UNIVERSITY OF BELGRADE

FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ENGLISH LANGUAGE FOR SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

HOMEWORK NO. 1
“Computer science and electrical engineering behind
television systems”

Supervisor:
Dr Miloš Đurić

Students:
Nikola Stević, 2022/0034
Dimitrije Đorđević, 2022/0060
Vanja Vasiljević, 2022/0068
Milan Arnaut, 2022/0357

Belgrade, December 2022

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Table of contents
1. How the television works................................................................................3
1.1. Amplification............................................................................................3
1.1.1. Different types of amplifiers...............................................................4
1.2. Detection...................................................................................................4
1.2.1. Envelope detectors................................................................................4
1.2.2. Synchronous detectors.........................................................................4
1.3. Decoding...................................................................................................5
1.3.1. Compression........................................................................................5
1.3.1.1. Lossless compression....................................................................6
1.3.1.2. Lossy compression........................................................................6
1.3.1.3. Mathematical background.............................................................7
1.4. Display......................................................................................................7
1.4.1. LCD.....................................................................................................8
1.4.1.1. Ghosting and color shifting...........................................................8
1.4.2. Plasma display.....................................................................................9
1.4.3. CRT display.......................................................................................10
1.4.4. LED display.......................................................................................10
1.4.4.1. OLED display..............................................................................11
1.4.4.2. AMOLED display.......................................................................11
1.4.4.3. Super AMOLED display.............................................................12
2. Connection ports on TV.................................................................................13
2.1. HDMI.....................................................................................................13
2.2. VGA.......................................................................................................14
2.3. DVI.........................................................................................................14
3. Television signal transmission.......................................................................14
4. TV remote control..........................................................................................15
References...........................................................................................................17

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1. How the television works
A television works by receiving a signal from an external source, such as a cable or satellite
provider, an antenna, or a streaming device, and displaying that signal on a screen. The
television converts the incoming signal into a form that can be displayed on the screen, using
a process called demodulation.
The television has a tuner that is used to select the specific channel or frequency of the signal
that is being received. The tuner is typically controlled by a remote or by buttons on the
television itself.
The signal is then passed through a series of circuits and components that amplify and filter
the signal, and then convert it into a form that can be displayed on the screen. This process
involves several stages, including the following:
1. Amplification: The signal is amplified by an amplifier circuit, which boosts the
strength of the signal.
2. Detection: The amplified signal is then passed through a detector circuit, which
extracts the video and audio information from the signal.
3. Decoding: The video and audio information are then passed through separate
decoding circuits, which convert the information into a form that can be displayed
on the screen or heard through the speakers.
4. Display: The decoded video and audio information is then sent to the display and
speakers, respectively, where it is displayed and played for the viewer.
The television also has a power supply, which provides electricity to all of the components in
the television. The power supply is typically controlled by a power switch or a remote
control, and it converts the incoming electricity into the correct form and voltage for the
television.

Picture 1 - An example of a TV

1.1. Amplification
Amplification refers to the process of increasing the strength of an incoming signal. This is
necessary because the strength of the signal may be weak due to factors such as distance from
the source, interference, or other factors.
The amplifier circuit in a television is responsible for amplifying the incoming signal so that
it can be properly processed and displayed on the screen. The amplifier circuit is typically
located in the tuner section of the television and is responsible for boosting the strength of the
signal to a level that is suitable for processing.
There are many different types of amplifier circuits that can be used in a television, including
voltage amplifiers, current amplifiers, and transimpedance amplifiers. The specific type of

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amplifier circuit used will depend on the specific requirements of the television and the
characteristics of the incoming signal.
Without proper amplification, the signal may be too weak to be properly demodulated and
decoded, resulting in a poor quality image or sound.

1.1.1. Different types of amplifiers

A voltage amplifier is a type of amplifier that is designed to amplify an incoming voltage
signal. It is typically used to amplify low-level signals, such as those produced by
microphones or other sensors, to a level that is suitable for processing or transmission.
A current amplifier is a type of amplifier that is designed to amplify an incoming current
signal. It is typically used to amplify high-level signals, such as those produced by audio or
video sources
A transimpedance amplifier is a type of amplifier that is designed to convert a current signal
into a voltage signal. It is often used to amplify signals that are transmitted over long
distances, such as in fiber optic communication systems.

