion, Thus this branch of science deals with the static, kinematics and dynamic aspects of fluids. The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics. The study of fluids in motion, where pressure forces are not considered, is called fluid kinematics and if the pressure forces are also considered for the fluids in motion, that branch of science is called fluid dynamics. > 1.2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 1.2.1 Density or Mass Density. Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of a fluid to its volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density. It is denoted by the symbol p (rho). The unit of mass density in SI unit is kg per cubic metre, Le., kg/m’. The density of liquids may be considered as constant while that of gases changes with the variation of pressure and temperature. Mathematically, mass density is written as Mass of fluid Volume of fluid — The value of density of water is | gm/cm? or 1000 kg/m’. 1.2.2 Specific Weight or Weight Density. Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio between the weight of a fluid to its volume, Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is called weight density and it is denoted by the symbol w, _ Weightoffluid — (Mass of fluid) x Acceleration due to gravity Thus mathematically, we Volume of fluid Volume of fluid _ Mass of fluid x g Volume of fluid Mass of fluid =pxe 1 Se ee Volume of fluid = w=pe oA LT)2 Fluid Mechanics The value of specific weight or weight density (v) for water is 9.81 x 1000 Newton/m’ in SI units. 1.2.3 Specific Volume. Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit mass of a fluid is called specific volume. Mathematically, it is expressed as Volume of fluid _ I _1 Specific volume = "Mass offluid Massoffiud ~ p Volume of fluid Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It is expressed as. m/kg. It is commonly applied to gases. 1.2.4 Specific Gravity. Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or density) of a fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard fluid. For liquids, the standard fluid is taken water and for gases, the standard fluid is taken air. Specific gravity is also called relative density. It is dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the symbol S. Weight det Weight density (density) of water Mathematically, S(for liquids) = ify (density OF liquid Weight density (density) of gas Weight density (density) of air Thus weight density of a liquid= 5 x Weight density of water = Sx 1000 x 9.81 N/m? The density of a liquid = 5 x Density of water = 5x 1000 ke/m*, we LTA) If the specific gravity of a fluid is known, then the density of the fluid will be equal to specific gravity of fluid multiplied by the density of water. For example, the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6, hence density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m’. S(for gases) = Problem 1.1 Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre of a liquid which weighs 7 N. Solution. Given : 1 Volume = | litre = jaa [vs | litre = i000 m* or Titre = 1000 em’) Weight =7N (i) Specific weight (w) = Selene _ TN agg Ni? i, Volume (sa05) it 1000 (ii) Density (p) == aad kgim* = 713.5 kg/m. Ans. & s Density of liquid — 713.5 Density of water 1000 0.7135. Ans. (iii) Specific gravity {-- Density of water = 1000 kg/m?) u" WVProperties of Fluids 3 Problem 1.2 Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one litre of petrol of specific gravity = 0.7 Solution. Given: Volume = | lite = 1 x 1000 em* = rd m* = 0.001 m* Sp. gravity S=0.7 (i) Density (p) Using equation (1.1A), Density (p) = §x 1000 kg/m* = 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m*. Ans. (ii) Specific