Chapter3

Theories of Administration

MANAGEMENT (TAYLOR AND THE MOVEMENT)

SCIENTIFIC

Rise and Growth

is
decade of the 20th century,
Taylor in the first
Frederick Winslow
Scientific Management propounded by of this theory and
before
was not the originator
administration. However, Taylor
the first coherent theory of Metcalf developed and
used some
R. Towne, Fredrick Halsey and Henry
was first coined
him, Charles Babbage, Henry the term "scientific management"
and techniques. Though of
scientific management methods and systematic explanation
who used the term to give a complete
it Taylor and economy. Hence, he
by Louis Brandies (1910),
was came
the organisational efficiency
scientific methods and techniques for promoting

to be known the "Father of Scientific Management".

as contribution to the growth of
scientific
is also known as Taylorism". Taylor's
Scientific management Management (1903),
A Piece Rate System (1895), (i) Shop
is contained in his books, viz. (i)
management of Scientific Management (1911).
Art of Cutting Metals (1906), and (iv) Principles of scientific management. he
(ii) thinkers contributed to the growth
After Taylor, many other management L.M. Gilbreth, C.G. Barth, S.E.
H.L. Gant, H. Emerson, F.B. Gilbreth,
them were
prominent among
and H.K. Hathaway. practice in
Thompson, M.L. Cooke had a significant impact on administrative thought and
movement
The scientific management to other countries including
From USA, it spread
both industrial as well as governmental organisations. 1920-1940.
as Stakhanovite
Movement during
former USSR, where it took shape

Basic Theme
science as it rests on clearly fixedlaws, rules and principles
management is a true
According to Taylor, In his own words, "the same principles can
in all types of organisations.
which have universal applicability of our homes; the management of our
force to all social activities: to the management
be applied with equal and small; of our churches, our philanthropic
of the business of our tradesmen, large
farms, the management
governmental departments."
and our
institutions; our u n i v e r s i t i e s methods to managerial practices and
with application of scientific
was concerned
tocussed on the lowest level (shop floor) of the
Scientific management organisation.
in industrial organisations. It
production processes
between the phySical nature
of work and the physiological nature of
It aimed at studying the relationship and rationality for improving
specialisation. predictability. technical competence
workmen. lt stressed upon
economy.
he organisational etticiency and
104 PuBLIc ADMINISTRATION

camc across a soldiering' phene

During his experinments in the industrial organisations, Taylor enomen
into ttwo
that is, a tendeney on the part of workers to restrict the output. He classilicd this phenomenon into .n
The fornmer is the result of personal factors li kind
Viz. natural soldiering and systematic soldiering. rs like habit
take it easy. not to over exert and so on. while the later is the result of organisational and social factor ,
tors
said that systematie soldiering is practised by workmen to keep the supervisor's expectation of. e
perfomance at lower levels. He felt that the fundamental way of inereasing cficiency of organisation liewwrk
the reduction of soldiering through scientific techniques.
lies
Taylor based his theory of scientific management on three assumptions
i) The organisational functioning can be improved with the application of scientific methods.
) A good worker is one who does not initiate action, but accepts the orders of the management
ii) Every worker is an 'economic man. that is, he is motivated by monetary factors.

Principles
Taylor gave four principles of scientific management.
i) Develop a science for each element of a man's work, which replaces the old 'rule-of-thumb'
By this the 'one best way' of doing a task can be decided and the standard output can be
method
(ii) Scientifically select and then train. teach and develop workmen. (Whereas in the
determined
past the worker
chose his own work and trained himself as best he could.)
(ii) Management should fully cooperate with workers, so as to ensure that the work is done in
accordance
with the scientific principles developed for this
purpose.
(iv) There must be equal division of work and responsibility between
management and workmen. The
management should take over all work for which they are better suited. In the past all the work and
a greater
part of responsibilities was thrown on the workmen.
Taylor identified the following characteristics of scientific management, which summarises the philosophy
of the above four
principles.
(a) Science, not rule of thumb
(b) Harmony, not discord
(c) Cooperation, not individualism
(d) Maximum output, in place of restricted output
(e) The development of each man to his greatest efficiency and
prosperity.
Scientific management, according to Taylor, involves a complete mental revolution on the part of workers
towards their duties, their work, their fellow men and their employers; and on the part of managers, towards
their employees and their problems. Thus 'mental revolution' (or new outlook) requires the realisation on
part of both the parties (workers and managers) that their mutual interest is not contradictory and both can
prosper only through cooperation, not conflict. This is the essence of scientific management.
According to Taylor, the principal object of management should be to secure maximum prosperity for the
employer, coupled with maximum prosperity for each employee.
Reinhard Bendix. in his book Work and Authority in Industry, said that,
"By maximizing the producuve
efficiency of each worker. scientific management would also maximise the earnings of workers and employers.
Hence, all conflict between capital and labour would be resolved theby findings
of science."

Techniques
The techniques (mechanisms or methods) of scientific
management facilitates the application of principie
of scientific management mentioned above. These
are
 THEORIES OF AoMINISTRATION 105
Functional ForemanshiP Taylor advocated the concept of functional foremanship under which a
worker is supervised and guided by eight functional foreman (i.c.. specialised supervisors). Thus, he rejccted
the system otf single foremanship (also known as unity of command or lincar system or military 1ype of
organisation) underwhich a workerrecieves orders from only one superior. Of the eight functional foremen.
four are responsible for planning and sit in the planning room. They arc- (i) Order-of-work-and-route
clerk. (i) Instruction-card clerk, (ii) Time-and-cost clerk, and (iv) Shop disciplinarian. The other four
functional foremen are responsible for execution, and serve on the shop loor. They arc-i) Gang boss, (ii)
Speed boss, (ii) lnspector, and (iv) Repair boss. In effect, each worker. will have eight functional bosses
Thus. it will facilitate specialisation as well as separation of planning from execution.

Motion Study It is a technique of standardisation of work methods. It involves observation of all the
motions comprised in a particular job and then determination of the best set of motions. Thus. it is designed
to determine a preferable work method with consideration to tools and equipments, raw materials, hand and
body motion, and so on. In brief it is meant for finding out the 'one best way' to do a work.

Time Study It is used to determine the standard time for completion of work. It facilitates planning of
a large daily task and follows the motion study. The use of the stop watch is essential for this technique.

Differential Piece Rate Plan Taylor suggested pay by piece rates on the basis of standards set by
motion and time studies. Hence, his pay plan was known as the differential piece rate plan. Under this plan.
workers are paid a low piece rate up to a standard, a large bonus at the standard and a higher piece rate above
the standard. Obviously, this plan of payment makes the workers put forth their best efforts. Taylor said that
the piece rate plan by virtue of being direct and quick is more effective than the profit sharing plan in
motivating the workers. He suggested that a worker who (after scientific selection, training and development)
is unable or unwilling to produce the standard should be removed.

Exception Principle It involves setting up a large daily task by the management, with reward for
achieving targets and penalty for not meeting it. Taylor suggested that the manager should not be interested
in the items that are at standard performance but should be concerned mostly with exceptional items that
vary from standard performance.
Other Techniques In addition to the above techniques, Taylor also developed the following techniques
to serve his principles of scientific management.
i) The standardisation of all tools and implements used in the trade, as well as in the acts or movements
of workers.
(ii) The mnemonic systems for classifying manufactured products as well as implements used in

manufacturing.
(i1) The setting up of a separate planning cell or department.