1.2. Detection
Detection refers to the process of extracting the video and audio information from an
incoming signal. This is typically done by a detector circuit, which is a type of electronic
circuit that is designed to extract specific information from a signal.
The detector circuit in a television is typically located in the tuner section of the television
and is responsible for separating the video and audio information from the incoming signal.
This is typically done by demodulating the signal, which involves converting the signal from
an analog form to a digital form and extracting the specific information that is needed.
There are many different types of detector circuits that can be used in a television, including
envelope detectors, synchronous detectors, and coherent detectors.

1.2.1. Envelope detectors

An envelope detector is a type of electronic circuit that is used to extract the envelope of a
modulated signal. The envelope of a signal is the variation of the signal's amplitude over
time, and it contains information about the signal's frequency, phase, and other
characteristics.
An envelope detector is often used to extract the video and audio information from an
incoming signal.
Envelope detectors are typically used in situations where the signal is modulated using an
amplitude modulation (AM) scheme, in which the amplitude of the signal is varied to carry
the information. In this case, the envelope detector is used to extract the envelope of the
modulated signal and extract the video and audio information that is contained within it.
Envelope detectors are simple and inexpensive to implement, and they are often used in
applications where cost is a concern. However, they are not as accurate as other types of
detectors, such as synchronous detectors or coherent detectors, and they may not be suitable
for all applications.

1.2.2. Synchronous detectors

A synchronous detector is a type of electronic circuit that is used to demodulate a signal that
has been modulated using a frequency or phase modulation (FM or PM) scheme. In these

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modulation schemes, the frequency or phase of the signal is varied to carry the information,
and the synchronous detector is used to extract this information.
The synchronous detector works by comparing the phase or frequency of the incoming signal
with a reference signal, which is typically a locally generated oscillator signal. The reference
signal is adjusted to match the frequency or phase of the incoming signal, and the resulting
error signal is used to demodulate the signal and extract the information that is contained
within it.
Synchronous detectors are more accurate and efficient than envelope detectors, and they are
often used in applications where a high level of accuracy is required. However, they are more
complex and expensive to implement than envelope detectors, and they may not be suitable
for all applications.

1.3. Decoding
Decoding refers to the process of converting the video and audio information that has been
extracted from an incoming signal into a form that can be displayed on the screen or heard
through the speakers. This process involves several stages, including the following:
1. Compression: The video and audio information is typically compressed to reduce
the amount of data that needs to be transmitted and stored. There are many
different types of compression algorithms that can be used, such as JPEG for
video and MP3 for audio.
2. Decompression: The compressed video and audio data is then decompressed by
the television, using the appropriate decompression algorithms. This process
involves converting the compressed data back into a form that can be displayed or
played.
3. Formatting: The decompressed video and audio data is then formatted into a form
that is suitable for display or playback. This may involve converting the data into
a specific video or audio format, such as HDMI or MP4, or it may involve
adjusting the resolution or other characteristics of the data.
4. Display: The formatted video and audio data is then sent to the display and
speakers, respectively, where it is displayed and played for the viewer.

1.3.1. Compression
Compression refers to the process of reducing the amount of data that is required to transmit
and store video and audio information. This is typically done using compression algorithms,
which are mathematical procedures that are designed to reduce the size of the data while
maintaining as much of the original quality as possible.
There are many different types of compression algorithms that can be used for video and
audio data, including lossless and lossy algorithms. Lossless algorithms preserve all of the
original information in the data, but they typically result in only a small reduction in size.
Lossy algorithms, on the other hand, discard some of the original information in the data in
order to achieve a larger reduction in size.
compression is typically used to reduce the amount of data that needs to be transmitted and
stored, which can save bandwidth and storage space. It is also used to reduce the amount of
processing power and memory that is required to decode and display the data, which can
improve the performance of the television.