weight (w) Using equation (1.1), w= px g= 700 x 9.81 N/m* = 6867 N/m’. Ans. (iit) Weight (W) We know that specific weight = JWEgHE Volume or = v or 6867 = att 0.001 0.001 ate W= 6867 x 0.001 = 6.867 N. Ans. > 1.3 VISCOSITY Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. When two layers of a fluid, a distance ‘dy’ apart, move one over the other at different velocities, say wand «+ du as shown in Fig. 1.1, the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid layers. The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent top layer. This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of ve- locity with respect to y. It is denoted by symbol tT (Tau). du rd VELOCITY PROFILE ae T d Mathematically, Tox os m Velocity of upper plate. u= 2.5 msec10 Fluid Mechanics Change of velocity between plates, du = 2.5 m/sec Force required on upper plate, F = 98.1 N Shear stress, t= Fone = fF = 98.1N (i) Let 1. = Dynamic viscosity of oil . . du 98.1 25 Using equation (1.2), T= — or — =p X ———_ Bea Miy 036° * Tasx10° 981 12.5107 Ns ( Ns . } = i = 10 y—= 10 P0396" 25 m ce el = 1.3635 x 10 = 13.635 poise, Ans. (i) Sp. gr. of oil, S = 0.95 Let v = kinematic viscosity of oil Using equation (1.14), Mass density of oil, p=Sx 1000 = 0.95 x 1000 = 950 kg/m* 1.3635 *) Using the relation, v = # , We gel V= — = 001435 m/see = 001435 x 10! em 4s = 14.35 stokes. Ans. (eo em?/s = stoke) Problem 1.10 Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 981 kg/m’. The shear stress at Ft SVE 2 i ! a point in oil ts 0.2452 Nm” and velocity gradient at that point is 0.2 per second. Solution. Given : Mass density, p= 981 kg/m? Shear stress, t= 0.2452 Nim? fi Velocity gradient, & 028 dy 1 Using the equation (1.2), t= ie or 0.2452 = p x 0.2 ¥ 0.2452 2 H= 200° = 1.226 Ns/m Kinematic viscosity Vv is given by vs ts 126 «195 x 10-7 msec p 981 = 0.125 x 10? x 10% em7/s = 0.125 10° em7/s = 12.5 cm/s = 12.5 stoke. Ans. ( em’ss = stoke) Problem 1.11 Determine the specific gravity of a fluid having viscosity 0.05 poise and kinematic viscosity 0.035 stokes. Solution. Given : i Viscosity, 1 = 0.05 poise = ~ N s/m”Properties of Fluids 11 Kinematic viscosity, v= 0.035 stokes = 0.035 em’/s {Stoke = cm/s} = 0.035 x 10-4 m/s 05 I Using the relation v = ie . we get 0.035 x 10-7 = O05 x Pp 10 p ge op ! = 1428.5 kg/m? 10 0.035 x 107 Density of liquid — 14285 Sp. er. of liquid = Bee ' Density of water 1000 = 1.4285 = 143. Ans. Problem 1.12 Determine the viscosity of a liquid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes and specific gravity 1.9. Solution. Given : Kinematic viscosity V = 6 stokes = 6 em*/s = 6 x 10-4 m/s Sp. gr. of liquid 1.9 Let the viscosity of liquid =u Density of the liquid Now sp. gr. of a liquid it Density of water Density of liquid 1000 or 19= 1000 x 1.9 = 1900 ie m . Density of liquid “. Using the relation v= . + we get 6x tots HL 1900 or h=6x 10-4 1900 = 1.14 Ns/m? = 1.14 x 10 = 11.40 poise. Ans. Problem 1.13 The velocity distribution for flow over a flat plate is given by u = 4 y—y" in which wis the velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate. Determine the shear stress aty = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.6 poise. Solution. Given : ue ; y-y dit Sl apy Ho a du 3 At y= 0.15, — == =-2x0.15 = 0.75 -0.30= 0.45 dy 4 Ns Viscosity, = 8.5 poise = Oat (« 10 poise =1 =| m12 Fluid Mechanics du 85 N N Using equation (1.2), T=, — = — x 045 —> = 0.3825 —,.. Ans. dy 10 m* m Problem 1.14 The dynamic viscosity of an oil, used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve is 6 poise. The shaft is of diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 rpm. Calculate the power lost in the bearing for a sleeve length