(v) The use of time saving implements like slide rules.

(v) Modern cost system.
(vi) A routing system.
(VIu) Instruction cards for the worker.
Criticism and Opposition
Scientific management, came to be criticised and opposed by various sections.
(i) It was criticised as a partial theory of organisation due to its concentration on the shop floor (lower
level) activity and neglect oforganisational processes beyond that level. It did not stress the integration
and coordination of higher levels of the organisation.
 THEORIES OF ADMINISTRATIiON 107
(ii) It was crilicised as a mechanistic theory of organisation as it neglected the human side or tn
organisation. In other words, it interpreted the organisational efficiency in the mechanistic terms
only. It treated worker as a machine and sought to make him as efficient as the machine
Obviously, it was opposed by the workers. jtsc
ii) It was criticised on the grounds that it underestimated nd oversimplified human motivatíon. t
explained human motivation mainly in terms of economic factors (material rewards) and did not
emphasise the social and psychological aspects of motivation. This came to be known as the 'monistic
theory' of motivation. The Hawthorne studies conducted by Elton Mayo revealed that the social and
psychological factors are no less important than economic factors in determining the performance of
organisation and in explaining the behaviour of workers. Similar views were expressed by other
human relationists and behaviouralists like M.P. Follet, Peter Drucker, Oliver Sheldon, Chester Barnard
and Chris Argyris.
v) t was described as the 'physiological organisation theory' by March and Simon due to its concern
with only that range of worker's behaviour which pertained to production (i.e. physiological variables).
(V) It received the greatest opposition from the labour leaders (trade unions). The application of Taylor's
principles (mental revolution) resolves all the disputes between the employers and workers and
establishes effective cooperation between them and thus makes the trade unions unnecessary. In
others words, Taylorism was considered as not only a threat to their role but also to the growth of
trade union movement as well as the principle of collective bargaining. In fact, the investigation
report of Prof. Robert Hoxie said that the basic ideals of scientific management and labour unionism
were not compatible.
(vi) It was also opposed by the managers due to two reasons. First, they would lose their judgement and
discretion due to the adoption of scientific methods. Second, their work and responsibilities increases
under Taylorism.

CLASSICAL THEORY (FAYOL, URWICK, GULICK AND OTHERS)

Basic Theme
The classical theory of administration was developcd during the first half of the twentieth century. The major
Cxponents of this theory are Henry Fayol, Luther Gulick, Lyndall Urwick, J.D. Mooney. A.C. Reiley. Mary
Parker Follet and R Shelton. This theory reached its zenith in 1937 when the Pupers on the Science of
Administration, by Gulick and Urwick was published. This book is the most pursuasive exposition of the
classical approach to administration.
Classical theory is also known by various other names, like, the 'traditional theory', the 'formal organisation

theory', the 'mechanistic theory', the 'structural theory" and the 'management process school'. It is also
called as 'administrative management theory' by March and Simon.
Unlike Taylor's scientific management which focussed on efficiency at the shop floor ofthe organisation,
the classical theory is a broader approach to organisation. It is concerned with the formal organisation
structure as well as the process of administration (management). Its characteristic features are specialisation
(division of work). hierarchy, rationality, impersonality. order, structure, economy and efficiency. However,
division of Jabour is the central tenet of classical theory. Further, the classical theory, like the scientific
"economic man , that is, the people in the organisation are motivated
management, advocates the concept oft
(material rewards).
only by economic factors
 108 PuBLIC ADMINISTRATIiON

The classical thinkers firmly believed that the

efficiency and economy of the organisation can be maximised
when it is established in accordance with certain fundamental
principles. Formulating principles of organisation
Decame their most important concern. They also believed that administration is same everywhere, thau
administration is administration irrespective of the nature, type or context of work. Hence, s,
that the principles of
they conclulo
organisation have universal validity, that is,-they could be applied in all types of
organisations. As stated by Mohit Bhattacharya, this is an "assertion of positivism and
Administration is a science and its principles are universally universalismm
The central theme of classical
applicable."
theory of organisation was summarised by Gulick and Urwick in their
Papers on the Science of Administration. They said, "It is the general thesis of this
paper that
principles which can be arrived at inductively from the study of human organisation which shouldthere arore
arrangements for human association of any kind. These principles can be studied as a technical govem
irrespective of the purpose of the enterprise, the personnel comprising it, or any question
social theory underlying its creation." constitutional, political or

Contribution of Fayol
Henry Fayol, the French Engineer, is regarded as the father of classical
theory. His General and Industrial
Management was first published in France in 1916 and its English translation was published in 1929.
not make distinction between
public administration and private administration. Thus, he wrote, "we He did
longer confronted with several administrative sciences, but with are no
one which can be
public and to private affairs." applied equally well to
The contribution of
Fayol to the growth of classical administrative
heads. thought can be studied under three
A. Activities of an industrial
B. Elements of administration.
undertaking.
C. Principles of
administration.
Activities of an Industrial
undertaking into six groups. Undertaking Fayol divided the totality of activities of an industrial
(i) Technical activities
(production, manufacture and adaptation)
(ii) Commercial activities (buying,
selling and exchange)
(iii) Financial activities (search for, and
(iv) Security activities (protection of optimum use of capital)
property and persons)
(v) Accounting activities
(stock-taking,
(vi) Managerial or administrative activities
balance sheet, costs, statistics)
(planning,organisation, command, coordination, and control)
Elements of Administration
(i) To foresee and plan
According to Fayol. the elements or functions of
(prevoir/prevoyance), that is, examining the future and administration
action. The plan should have the
are
characteristics of drawing up a
plan or
(ii) To organise. that is, to build up the dual structure unity, continuity, flexibility and precision.
(iii) To command, that is, to maintain (material and human) of the
activity among the personnel. undertaking.
(iv) To coordinate, that is, bind together. unify and
(v) To control. that is, see that
harmonise all activities and effort.
every thing occurs in conformity with
command. established rule and expressed
Thus. administration, according to Fayol.
encompasses the "POCCC", that is, Planning,
Commanding. Coordinating and Controlling. Organising
 THEORIES OF ADMINISTRATION 109
According to Fayol, adminisirative ability rather their technical ability required higher levels of
is at
organisation. Thus he wrote, "Technical ability predominates lower down the ladder and managerial ability
an

orga
higher up". He believed that administrative ability cannot be devcloped through technical knowledge alone.
Hence. he suggested administrative training of all employees at all levels. In fact, he is the first writer who
pleaded for administrative training.
Fayol felt that the administrators (managers) should have six attributes (qualitics/skills),. viz. physical.
mental, moral, general education, special knowledge and experience.
Principles of Administration Fayol specified fourtecn principles of administration. They are
) Division of work (specialisation)
ii) Authority and responsibility
(i) Discipline
(iv) Unity of command
(v) Unit of direction
(vi) Subordination of individual interest to general interest
(vii) Remuneration
(vil) Centralisation
(ix) Scalar chain (line of authority)
(x) Order
(xi) Equity
(xii) Stability of tenure of personnel
(xii) Initiative
(xiv) Esprit de corps
list of principles of administration. They
complete or exhaustive
However, Fayol agreed that this is not a