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However, it is important to balance the benefits of compression with the potential impact on
the quality of the video and audio. Too much compression can result in a significant loss of
quality, while too little compression may not provide significant benefits.
The specific type of compression algorithm that is used will depend on the specific
requirements of the television and the characteristics of the data being compressed.

1.3.1.1. Lossless compression

One example of a lossless compression algorithm that is commonly used is Huffman coding.
Huffman coding is a type of data compression algorithm that is based on the statistical
frequency of characters in a data stream. It works by assigning shorter codes to characters
that appear more frequently in the data stream and longer codes to characters that appear less
frequently, which results in a more efficient representation of the data.
Huffman coding is a lossless algorithm because it preserves all the original information in the
data. It is typically used for compressing data streams that contain a large amount of
redundancy, such as text or audio data.
Huffman coding could be used to compress the audio or subtitle data that is transmitted along
with a video signal. By using Huffman coding, the size of the data stream could be reduced
without losing any of the original information, which could save bandwidth and storage
space.
Other examples of lossless compression algorithms that could be used include Lempel-Ziv-
Welch (LZW) encoding, Run-Length Encoding (RLE), and Arithmetic Coding. These
algorithms are typically used to compress data streams that contain a large amount of
redundancy, such as images, audio, or video.

1.3.1.2. Lossy compression

One example of a lossy compression algorithm that is commonly used is the JPEG (Joint
Photographic Experts Group) algorithm. The JPEG algorithm is a type of image compression
algorithm that is designed to reduce the size of digital images while maintaining as much of
the original quality as possible.
The JPEG algorithm works by dividing the image into small blocks of pixels and applying a
mathematical transformation to each block (transform such as the Discrete Cosine Transform
(DCT) to each block). The transformed data is then quantized and encoded, which results in a
more efficient representation of the image.
The JPEG algorithm is a lossy algorithm because it discards some of the original information
in the image in order to achieve a larger reduction in size. The amount of information that is
discarded can be controlled by adjusting the compression level, with higher levels of
compression resulting in larger reductions in size but also a greater loss of quality.
Other examples of lossy compression algorithms that could be used include the MP3 (MPEG-
1 Audio Layer 3) algorithm for audio and the H.264 (MPEG-4 Part 10, Advanced Video
Coding) algorithm for video. These algorithms are typically used to compress data streams
that can tolerate some loss of quality, such as audio or video.

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 Picture 2 - JPEG compression algorithm

1.3.1.3. Mathematical background

Lossless compression algorithms typically use techniques such as statistical coding,
dictionary coding, and entropy coding to reduce the size of data while preserving all of the
original information.
Dictionary coding algorithms, such as Lempel-Ziv-Welch (LZW) encoding, work by creating
a dictionary of common patterns in the data stream and replacing these patterns with shorter
codes as they are encountered in the data. This results in a more efficient representation of the
data, as the common patterns are replaced with shorter codes.
Entropy coding algorithms, such as Arithmetic Coding, work by representing the data as a
probability distribution and using this distribution to assign shorter codes to more probable
characters and longer codes to less probable characters. This results in a more efficient
representation of the data, as the most probable characters are represented with the shortest
codes.
Lossy compression algorithms typically use techniques such as transform coding,
quantization, and entropy coding to reduce the size of data while sacrificing some of the
original information.

1.4. Display
The display refers to the screen on which the video and audio information is displayed for the
viewer. There are several different types of displays that can be used in a television, including
cathode ray tube (CRT) displays, liquid crystal displays (LCD), and plasma displays. CRT
displays, which were common in older televisions, use an electron gun to shoot a beam of
electrons at a phosphorescent screen, which produces a visible image. LCD displays, which
are common in modern televisions, use a layer of liquid crystals that are activated by an
electric current to produce a visible image. Plasma displays use a gas discharge between two
glass plates to produce a visible image. The specific type of display that is used in a television

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will depend on the size and resolution of the television, as well as the desired performance
and features. The display is an important part of the television because it is what the viewer
sees and hears. The quality of the display can significantly impact the overall viewing
experience, and it is one of the main factors that determines the price of a television.