of 90 mum. The thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mim. Solution. Given : 1.Simm Viscosity Ul = 6 poise U Ns Ns = OHS =66 = 10 m- m Dia. of shaft, Db=04m i 5 j acy Speed of shaft, N= 190 r.p.m sm 3 SLEEVE Sleeve length, L=90 mm= 90x 10° m Thickness of oil film, t=15mm=15x10°m Fig. 1.5 Tangential velocity of shaft, v= ee = baer = 3.98 m/s Using the relation Tp ae dy where du = Change of velocity = v- 0 = 4 =3.98 m/s dy = Change of distance = 6 = 1.5 x 10-7 m t=10% ne. = 1592 N/m? 15x 107° This is shear stress on shaft Shear force on the shaft, F = Shear stress x Area = 15992 xaDx L= 1592 x mx 4x90 x 10°*= 180.05 N 4 Torque on the shaft, T = Force x : = 180.05 x “2 = 36.01 Nm “. *Power lost = = 716.48 W. Ans. 2nNT _ 2nx190% 36.01 60 60 Problem 1.15 ifthe velocity profile of a fluid over a plate is parabolic with the vertex 20 em from the plate, where the velocity is 120 cm/sec. Calculate the velocity gradients and shear stresses at a distance of 0, 10 and 20 cm from the plate, if the viscosity of the fluid is 8.5 poise, Solution. Given : Distance of vertex from plate = 20cm Velocity at vertex, u= 120 cm/sec N Viscosity. = 8.5 poise = fa we = 0.85. 10 m 2nN 2nNT Fig. 1.6 * Power in S.L unit =T* @=T x Watt = = WattProperties of Fluids 13 The velocity profile is given parabolic and equation of velocity profile is u=ay' + by +e oli) where a, b and ¢ are constants. Their values are determined from boundary conditions as : (a) aty=O0,u=0 (b) at y= 20 em, « = 120 cm/sec (c) aty= 20 em, itt =0. dy Substituting boundary condition (a) in equation (i), we get c=0. Boundary condition (4) on substitution in (i) gives 120 = a(20)* + b(20) = 4004 + 20b wii) Boundary condition (¢) on substitution in equation (/) gives at =2ay+b al HD) dy or Q=2x%ax20+b=Matb Solving equations (i) and (iif) for a and b From equation (iit), b=-40a Substituting this value in equation (7), we get 120 = 400a + 20 * (= 40a) = 400a = 800¢ = — 4000 gel nF ea =400 10 te b=-40 x (- 0.3) = 12.0 Substituting the values of a, & and ¢ in equation (i), u=— 0.3y" + 12y. Velocity Gradient at 03% 2y4 12 =-06y + 12 dy at y =0, Velocity gradient, % “| =~— 0.6 0+ 12 = 12s. Ans. : y= at y = 10 em, (#) =-0.6% 10+ 12=-6+ 12 =6/s, Ans. y y= at y = 20 em, (] =-0.6% 20+ 12=- 124 12=0. Ans. dy yam Shear Stresses du Shear stress is given by, T= = dy14 Fluid Mechanics (i) Shear stress at y = 0, (ii) Shear stress at y = 10, (iit) Shear stress at y = 20, T= (#) = 0.85 % 12.0 = 10.2 N/m?. yeod t= u( 3] = 0.85 x 6.0 = 5.1 Nim’. ay y=lo =u ($2 = 0.85 x 0 = 0. Ans. dy ye20 Problem 1.16 A Newronian fluid is filled in the clearance between a shaft and a concentric sleeve. The sleeve attains a speed of 50 emés, when a force of 40 N is applied to the sleeve parallel to the shaft. Determine the speed if a force of 200 N is applied. Solution, Given : Speed of sleeve, #, = 50 cm/s when force, F, =40N. Let speed of sleeve is v, when force, F, = 200 N. ; di Using relation t= ae dy where tT = Shear stress = Raise = x Area A du = Change of velocity = «-O=4 dy = Clearance = y 5B uy ih a's Fe Apu cli ted y ‘ ieee “ Wy ity Substituting values, we get —= 200 50 uy = 20% 200 _ 59 x 5 = 250 cm/s. Ans. A, | and y are constant} Problem 1.17 A /5 cm diameter vertical cylinder rotates concentrically inside another cylinder of diameter 15.10 cm. Bath cylinders are 25 cm high. The space between the cylinders is filled with a liquid whose viscosity is unknown. If a torque of 12.0 Nm is required to rotate the inner cylinder at 100 rpm, determine the viscasity of the fluid. Solution. Given : Diameter of cylinder Dia. of outer cylinder Length of cylinders, is Torque, d 15 cm = 0.15 m 15.10 em = 0.151 m 25 em = 0.25 m 12.0 Nm th