can be added or subtracted according to

the need. Thus, he wrote, "There is no limit to the number of
rule or device which strengthens the human part of an
principles of administration. Every administrative
the principles for so long as experience proves it
organisation or facilitates its working takes its place among
to be worthy of this important position."
administration are not rigid rules but are flexible and capable of
Fayol also stated that his principles of
and good working order of the corporate body depends
adaptation to every need. He wrote,"The soundness I shall
on a certain number of conditions
termed indiscriminately principles, laws, rules. For preference
it from any suggestion of rigidity, for there is nothing rigid
or
adopt the term principles while dissociating
of proportion. Seldom do we have to apply the same
absolute in management affairs, it is all a question conditions."
allowance must be made for different changing
principle twice in identical conditions; is indispensable. He emphasised, "Without principles
Further, Fayol stated that the codification of principles even with the
and proportion are still very handicapped,
one is in darkness and chaos; interest, experience
the bearings but it can only serve those who already
best principles. The principle is the light house fixing
know the way into port."
explained below:
The fourteen principles of Fayol are
of
belongs to the natural order. The object
Division of Work (Specialisation) Specialisation
with the same effort. It is applicable to
technical work as
pecalisation is to produce more and better work
number of people and demand abilities of various types. It results in
well as to other work which involves a
pecialisation of functions and separation of powers.
"the right to give orders and the power to
Authority and Responsibility Fayol defined authority as
are interrelated and commensurate. In his
.act obedience". According to Fayol, authority and responsibility
 110 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

words, "Authority is not to be conceived of apart from responsibility, that is, apart from sanction-reward o.

is a corollary of authority, it is its natira

penalty which goes with the exercise of power. Responsibility
is exercised responsibility arises."
consequence and essential counterpart and wheresoever authority
and personal authority. The former i
Fayol made a distinction between a manager's official authority
derived from the office and the latter is compounded of intelligence, experience, moral worth, ability to lead
is the indispensabi
past services and so on. He believed that in the making of a good head, personal authority
complement of official authority.
directed at achieving obedience, application
respect for agreements which
are
Discipline Discipline is
It is incumbent upon managers at higher levels as much as upDon
energy, and the outward marks of respect.
and maintaining it are:
lower level employees, and the best means of establishing
(a) Good superiors at all levels,
and
(b) Agreements as clear and fair as possible,
(c) Sanctions (penalties) judiciously applied.
Unity of Command By this Fayol meant that, "For any action whatsoever, an employee should receive
orders from one superior only." He further added that, "Should it be violated, authority is undermined,
discipline is in jeopardy, order disturbed and stability threatened". He stated that the individual cannot adapt
to dual command. The two superiors issuing orders in a sphere which each thinks his own constitutes dual
command. According to Fayol, the following factors results in dual command:
(a) Dividing up authority between two members,
(b) Imperfect demarcation of departments, and
departments, natural intermeshing of functions and duties
(c) Constant linking up between different
often badly defined.
Unity of Direction Fayol expressed the unity of direction as "one head and one plan for a group of
activities having the same objcctive." According to him, it is essential for unity of action, coordination of

focussing of effort. He also cautioned that the unity of direction (one head one plan) should
and not
strength
be confused with unity of command.According to him, "Unity of direction is provided for by sound organisation
of the body corporate, unity of command lurns on the functioning of the personnel. Unity of command
cannot exist withoutl unity of direction, but does not flow from it."

Subordination of Individual Interest to General Interest The interest of one employee or

gtoup ol employees should not prevail over that of the organisation. These two interests must be reconciled
The means of eflecting the reconciliation are: (a) Firnness and good example on the part of superiors.
(b) Agrecments as fair as possible. (c) Constant supervision.

Remuneration of Personnel Itis the pprice for services rendered. It should be fair and afford satisfaction
huth to employee and employer. The rate of remuneration depends on (a) Cost of living, (b) Availabihty ol

pconnel tabundanee or shonage), (c) General business conditions. (d) Economic position of the business,
c Vaue of the enployee. and () Mode of payment adopted.
Foyal sugeested a variety of modes of payment such as a) ime rates. (b) job rates. (c) piece rates, (0
honuses, (c) prolit shanng, and (t) non-tinancial rewards.

Centralisation Centralisation. like division of w ork, helongs the natural order. Thus,
rote.

m animil or social. sensations converge

to
Fayoi v
raun
ctety efiiem.
directhve part oruders are sent
tow ards the brain or directive part, and from tn
hat
r out which set all parts of the organism in movement." He stated tha or
ceniralsa'1on is
present to
agreater or lesser extent in all organisauons. *"The
question of ccntralisa
 THEORIES OF ADMINISTRATION 111

decentralisation asimple question of proportion.. Everything which goes increase the importance of
is to
the subordinate's role is deccentralisation, everything which goes to reduce it is centralisation

Scalar Chain Fayol defined sealar chain as the chain of superiors ranging from the ultimate authority to
thelowest ranks. The line ofauthority is the route followed (via every link in the chain) by all communications
which start from or go to the ullimate authority. According to him, this path is dictated both by the need for
some transmission and by the principle ofunity of command. This path is at times slow and lengthy. especially
in a large government organisation. Hence, Fayol suggested an alternative route known as "gang plank
which involves short circuiting the procedure to speed up the communication.

Order Fayol talks of two types of order-material order and human or social order. The formula in the
case of material things is "A place for everything and everything in its place'. The formula is the sarne for
human order "A place for everyone and everyone in his place' (The right man in the right place).

Equity This results from a combination of kindness and justice. He says that people should be treated
with kindness so as to encourage them to carry out their duties with all the devotion and loyalty. The head of
the organisation should strive to instil a sense of equity through all levels of the organisation.

Stability of Tenure of Personnel Time is required for an employec to get used to new work and
succeed in doing it well. Fayol stated that instability of tenure of personnel is both the cause and effect of bad
running, that is, inefficiency.
Initiative Initiative means the power of thinking out a plan and executing it to ensure its success. It
augments zeal and energy on the part of employees at all levels of the organisational ladder. Thus, it is a
great source of strength for business. However, it must be encouraged only within the limits imposed by
respect for authority and discipline.

Esprit de Corps It means, hamony or union among the personnnel of an organisation. It is a great source of
strength in an organisation. Fayol stated that, for promoting esprit de corps, the principle of unity of command
should be observed and the dangers of divide and rule and the abuse of writen communication should be avoided.