1.4.1. LCD
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) are a type of display technology that is commonly used in
modern televisions, as well as other electronic devices such as computers, smartphones, and
tablets. LCDs use a layer of liquid crystals that are activated by an electric current to produce
a visible image. The basic structure of an LCD display consists of two layers of glass or
plastic that are coated with a layer of transparent electrodes. Between these layers is a thin
layer of liquid crystals, which are molecules that are suspended in a liquid and arranged in a
specific pattern. When an electric current is applied to the electrodes, the liquid crystals rotate
and align themselves in a specific direction, which allows light to pass through or block it.
The LCD display is illuminated by a backlight, which is typically a fluorescent lamp or an
LED array. The backlight illuminates the display from behind, and the liquid crystals control
the amount of light that passes through to the front of the display. This allows the LCD
display to produce a wide range of colors and shades, which can be used to create a high-
quality image. LCD displays are known for their high image quality, energy efficiency, and
thin profile, which makes them well-suited for use in televisions and other electronic devices.
They are also relatively inexpensive to manufacture, which has contributed to their
widespread adoption. However, LCD displays can suffer from issues such as ghosting, which
is when the image appears to trail behind the source, and color shifting, which is when the
colors appear to change at different viewing angles.

Picture 3 - LCD TV - principle of working

1.4.1.1. Ghosting and color shifting

Ghosting, in the context of LCD displays, refers to the phenomenon where the image appears
to trail behind the source. This can occur when the liquid crystals in the display are not able
to switch fast enough to keep up with the changing image, which results in a blurred or

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smeared appearance. Ghosting is typically more noticeable in fast-moving images or when
there is a high contrast between adjacent pixels.
Color shifting, in the context of LCD displays, refers to the phenomenon where the colors of
the image appear to change at different viewing angles. This can occur because the liquid
crystals in the display are not able to maintain a consistent alignment at all viewing angles,
which results in a shift in the perceived colors. Color shifting is typically more noticeable
when the display is viewed from extreme angles, and it can be more pronounced in some
colors than others.
Both ghosting and color shifting are common issues that can affect the quality of an LCD
display, and they can be caused by a variety of factors, including the quality of the display
itself, the quality of the image source, and the viewing conditions. These issues can be
minimized by using a high-quality display with a fast response time and a wide viewing
angle, as well as by optimizing the image source and the viewing conditions.

1.4.2. Plasma display

Plasma displays are a type of display technology that is based on the principles of gas
discharge. They use a gas mixture of neon and xenon, or other gases, that is contained
between two glass plates. Neon is a noble gas that is known for its bright, orange-red glow,
while xenon is a noble gas that is known for its bright, white glow. Both neon and xenon can
be used to produce a wide range of colors and shades in a plasma display, depending on the
intensity of the electric current and the type of gas mixture that is used. By using different
combinations of neon, xenon, and other gases, the plasma display can produce a wide range
of colors and shades, which can be used to create a high-quality image. The plasma display
consists of millions of tiny cells, or pixels, that are arranged in a grid pattern. Each cell
contains a small amount of the gas mixture and a pair of electrodes, one at the top and one at
the bottom of the cell. When an electric current is applied to the electrodes, it ionizes the gas
and produces a plasma, which emits light. Plasma displays are known for their high image
quality, wide viewing angles, and fast refresh rates, which make them well-suited for use in
televisions and other electronic devices. They are also relatively inexpensive to manufacture,
which has contributed to their widespread adoption.