Taylor Vs. Fayol

Now, it would be pertinent to make a comparison between Taylor and Fayol. Both were contemporary though
from different countries. These two pioneers differed in their perspective, focus, attention. orientation.
personality. purpose, emphasis and so on. These are summarised below in the Table 3.1:

TABLE 3.1 Differences Between Taylor and Fayol

Taylor
I. He concentrated on the operative and shop floor
level, that is, analysis of workers' activities.
2. He worked from bottom to top level. Hence, his
theory is known as bottom-up theory.
3. His main concern was to improve the productivity
of labour and eliminate wastages.
. He emphasized on the efficiency of workers and
managers in actual production.
. He focused on the increasing productivity through
work simplification and standardisation.
Fayol
He concentrated on the top level, that is, analysis
of a manager's activities.
He worked from top to bottom level. Hence. his
theory is known as top-down theory.
His main concern was to develop a universal or
general theory of management or administration.
He emphasized on the functions of management as
a whole and principles involved therein.
He focused on improving the overall administration
by observing certain principles.
(Contd)
 112 PuBLIC ADMINISTRATION

TABLE 3.1 (Conrd)

Fayol
Taylor
bascd on pcrsonal experiences
His idcas arc
6. His ideas are based on scicntilic erperinentation
ohservation and mcasurement. the administrative sidc of work
7. He stressed on the technical side of work. He stresscd on
of total
managcmcnt
of lask. He studicd macro aspect
S. He studicd microaspect-managemcnt organisation. Hencc, his thcory is known as macr
Hence, his theory is known as miero theory.
theory.
Hisapproach w a s llexible.
9. His approach was relatively rigid.
He was a practitioncr (administrator)
10. He was a scicntis. He advocated the principle of unity of command
11. He advocated the principle of functional loremanship. He provided a systcmatic thcory of managcment
12. He provided a science of industrial managemcnt.
(administration).
His principles are relevant in all functional areas
13. His principles and techniques are relevant mainly
Hence, his theory has wider application.
in production activities.

and Fayol are not contradictory or competitive

However, it must be noted that the contributions of Taylor
Rather. they are complementary and mutually supportive. Fayol himself said in 1925 (in a speech delivered
at the Second International Congress held at Brussels) that his contributions and those of Taylor are essentially
similarities between them:
complementary to each other. This is clear from the following
1. Both realized that efficient management of the problems of personnel is the key to industrial
(organisational) success.
2. Both applied scientific methods to the problems of management.
3. Both attempted to put management on rational and systematic basis.
4. Both had the experience of industry and developed their ideas through practical training and experience
5. Both emphasized mutual co-operation between employers (management) and employees (workers)
for the attainment of organisational goals.
6. Both believed that managerial qualities can be acquired through training.
7. Both realized the universality of management.

Contributions of Gulick and Urwick

The classical theory reached its zenith in 1937 when Papers on the Science
of Administration
by Gulick
Urwick was published. These two classical thinkers further elaborated the ideas of Henry Fayol. They stressed
and
the importance of structure of organisation in determining its functioning. Thus, they neglected the human
factor in organisation. Urwick stated, in this context, that, "It is impossible for humanity to advance is
knowledge of organisation unless the factor of structure is isolated from other considerations, however artifical
such an isolation may appear." He conceived organisation mainly as a designing process and felt that lack or
design is illogical, cruel, wasteful and inefficient. Hence, he observed, "For this reason the mechanistie
parallel can be very helpful in discussing organisation. Another name for it is the engineering approach.
Gulick and Urwick focussed their efforts on the discovery of neutral
principles, based on which tne
structure of the organisation can be designed. They said that the principles deal with the architectonics or
formal organisation and are directed at enhancing the degree of organisational
efficiency.
Gulick specified the following ten principles of organisation:
i) Division of work or specialisation
(ii) Bases of departmental organisations
 THEORIES OF ADMINISTAATION 117
7 The very limitations of the classical theory instigated further enquiries, investigations and researches
in organisational theory and behaviour. In fact, the classical approach to organisational analysis 1s
considered as the foundation of the 20th century administrative-management thought
Classical theory was most influential during 1930-1950 in the USA. It influenced many administrative
reforms committees and commissions including the Brownlow Committee (1937), the First Hoover
Commission (1949) and the Second Hoover Commission (1955).

BUREAUCRATIC THEORY (WEBER AND HIS CRITICS)

Rise and Growth

The term "bureaucracy" was first coined by Vincent de Gourney, a French economist in 1745. He stated. "We
have an illness in France which bids fair to play havoc with us; this illness is called Bureaumania. In
French the word "bureau' means a desk.
"The term bureaucracy" in the words of F.M. Marx, "which was irst used in the French form 'bureaucratic
by a French minister of commerce in the eighteenth century to refer to the government in operation, spread
to Germany during the nineteenth century as 'Burokratic' and has since found its way into Engiish and
many other languages." Thomas Carlyle described the spread of the term as 'the continental nuisance
The classical writings on bureaucracy came from Karl Marx, Max Weber, Robert Michels and Gaetano
Mosca. However, the systematic study of bureaucracy began with Max Weber, the German sociologist.
in
As stated Mohit Bhattacharya, "the concept of bureaucracy does not occupy a central position
by
Marx's thought. According to Marx, bureaucracy like the state itself, is an instrument by which the dominant
class exercises its domination over other social classes. According to this logic, the interests of bureaucracy

are closely linked to those of the dominant class and the state."
Robert Michels in his book Political Parties propounded the concept of Iron Law of Oligarchy. According
to this concept, large organisations have a tendency to develop a bureaucratic structure (Oligarchic system).
In other words, it states that in big organisations power is concentrated in the hands of a few (oligarchs).
internal democracy in large scale organisations due to elite
This phenomenon rules out the possibility of
domination into two categories, that is,
Gaetano Mosca in his book The Ruling Class classified the political systems
feudal and bureaucratic. He said that the bureaucracy is basic to the governance of big empires.
in the galaxy of administ tive-political thinkers
it is Max Weber who holds a unique position
whoHowever,
made an attempt to explain the concept of bureaucracy. In fact, the first scientific treatment of bureaucracy
with bureaucracy. As rightly observed by S.R.
Came from his writings. Thus, his name became synonymous
of the bureaucratic theory goes to Max Weber (1864
Maheswari, "The credit for systematic formulation
of bureaucracy, freed the term from pejorative
1920), for, he founded the modern sociological study
of bureaucracy for the rational attainment of the goals of
Connotations, and emphasised the indispensability
an organisation."
as 'ideal type. T'he ideal type is a mental map (or
Max Weber called his formulation of bureaucracy
mental construct cannot be found empirically anywhere in
nental construct). In its conceptual purity this
reality. Thus it is a 'utopia . with the
Weberian formulation, bureaucracy is not to be confused
AS analysed
by Mohit Bhattacharya. "In ofrationalisation of collective activities."
CIvl service. It refers the sociological concept
to
cannot be understood properly without understanding his
Weber's conceptual framework of bureaucracy
pology of authority systems.
118 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Theory of Authority
Weber defined power as, *"The probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a nru
cary out his own will, despite resistance," while, authority as "the probabilily that a command witl
Specitie content will be obeyed by a given group of persons." Thus, Compared to power, authe
characterised by 1legitimacy, that is, voluntary obedience of the command by the subordinates. In othee "
legitmacy turns power into authority. According to Weber, authority is synonymous to "authoritarian
of comnand' and he called it 'domination'. He staled that, "all administration means domination"

administration means exercise of authority).

Reinhard Bendix in his book, Mar Welher: An Intlellectual Portrait, summariscd the components of aut.

as identified by Wcber. They are:

i) An individual or a body of individuals who rule
(ii) An individual or a body of individuals who are ruled
(ii) The will of the rulers to influcnce the conduct of the ruled and an expression of that will or comra
of command
(iv) Evidence of the inlluence of the rulers in terms of the objective degree
(v) Direct or indirect evidence of that influcnce in terms of the subjcctive acceptance with which th
he
uled obey the command
As noted by Ramesh K. Arora, "Weber classified authority on the basis of its claim to legitimacy, since s
ce on
this would depend largely the type of obedience, the kind of administrative staff suitable to it. and the wayi
of exercising authority. His three pure types of legitimate authority are based respectively on his three base
of legitimacy". They are:
Traditional Authority According to Weber., this authority rests "on an established belief in the sanctity
of immemorial traditions and the legitimacy of the status of those exercising authority under them." The
exient of authority under this system is determined by the custom and precedent. In other words, the obedience
under this system is owed to the ruler who occupies the traditionally sanctioned position of authority and
who is (within its sphere) bound by tradition. The obligation of obedience is a matter of personal loyalty
within the area of accustomed obligations.
The administrative staff under the traditional authority system is either patrimonial or feudal. In case of
the former system, the administrative apparatus consists of personal retainers, servants and relatives of the
ruler and they owe traditional loyalty to him. While in case of the latter, the administrative apparatus consist
of the feudal lords who interpose between the people and the ruler and owe personal loyalty to the ruler.
Charismatic Authority The term 'charisma" literally means the gift of grace. According to Weber.
this authority rests "on devotion to specific and exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of m
individual and of the normative patlerns or orders revealed or ordained by him." Thus the ruler under this
system, posscsses the superhuman and supernatural qualities and is obeyed by virtue of personal trust in him
and his revelation.
The udministrative staff under the charismatic authority system consists of followers who are given positios
on the basis of their charismatic qualities and their personal devotion to the leader.
A significant feature ofthe charismatic authority system is that it is unstable, that is, it breaks down when
the
leader dies or when the charismatic qualities of the lcader declines. However, Weber suggested the
routinisation (institutionalisation) of the charismatic authority either in the authoritarian or democrale
direction.
Legal-Rational Authority According to Weber, this authority rests "on a belief in the legality
pattcrns of normative rules and the right of those elevated to authority under such rules to issue commands
 THEORIESs OF ADMINISTRATION 119
Thus obedience under this sysiem is owed to the legally established impersonal order which is rational in
eharacter. "lt extends to persons exercising the authority of office under it, only hy virtue of the formal
legality of their commands and only within the scope of authority of the office
As observed by Shum Sun Nisa Ali, "This system is callcd 'rational' hecause, in it the means are expressly
designed to achieve certain specitic ends. It is 'legal' because authority is exercised by means of a system of
rules and procedures."
According to Max Weber, the legal rational authority depends on the five related heliefs. These are
summarised by Martin Albrow as follows:
) A legal code can be established which can claim obedience from members of the organisation
(i) Administration looks after the interests of the organisation within the limits of law which is a system
of abstract rules and are applied to particular cases.
(ii) The man exercising authority also obeys this impersonal order.
(iv) That only qua member does the member obey the law.
()Finally. obedience is not to the person who holds authority but to the impersonal order which has
appointed him to that position.
The administrative staff under the legal-rational authority system consists of the bureaucracy. In other
words, bureaucracy forms the kernel of the administrative system under the legal-rational authority system.
According to Weber, only the head of the bureaucratic organisation occupies his position by virtue of
administrative staff under
appropriation, by election or having been designated for succession. The whole
of appointed individual officials.
the supreme authority (head of the organisation) then consists

Characteristics of Bureaucracy
book The Theory of Social and
The ideal type of legal rational bureaucracy designed by Max Weber (in his
A.M. Henderson in 1947) has the
Economic Organisation which was translated by Talcott Parsons and
following characteristics:
(i) The bureaucrats are subject authority only in official capacities and they are personally free.
to
that is, each lower office is under the
(ii) They are organised in a clearly defined hierarchy offices,
of
control and supervision of a higher one.
of competence in the legal sense. A specified sphere of
ii) Each office has a clearly defined sphere
competence involves:
functions which has been marked off.
(a) A sphere of obligations to perform
the necessary authority to carry out these functions.
(b) The provision of the incumbent with
are clearly defined and their use is subject to definite
(c) That the necessary means of compulsion
conditions.
Thus, in principle, there is free selection.
(iv) The office is filled by a free contractual relationship.
of technical qualitication. This is tested by examination or
(v) The officials are selected on the basis
technical training or both. They are appointed, not elected.
guaranteed by diplomas certifying
salaries and usually have the right to pensions. The official is
(vi) The officials are remunerated by fixed
can also be terminated by the employing authority under
always free to resign and his appointmentis
certain circumstances. The salary scale primarily graded according to his rank in the hierarchy;
of the position and the requirements of the
but in addition to this criterion, the responsibility
into account.
incumbent's social status may be taken
is treated as the sole (or at
(vii) The office
least occupation of the incumbent.
the primary)
to seniority or achievement, both.
(vii) It constitutes a career with system of promotion according
or

of superiors.
Promotion is dependent on the judgement
120 PuBLIC ADMINISTRATION

(ix) The official works entirely separated from ownership of the means l administration and i t

appropriation of his position.

ithou
() He is subject to strict and systematie discipline and control in the conduct of the office
Mohit Bhattacharya deduced a set of structural properties and another set ol behavioural characterist.
of bureaucracy from the Wcberian formulation. The former includes (a) division of work, (h) hierarsticy
(c)system of rules, and (d) role specificity, while the latter includes (a) rationality, (b) imnpersnal
ty
()rule-orientation. and (d) neutrality.
According to Weber, the purely bureaucratic type ol administrative organisalion (i.c. the monocrats
Variety of bureaucracy) is, from a purely technical point of view, capable of attaning the highest degtee
efficiency. Thus, it is the most rational known means of carrying out imperative control over hurman beings
t is superior to any other form of organisation in precision, stability, discipline and reliability. It thus make
possible a high degree of caleulability of results for the heads of the organisation. It is also superior n
intensive efficieney as well as in scope of its operations. It is capable of application to all kinds of administrative
tasks. It is completely indispensable for the needs of mass administration in modern times. He stated that
"the choice is only between bureaueracy and dilettantism in the ficld of administration." He also emphasised
that the people once ruled by monocratic bureaucracy can never think of any other alternative form of
organisation. To sum up, Weber stated that bureaucracy is imost efficient, most rational, superior to any other
form, indispensable and permanent.