Picture 4 - Plasma display

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 1.4.3. CRT display
Cathode ray tube (CRT) displays are a type of display technology that was commonly used in
older televisions and computer monitors. The CRT display consists of a vacuum tube that is
sealed at one end and open at the other. At the sealed end is an electron gun that shoots a
beam of electrons at a phosphorescent screen, which produces a visible image. The electron
gun consists of a cathode, an anode, and a focusing electrode. The cathode is a negatively
charged electrode that is made of a material that can emit electrons, such as a hot filament or
a cold cathode. The anode is a positively charged electrode that is located at the other end of
the electron gun, and it is used to accelerate the electrons towards the screen. The focusing
electrode is located between the cathode and the anode, and it is used to control the shape and
size of the beam of electrons. When a voltage is applied to the cathode and the anode, the
cathode emits a stream of electrons, which are attracted to the positive anode. As the
electrons pass through the focusing electrode, they are shaped and focused into a beam,
which is then directed towards the screen. At the open end of the vacuum tube is a screen that
is coated with a phosphorescent material, such as zinc sulfide or barium oxide. When the
beam of electrons hits the screen, it excites the phosphorescent material that is coated on the
screen, and this causes the material to emit light. The intensity of the beam can be controlled
to produce a wide range of colors and shades, which can be used to create a high-quality
image.
CRT displays are known for their high image quality and wide viewing angles, but they are
relatively large and heavy, and they are not as energy efficient as other types of displays.
They are also more susceptible to distortion and other issues, such as flicker, which can affect
the quality of the image. As a result, CRT displays are not as commonly used as they were in
the past, and they have been largely replaced by other types of displays, such as LCDs and
plasma displays.

Picture 5 - CRT monitor

1.4.4. LED display

LED (light-emitting diode) displays are a type of display technology that uses small,
semiconductor devices called LEDs to produce light. LED displays are commonly used in
modern televisions, as well as other electronic devices such as smartphones, tablets, and
computer monitors. The basic structure of an LED display consists of a matrix of LEDs that
are arranged in a grid pattern. Each LED is a small, semiconductor device that is capable of
emitting light when an electric current is applied to it. The color of the light that is produced
by the LED depends on the material that is used to make the LED and the wavelength of the

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light that is emitted. There are two main types of LED displays: full-color displays and
monochrome displays. Full-color displays use a combination of red, green, and blue (RGB)
LEDs to produce a wide range of colors and shades, while monochrome displays use a single
color of LED, such as red, green, or blue. LED displays are known for their high image
quality, energy efficiency, and thin profile, which makes them well-suited for use in
televisions and other electronic devices. They are also relatively inexpensive to manufacture,
which has contributed to their widespread adoption. However, LED displays can suffer from
issues such as color shift, which is when the colors appear to change at different viewing
angles, and backlight bleeding, which is when the backlight is visible around the edges of the
display.

Picture 6 - LED display close-up

1.4.4.1. OLED display

OLED (organic light-emitting diode) displays work differently from LED (light-emitting
diode) displays because they use different methods to produce light. Unliked LED displays,
OLED displays do not use a backlight. Instead, each pixel in an OLED display is made up of
an organic material that emits light when an electric current is applied to it. This means that
OLED displays can produce deep blacks and higher contrast ratios, because each pixel can be
turned on or off independently. There are several other differences between OLED and LED
displays, such as power consumption, lifespan, and cost. OLED displays tend to be more
efficient, have a shorter lifespan, and are more expensive to produce than LED displays.
However, OLED displays also tend to offer higher quality images and a more immersive
viewing experience.

1.4.4.2. AMOLED display

AMOLED (active-matrix organic light-emitting diode) is a type of display technology that
uses organic materials to produce light and an active matrix to control the light emission of
each pixel. AMOLED displays are commonly used in modern smartphones, tablets, and other
electronic devices. The basic structure of an AMOLED display consists of a matrix of
OLEDs that are arranged in a grid pattern, similar to a traditional OLED display. In an
AMOLED display, each OLED is controlled by a thin-film transistor (TFT) that is located on
the same substrate as the OLED. The TFT is a small, switching device that is used to control
the flow of electric current to the OLED, and it allows each OLED to be turned on and off

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independently. This allows the AMOLED display to produce a wide range of colors and
shades, which can be used to create a high-quality image. AMOLED displays are known for
their high image quality, wide viewing angles, and fast refresh rates, which make them well-
suited for use in smartphones and other electronic devices. They are also relatively thin and
lightweight, which makes them well-suited for use in portable devices. However, AMOLED
displays can suffer from issues such as burn-in, which is when a static image is displayed for
an extended period of time and causes the OLEDs to degrade, and color shift, which is when
the colors appear to change at different viewing angles.