Control Over Bureaucracy

Martin Albrow in his book Bureaucracy pointed out that Weber considered a number of mechanisms to
control the over-towering power position of bureaucracy. He identified the following five mechanisms in
Weber's writings:
) Collegiality, that is, involvement of more than one person in decision making.
in Separation of powers, that is, division of responsibility for the same function among more than one body
ii) Amateur administration, that is, administration by unpaid persons who are not professionals.
(iv) Direct democracy, that is, placing the bureaucrats under the supervision and guidance of an assembly
to ensure their
accountability to the people.
(v) Representation, that is, control through elected representative bodies (assemblies or parliaments).
Among all the above five mechanisms, Weber favoured the last one (i.e. representation), as it facilitated
the greatest possibility of check on
bureaucracy.
According to Weber, the following factors are responsible for the rise of bureaucracy:
i) Creation of money economy
(ii) Emergence of capitalist economy
(ii) Growth of democratic institutions
(iv) Emergence of complex administrative problems
(v) Development of modern means of communication
(vi) Growth of rationalism
(vii) Growth of population
Critics of Weber
Weber's bureaucratic model was criticised
by subsequent social scientists on various
i) It was characterised as "machine theory" due to its over grounds. They are
concern with the formal structure of tue
organisation to the neglect of human dimension.
i) It was described as a "closed system model" as it did not take into account in
between organisation and its environment. detail the interaction
 THEORIES OF ADMINISTRATION 121

cannot function in an uns ole environment (i.e. in changing environmental conditions).

(ii) It
iuIt is suitable for routine and repetitive jobs but not for jobs involving creativity and innovalion.
(i
Opinions of various crilics of Weber are:
Talcott Parsons: He questioned the internal consistency of the ideal type of bureaucracy. To him, the two
atributes of Weber's adninistrative staff. that is, professional expertise and the right to give orders. give
rise to conflicts within the bureaucracy. This is because, it is impossible to ensure that high position in the
hierarchy of authority will be matched by equivalent professional skill. This creates the problem of whom

to obey.
Robert K. Merton: He argued (in his edited book Reader in Bureaucracy) that the adherence to the rules
results in the "*displacement of goals" whereby an instrumental value (mcans or rules) becomes a terminal
value (ends). This develops into rigidity, formalism and ritualism. In other words. he questioned the
rationality of the Weberian legal-rational model of bureaucracy as it also produces certain dysfunctional
consequences. His phrase 'dysfunctional consequences' implies those consequences which are unexpected
and detrimental to the altainment of the organisational goals. He also opined that rigid rule oricntalion
leads to 'trained incapacity'.
Phillip Selnick: He argued (in his book TVA and the Grass Roots) that decentralisation and delegation
of authority results in departmentalisation and an increase in the bifurcation of interests among the sub-
units in the organisation. He says that the conflict between the goals of the sub-units and the organisation
as a whole results in the "displacement of goals". He also criticized the Weberian model for its neglect of
the power which a bureaucrat assumes whereby he becomes increasingly preoccupied with his own social
his
position and in the end subverts the professed goals of the organisation by concentrating only on own

power position.
Alvin Gouldner: He opined (in his book Patterns of n. astrial Bureaucracy) that the promulgation of
additional rules as a control mechanism produces tension between the managers and the subordinates,
leading to the displacement of organisational goals. He distinguished two major types of bureaucracy
punishment-centred bureaucracy in which the organisational members conform reluctantly to the rules
that they consider to be imposed on them by an alien group; and representative bureaucracy in which the
members regard rules as necessary on technical grounds and in their own interests. He also classified
bureaucrats into "cosmopolitans" and"locals".
Michel Crozier: He described (in his book The Bureaucratic Phenomena-1964) bureaucracy as a rigid
its behaviour by learning from its errors".
Organisation that cannot correct
Thorstein Veblen: He argued that the bureaucratic model due to its obsession with rules, engenders
inability to cope with changing conditions. In other words, it socialises the officials incapable of dealing
with new things. He described this as "trained incapacity".

Dewey: He said that the officials in bureaucracy do the same type of work for a long period of time and
thus develop some preferences and antipathies. He described this as "occupational psychosis". The same
deformation" by Warnotte.
phenomenon was called as "professional
Victor A. Thompson: He described the unintended consequences of bureaucracy as "bureaupathology" (a
disease of bureaucracy) and aid that they are produced by "bureaupathic" behaviour.

Simon and Barnard: They said that Weber developed his thesis on the basis of structural approach.
Hence, his model reduces administrative efficiency. which can be enhanced through informal relations
and unofiicial practices.
HUMAN RELATIONS SCHOOL (ELTON MAYO AND OTHERS)
The Human Relations Theory of organisation came into existence in 1930s as a reaction to the classical
approach to organisational analysis. The classical thinkers like Taylor, Fayol. Gulick. Urwick and Weber
stressed the formal structure of the organisation and neglected the role of human element in the organisation.
In other words, they took a mechanistic view of the organisation and under-emphasised the sociological and
psychological aspects of individual's behaviour in the organisation. It is this critical failure on the part of the
classical approach which gave rise to the human relations approach. Human relations theory is also known
as Humanistic
Theory, Socio-Economic Theory and Neo-classical Theory.
Elton Mayo, the American sociologist, is regarded as the 'father of human relations theory'. He concentrated
on the study of workers' behaviour and the production capacity. taking into consideration physiological,
physical, economic, social and psychological aspects. He called this approach as "clinical method". He
undertook the first research programme in 1923 in a textile mill near Philadelphia and named it "The First
Enquiry". His major works are: The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization (1933), The Social
Problems of an Industrial Civilizarion (1945). and The Political Problems of an Industrial Civilization
(1947).
The other writers who contributed to the growth of human relations theory includes F.J. Rocthlisberger
William J. Dickson, T. North Whitehead. W. Lloyd. E. Warner and L.J. Henderson.
130 PuBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Hawthorne Studies (1924-1932)

The Hawthome shudies formed the basis for the rise of human relations theory. These studics shogk
foundations of classical approach. that is. the concept of economic man and the role ot the structurc of f r
th

organisation.
These studies were conducted in the Westen Electrie Conmpany at Hawthorne (near Chicago-USA
the Harvard Business School under the leadership of Elton Mayo. The studies were conducted in thefollowin
four phases.
(i) lumination Experiment (1924-27). to detcrmine the cflect of dilferent levels of illumination n
workers' productivily.
(1) Relay Assembly Test Room Experiment (1927), to observe the ettects of various changes in workin.
conditions on the workers' output and morale.
ii) Mass Interviewing programme (1928-31), to explore the employees feelings (1.e. human attitude
and sentiments) by talking to them (ventilation therapy)
(Iv) Bank Wiring Experiment (1931-32), to understand better how the norms that controlled each member'
output, were established by the worker's social group (informal organisation).
The above are explained in the Management and the Worker published in 1939 by Roethlisberger and
Dickson. The conclusions of the Hawthorne studies are:
) The social and psychological factors at the workplace, and not the physical conditions of work
determine the employees' morale and output. This is the most important finding.
(ii) The organisation is a social system.
(i) Non-economic rewards and sanctions significantly affect the workers' behaviour, morale and outpur
iv) Workers are not inert or isolated, unrelated individuals; they are social animals
(v)Division of labour strictly on specialisation is not necessarily the most efficient approach.
(vi) The workers have a tendency to form small social groups (informal organisations). The production
norms and behavioural patterns are set by such groups.
(vii) Workers react to management as members of the informal work groups rather than as individuals.
(vil) Leadership, style of supervision, communication and participation play a central role in workers
behaviour, satisfaction and productivity.
Thus, the findings of Hawthome studies were highly startling and revolutionised the organisational thought
They gave rise to a new theory called Human Relations Theory.

Elements/Features
Human Relations Theory of organisation has three elements: (i) The Individual, (i) Informal Organisation.
and (üi) Participative Management.

The Individual The theory recognises the importance of emotions and perceptions of individuals.
level of workers' production and organisational output is determined by the human relations at work rater
than the physical and economic conditions of work. According to Rocthlisberger, "Each person is unique
Each is bringing to the job situation certain attitudes, beliefs and ways of life, as well as certain
technical. social, and logical. In terms of his previous experience, each person has certain hopesa
skill
expectations of his job situation."
Informal Organisation The human relations theory emphasises the informal
organisation. As obsCT
by Hicks and Gullet, "The informal shadow organisation that exists within the structure of the for
organisation is emphasised. Attention is focussed on the social aspects of man whose overriding need is Sce
as a desire to belong. to be accepted by and stand well in his work
group".
 THEORIES OF ADMINISTRATION 131

D . White defined an informal organisation as "the set of work relationships that grow out of mutual
interactions of persons Working logether over a long period of time."
The points of distinction between informal and formal organisation are:
)Informal organisation is customary while formal organisation is enacted.

) Informal organisation is not written and is not subject to neat diagrams while formal organisation is

written, manualized and portrayed in organisational charts.

i ) Informal tends to be emotional and personal while a formal organisation tends to be

organisation
rational and impersonal.
and legal.
v) Informal organisation is spontaneous and societal while formal organisation is planned It sets the
The informal organisation plays a significant role in determining the organisational efficiency.
). These
production norms and behav1oural patterns as found in the Bank Wiring Experiment (1931-32
norms are:

) One should not turn out too much work. If one does, one is a "rate-buster
"chiseler."
i) One should not turn out too little work. If one does, one is a does,
detriment of an associate. If one
(i) One should not tell a supervisor anything that will react to the
one is a "*squealer."
officious. For example, an inspector should
(iv) One should not attempt to maintain social distance or act
not act like one.
on workers' motivation,
satisfaction
Thus human relations theory highlighted the effects of work groups
situation in his work group ranked first and the work
was
and productivity. Mayo remarked that man's social
which assumes mankind as a horde of
incidental. Thus, he rejected the David Ricardo's rabble hypothesis
self-interest.
unorganised individuals actuated purely by and in temns
solve human problems with non-human tools
Roethlisberger observed, "Too often we try to human solution. A human
a human problem requires a
of non-human data. It is my simple thesis that
human data and human tools. Workers are not isolated,
problem to be brought to a human solution requires as such."
unrelated individuals; they are social animals and should be treated

The human theory advocates the style of participative

relations
Participative Management to their work conditions. In
of workers in decision-making with regard
management, that is, participation before introducing a
work groups and their informal leaders
other words, the manager should consult the merits:
This style of management has the following
change of programme (work schedule). the decisions that affect them.
with supervisors and influence
(i) It pernmits the workers to discuss
in the group.
ii) It develops a sense of participation
(ii) It results in higher productivity.
(iv) It makes the working environment
more pleasant
from management.
(V)It prevents the alienation of workers
(V1) lt facilitates the acceptance of organisational
goals by the workers.
to scientific management
managementis in direct contrast
The human relationists advocacy of participative
of FW. Taylor.

Classical Vs. Human Relations

or dismissed the
classical theory totally. It highlighted the
The human relations theory has not rejected However, it has
certain classical concepts.
and modified and extended
eritical gaps in the classical approach of economic man and formal
the classical theory, viz. the concept
Tejected the two concepts advocated by
institutionalisation.
Critical Evaluation

Thus, the Hawthorne studies and human relations theory have made a landmark contribution to the evolution
of administrative thought. Its significance lies in discovering and emphasising the informal organisations
(social groups) which exists in all organisations and facilitate team work and collaboration. In fact, Mayo 1s
described by D.S. Pugh as *a behavioural scientist long before the term became popular.
However, Mayo and his human relations theory were criticised on the following grounds.
i) Alex criticised the Hawthorne experiments for their lack of scientific base as well as for selecting
Carey
an unreliable small sample of five or six girls to generalise.
i) The critics say that the behaviour of workers during the experiments was not natural but was influenced
by their feelings of importance, attention and publicity they received in the research setting. This is
known Hawthorne Effect,
as that is, workers react positively and give their best when they know that
they being observed.
are

(iii) Loren Baritz criticised human relationists as pro-management and anti-union. The United Auto
workers described them as "cow sociologists".
devote much attention to informal
(iv) Amitai Etzioni remarked that "the human relations people tend to
but little to the formal ones or at the
relations among workers and between workers and supervisors,
articulation of formal relationships with informal ones."
the nature of work and instead focussed
(v) Peter F. Drucker said that the human relationists neglected
on interpersonal relations. He
criticised them for not being aware of economic dimensions.
to define sharply the ethical pre-suppositions of his scientific
(vi) Bendics and Fisher said that Mayo failed
work.
 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
134
was defective.
methodology
(vii) Daniel Sell said that the Harvard Group's philosophy of Mayo.
for tensions and conflicts in the
(vii) Critics say that there was no place not explore the multi-dimenc.
(Ix) Critics say that the human relations theory
(Mayoism) could Isional
phenomenon of human motivation completely. to workers as it has deemphasised ecOnc
is a new technique exploit mic
(x)TheMarxists say that Mayoism
factors. and neglected ite
the members of the organisation
.

Critics say that Mayo concentrated more on Work

(x1)
and purpose. factors of workers'
(xi) The theory is criticised on the ground that it ignored the environmental
titudes
attit.

and behaviour.

BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH

Basic Theme
and more sophisticated version of the human
The behavioural approach is an improvised, systematised administrative studies is said to have
behaviouralism in started
relations approach to organisation. In fact,
D.S. Pugh calls Elton Mayo as a behavioural scientist
with the Human Relations Movement of the 1930s.
long before the term became popular. Later, it was developed by Chester Bernard, Herbert Simon, Abraham
Maslow, Douglas McGregor, Chris Argyris, E. W. Bakke, Herzberg, Rensis Likert, Warren Bennis, George
Homans, Kurt Lewin, Carl Rogers, J.L. Moreno and others. However, the most important champion was
Herbert Simon.
Behavioural approach is also known as 'Socio-psychological approach' and 'new human relations
approach'. It aims at a scientific study of organisational behaviour. Thus, it seeks to develop practical
propositions about human behaviour in the organisational setting by undertaking systematic, objective and
empirical studies. Behavioural approach is concemed with the application of techniques and conclusions of
sociology, psychology, social psychology. and anthropology to understand organisational behaviour (behaviour
of people in the organisational setting) in a scientific manner. In brief, behavioural approach is the scientific
study of human behaviour in organisations.
Herbert Simon in his popular book Administrative Behaviour (1947) observed that, "Human beings who
work in organisations have aspirations and desires. Their behaviour is conditioned by their psychology.
motives and social environment. The administrative science should study these facts' of behaviour without
getting involved in the question of 'values'. Organisation is a group of people behaving. The behaviourod
these people is subject to influence and a student of administration should study these behaviours wherein he
will have to employ the methods of sociology and psychology."