1.4.4.3. Super AMOLED display

Super AMOLED (active-matrix organic light-emitting diode) is a type of display technology
that is similar to traditional AMOLED technology, but it has some additional features and
improvements. Super AMOLED displays are commonly used in modern smartphones,
tablets, and other electronic devices.
One of the main differences between Super AMOLED and traditional AMOLED is that
Super AMOLED combines the display layers and the touch-sensitive layers into a single
layer, which allows for a thinner and lighter display. This also allows for a more seamless and
responsive touch experience, as there is no gap between the touch-sensitive layer and the
display layer. Another difference is that Super AMOLED uses a different type of organic
material for the OLEDs, which allows for a wider color gamut and higher color accuracy.
This means that the Super AMOLED display is able to produce a wider range of colors and
shades, which can be used to create a more vibrant and lifelike image.
Just like AMOLED, Super AMOLED displays are known for their high image quality, wide
viewing angles, and fast refresh rates, which make them well-suited for use in smartphones
and other electronic devices. They are also relatively thin and lightweight, which makes them
well-suited for use in portable devices. However, Super AMOLED displays can suffer from
issues such as burn-in, which is when a static image is displayed for an extended period of
time and causes the OLEDs to degrade, and color shift, which is when the colors appear to
change at different viewing angles.

Picture 7 - TV based on Super AMOLED display

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2. Connection ports on TV
Televisions use a variety of connection ports and cables to connect to other devices, such as
set-top boxes, Blu-ray players, gaming consoles, and home theater systems. Some of the most
common connection ports and cables include:
1. HDMI (High Definition Multimedia Interface): HDMI is a digital connection that
is used to transmit audio and video signals between devices. It is commonly used
to connect TVs to set-top boxes, Blu-ray players, gaming consoles, and home
theater systems.
2. Composite video: Composite video is an analog connection that is used to transmit
video signals between devices. It is commonly used to connect older TVs and
devices that do not have HDMI ports.
3. S-Video: S-Video is an analog connection that is used to transmit video signals
between devices. It is similar to composite video, but it uses a separate wire for
the chrominance (color) and luminance (brightness) signals, which can result in a
higher quality image.
4. Component video: Component video is an analog connection that is used to
transmit video signals between devices. It uses three separate wires for the red,
green, and blue color channels, which can result in a higher quality image than
composite or S-Video.
5. VGA: VGA is a connection that is used to transmit video signals between devices.
It is commonly used to connect PCs and laptops to TVs and monitors.
6. DVI: DVI is a digital connection that is used to transmit video signals between
devices. It is similar to HDMI, but it does not support audio signals.
7. Optical audio: Optical audio is a digital connection that is used to transmit audio
signals between devices

Picture 8 - Connection ports on a TV

2.1. HDMI
HDMI (High Definition Multimedia Interface): HDMI is a digital connection that is used to

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transmit audio and video signals between devices. It uses a single cable to transmit the
signals, and it is commonly used to connect TVs to set-top boxes, Blu-ray players, gaming
consoles, and home theater systems.
The principle of operation of HDMI is based on the transmission of digital signals between
devices. When an HDMI cable is connected to two devices, the devices communicate with
each other using a series of digital signals that are transmitted over the cable. The HDMI
connection uses a standard called HDMI CEC (Consumer Electronics Control), which allows
the devices to communicate with each other and control each other's functions. For example,
when an HDMI-enabled TV is connected to a Blu-ray player, the TV can automatically turn
on and switch to the correct input when the Blu-ray player is turned on.

2.2. VGA
VGA (Video Graphics Array): VGA is a connection that is used to transmit video signals
between devices. It is commonly used to connect PCs and laptops to TVs and monitors. The
principle of operation of VGA is based on the transmission of analog signals between
devices. When a VGA cable is connected to two devices, the devices communicate with each
other using a series of analog signals that are transmitted over the cable. The VGA
connection uses a standard called VESA DDC (Display Data Channel), which allows the
devices to communicate with each other and control each other's functions. For example,
when a VGA-enabled PC is connected to a monitor, the monitor can automatically adjust its
display settings to match the resolution and refresh rate of the PC.

2.3. DVI
DVI (Digital Visual Interface): DVI is a digital connection that is used to transmit video
signals between devices. It is similar to HDMI, but it does not support audio signals. The
principle of operation of DVI is based on the transmission of digital signals between devices.
When a DVI cable is connected to two devices, the devices communicate with each other
using a series of digital signals that are transmitted over the cable. The DVI connection uses a
standard called DVI-DDC (Digital Display Channel), which allows the devices to
communicate with each other and control each other's functions. For example, when a DVI-
enabled PC is connected to a monitor, the monitor can automatically adjust its display
settings to match the resolution and refresh rate of the PC.

3. Television signal transmission

Television signals are transmitted from a television station to a home of end-user through a
variety of methods, including over the air, through cable television systems, and via satellite.
Over-the-air transmission: Television signals can be transmitted over the air using antennas.
Television stations transmit the signals using powerful transmitters, and the signals are
received by antennas on the roof of your home. The antenna converts the signals into a form
that can be used by your TV, and the TV displays the images and sounds on the screen.
Cable television: Television signals can also be transmitted through a cable television system.
In this case, the signals are transmitted to a central hub, which is usually located at a
television station or a cable company's headend. The signals are then transmitted over a
network of coaxial cables or fiber-optic cables to your home. The signals are received by a
cable box, which converts the signals into a form that can be used by your TV, and the TV
displays the images and sounds on the screen.
Satellite television: Television signals can also be transmitted via satellite. In this case, the

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signals are transmitted from a television station or a cable company's headend to a satellite in
geostationary orbit. The satellite then retransmits the signals back to Earth, where they are
received by a satellite dish on the roof of your home. The signals are then transmitted to a
satellite receiver, which converts the signals into a form that can be used by your TV, and the
TV displays the images and sounds on the screen.

Picture 9 - TV signal transmission

4. TV remote control
TV remote controls are devices that are used to remotely operate televisions and other home
entertainment devices, such as set-top boxes, Blu-ray players, and home theater systems.

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Most TV remote controls use infrared (IR) technology to transmit signals to the TV or other
device. Infrared (IR) light is converted into an electrical signal using an IR sensor. An IR
sensor is a device that is designed to detect IR light and convert it into an electrical signal that
can be used by electronic devices. There are several different types of IR sensors, but one of
the most common types is the photodiode. A photodiode is a type of semiconductor device
that is sensitive to light, and it is commonly used as an IR sensor. When IR light is incident
on a photodiode, it causes the photodiode to generate a small electrical current. The
magnitude of the current depends on the intensity of the IR light, and it can be used to detect
the presence of IR light and measure the intensity of the light. In the case of a TV remote
control, the IR sensor is typically located on the front of the TV or other device, and it is
pointed towards the IR LED on the remote control. When the remote control is used, the IR
LED emits a beam of IR light, which is detected by the IR sensor on the TV or device. The
IR sensor converts the IR light into an electrical signal, which is then used to control the TV
or device. TV remote controls typically have a variety of buttons that can be used to control
different functions of the TV or device. For example, the remote might have buttons for
turning the TV on and off, changing the channel, adjusting the volume, and controlling the
picture settings. Some remote controls also have buttons for accessing additional features,
such as a built-in digital video recorder (DVR) or streaming media services. In recent years,
many TV remote controls have also been designed to be used as universal remotes, which
means that they can be programmed to control multiple devices, not just the TV. This can be
convenient if you have a number of different home entertainment devices that you want to
control with a single remote.

Picture 10 - TV remote control

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References
Jerry C. Whitaker, Jerry C. Whitaker Jr. Television Engineering Handbook.
Jerry C. Whitaker, Jerry C. Whitaker Jr. Television Technology Demystified.
Milton Sol Kiver, Eugene J. Rathjen Television Fundamentals.
Television. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television
The Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA). Retrieved from https://www.eia.org/
The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE). Retrieved
from https://www.smpte.org/

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