Features
The behavioural approach to the study of public administration has the
following features.
i)It is descriptive and analytical rather than prescriptive. It is concerned with the actual
behaviour0l
people in the organisation. In other words, it deals with the facts of organisational behaviour.
believes that the behaviour of people in the organisation can be studied and
with the intention of developing generalised statements (universal
investigated objectiVey
laws).
(ii) It emphasises the informal relations and communications patterns among the people working in "
organisation.
 THEORIEs OF ADMINISTRATION 135

áii) It pays more attention to the dynamics of organisational hchaviour, that 1s, motivation. leadership.
decision-making. pOwer, aulhority, and so on.

ivl It is empirical in methodology. In other words. it advocates scicntilic methods like ficld study. labeoralory
study, and so on.
It seeks
()It is mainly cocerned with quantification, mathematisation and formal theory construction. thinkcry
the classical
promote the scientitic content of the study of administration. Thus. unlike
to
that 1s
who stressed the provincial approach. the behaviouralists stressed the universal approach.
kinds of organisations.
they claim to explain the organisational processes which are common to many trom
in nature. Hence, it draws concepts, techniques, data and perspectives
(vi) It is interdisciplinary
other social sciences like sociology, psychology, anthropology and so on.
David Easton has mentioned the following eight basic premises (or intellectual foundation stones) o

behaviouralism:
which can be expressed in theories
or
1. Regularities-discoverable uniformities in human behaviour
generalizations enabling explanation and prediction.
2. Verification-acceptance of only that kind of knowledge which can be empirically tested and verified
and interpreting data.
3. Techniques adopting appropriate methods for collecting, recording where
4. Quantification-measurement and manipulation of
data in administrative analysis, but only
possible, relevant and meaningful.
separating values from facts as ethical evaluation and empirical
5. Values-being value-neutral or

explanation are two different things.

viewed inter-twined
6. Systematisation-both research and theory-building
must be systematic and be as

parts of organised knowledge.

theoretical understanding of administration and application
7. Pure Science-establishing a link between
of knowledge (theory) to practical problem-solving.
facilitating fertilization of concepts and theories among
8. Integration-inter-disciplinary focus
cross

the social sciences.

of public administration has four main
Smithburg, the behavioural approach to the study
According to
characteristics:
individual and his relationship to the administrative organisation.
(i) It pays increased attention to the considered
scientific management of Taylor, on the other hand,
The earlier approaches, particularly
without taking into account the different aspects of his
the individual rather as a thing or a means
behavioural approach is based on more realistic study
of the nature of
personality. This feature of the
motivation.
authority, decision-making processes and
administrative organisation as a social system. Consequently,
gives equal attention to
it
(1i) It studies the
in the organisation. The earlier approaches, on the
both formal and informal relationships of people
the study of formal and rational relationships in the organisation.
other hand, paid attention exclusively to
communication as it describes administration as a complex
(1i1) It gives more attention to the means of
it gives more attention to the informal means of
of human relations. Moreover,
aggregate
service than to the formal ones. The earlier approaches, on the other
communication in the public
exclusively on
concentrated the formal means of communication.
hand,
that of legitümacy. The traditional theory of sovereignty gave
(1V) It replaces the theory of sovereignty by
line of authority, chain of command, graduated delegation
birth to the theories of hierarchical structure,
has an increasing tendency to analyse the
and so on.newThe of legitimacy, on the other hand,
theory
persons, considered
individually as well as collectively, feel that they must obev
reason why given
orders. Thus, the behavioural approach lays emphasis on administrative leadership and motivation.
 136 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

HerbertSimon classified contemporary research on administrative behaviour into the four categories:

iResearch on belonging to the Weberian stream.

bureaucracy.
(11) Human relations research focussed on motivations and concerned with increasing job satisfaction

and producuvity.

(111) Research. employing the Barnard-Simon model of organisational equilibrium, aimed at explaining
survival and growth of organisations in terms of the inter-relationships of motivations of their
participants.
(iv) Research on the process, with primary emphasis on cognitive processes and the
decision-making
rational components in administrative behaviour.
The contribution of Chester Barnard to the behavioural approach has been already discussed and that of
Herbert Simon will be discussed later in connection with decision-making under the Administrative
Behaviour chapter.
SYSTEMS APPROACH

Basic Concept
Webster defined a system as. "A set or
arrangement of
organic whole."
things so rclated or connected as to form a unity or

Talcott Parsons detined a

system as, "the concept that refers both to a complex of
interdependencies
between parts, components and processes that involves discernible regularities of relationship and to a similar
tune of interdependency between such a
complex and its surrounding environment."
According to Ramesh K. Arora, "the concept of system involves the of (a) the
study of a
parts system. b)
interactions among such parts, and (c) interactions between system
the and its
environment.
Thus, a system is a complex whole having a number of parts. These parts of the system are called sub-
Systems. These sub-systems are interrelated and interdependent for their functioning. They. in turn. contribute
to the functioning of the system as a whole. The system has a defined boundary through which it interacts
with its environment. This external environment of a system is called a supra-system.
A system consists of five basic parts, viz. input, process, output, feedback and environment as shown in
Fig. 3.1.

Environment

Input Process Output

(Throughput)

Feedback

Environment

FIG.3.1 A System

and sends outputs into the environment after the

A system receives inputs from the environment
also adjusts itself continuously to the requirements
transformation process (i.e. throughputs). Further, system
a
there is a balance
of the environment. This is facilitated by the feed back mechanism. Thus,
(changes in)
between the system and its environment.
142 PuBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Systems are of two categories-open systems and closed systems. Social and biological systemsare
are «
Systems, while mechanical and physical systems are closed systems. Open systems have permeable bound
and are in constant interaction with their environment. In contrast, closcd systems have imperme daries
boundaries and do not interact with their environment. Open systems develop through greater inter
diferentiation, specialisation and elaboration and move towards a higher level of organisation. Closedsys
stems
on the other hand, move towards disorder, disorganisation and self-destruction, that is "positive entronu"
Other concepts associated with a system
are
(i) Synergism, that is, holism (Gestalt)
i) Homeostasis, that is, dynamic equilibrium
ii) Cybernetics, that is, feedback mechanism
(iv) Organism, that is, cohesiveness
(v) Isomorphisms, that is, similar properties
(vi) Equifinality, that is, similar results
(vii) Entropy, that is, a measure of the tendency ofa system to disintegrate

Organisation as a System
Organisation falls in the category of open social systems and shares all such characteristics as discussed
earlier.
An organisation as a social system consisting of various sub-systems is shown in Fig. 3.2.
Environment (Economic)

Supportive Maintenance
Sub-system sub-system

Environment Adaptive Environment

Technical Management
(Socio-cultural) sub-system (Political)
sub-system Sub-system

Structural Psycho-social
sub-system sub-system

Environment (Technical)

FIG.3.2 Organisation as a System

The various sub-sy'stems of an organisation are explained below:
( i Technic.al sub-system is concerned with mechanical processes, that is, conversion of inputs into
Outputs.