2124 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 70, NO.
4, APRIL 2022
Theory of Optimum Taper for Distortionless
Pulse Transmission
Ranadhir Chatterjee , Student Member, IEEE, and Arijit De, Member, IEEE
Abstract— A theory of nonuniform transmission line taper
with almost linear transmission phase characteristics has been
proposed in this article. The proposed taper provides a preferably
flat group delay with optimum time domain characteristics
compared to the conventional tapers. Closed-form expressions for
the impedance profile of the optimum taper has been discussed
here. A stripline and dispersive microstrip line implementation
of the taper has been measured to validate the proposed theory.
Index Terms— Group delay (GD), nonuniform transmission
line (NTL) taper, pulse transmission, ringing, transmission phase.
I. I NTRODUCTION
N ONUNIFORM transmission lines (NTLs) have been
extensively studied in the frequency domain in the
recent past [1]–[3]. NTLs are often a preferred choice for
impedance transformation between unequal source and load
impedances [4]. In such a scenario, the important goal is to
ensure proper impedance matching and minimize the reflec-
tion losses for efficient transmission of power at the desired
frequency band. One of the most commonly used NTLs based
on its simplicity of design is the exponential taper as proposed
by Wheeler [5]. An improved NTL was proposed in [6]
and [7] to obtain the optimum impedance taper for minimizing
the reflection loss in the frequency domain. However, not
much attention was made with respect to the transmission
characteristics, especially in the time domain. The transient
response of an exponential taper has been analyzed in [8].
Considerable ringing was reported to exist at the output for
rapidly rising pulses at the input of the exponential taper. Step
response of NTL with power-law characteristic impedance
had been studied in [9]. The output waveform also exhibits
considerable dispersion distortion. In [10], a square pulse
has been used at the input to observe the pulse dispersion
distortion characteristics at the output due to the exponential
and chebycheff taper. The distortion has been attributed both
due to the nonuniform taper profile as well as the dispersion
characteristics of the substrate. In [11], the transient response
of several NTLs like exponential, parabolic, and hyperbolic
taper has been studied using an input step signal. The transient
response of these tapered transmission lines has also been
observed for a Gaussian pulse. In both cases, considerable
Manuscript received September 1, 2021; revised December 21, 2021;
accepted January 17, 2022. Date of publication March 2, 2022; date of current
version April 4, 2022. (Corresponding author: Ranadhir Chatterjee.)
The authors are with the Department of Electronics and Electrical Commu-
nication Engineering, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal 721302, India
(e-mail: ranadhir.radio@gmail.com; arijit@ece.iitkgp.ac.in).
This article has supplementary material provided by the
authors and color versions of one or more figures available at
https://doi.org/10.1109/TMTT.2022.3151887.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TMTT.2022.3151887
0018-9480 © 2022 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
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amount of dispersion distortion exists in the output of these
NTLs, which further increases with an increase in source and
load impedance mismatch. The transient characteristics of the
NTL have been analyzed based on the finite difference time
domain (FDTD) method as in [12] and [13].
Application of ultrawideband (UWB) systems like ground-
penetrating radar, through-wall imaging requires clean ringing
free pulses for detecting obscure and closely spaced weak
scatterers. Thereby, it is required to transmit a distortion-free
pulse from the source to the load end of such transmitting
systems for a desired source to load impedance ratio (IR) [14].
The distortionless transmission would require the magnitude
of the transfer function of the system over the frequency
band of interest to be fairly constant. However, an even
more critical requirement is the linearity of the transmission
phase along with flat group delay (GD) characteristics. The
nonlinear transmission phase generates large variability in GD,
thereby causing considerable ringing at the trailing edge of
the time-domain output pulse. Most of the conventional NTLs
have been shown here to have considerably nonlinear trans-
mission phase. Henceforth, it is quite challenging to design a
tapered transmission line with minimum dispersion distortion
at the output yet maintaining good reflection characteristics at
the input over the desired frequency band.
In this article, the GD and pulse dispersion distortion
have been extensively studied for the most commonly
used conventional exponential, Klopfenstein, parabolic, and
hyperbolic taper. An optimum tapered configuration has been
proposed which ensures distortion-free pulse transmission
at the output. A brief description of the proposed taper has
been given in Section II. Section III describes the analysis
and synthesis procedure of the proposed taper, considering
an ideal lossless transmission line model. This section
also addresses the comparison between the proposed taper
with conventional tapers in terms of their results based on
the circuit simulation. Section IV describes the full-wave
simulation and measured results of the proposed taper in
stripline configuration and compares the results with the
conventional tapers. A modification of the taper to tackle
the dispersive nature of microstrip configuration along
with its measured results has been discussed in Section V.
This section also compares the frequency and time-domain
behavior of the proposed microstrip line with the conventional
tapers. The final conclusions are presented in Section VI.
II. D ISCUSSION ON THE I MPEDANCE P ROFILE OF THE
C ONVENTIONAL AND P ROPOSED TAPER
The goal of an NTL taper is to ensure impedance matching
between the unequal source impedance (Z 1 ) and the load
CHATTERJEE AND DE: THEORY OF OPTIMUM TAPER FOR DISTORTIONLESS PULSE TRANSMISSION 2125

of the impedance profile of basi c taper has a maxima located

at the middle of the taper length, and gradually decreases to
zero on either side as seen from Fig. 2(c). This gradient profile
of the basi c taper can further be generalized by shifting the
position of the maxima.
First, let us consider the shift of the maxima of the
impedance gradient toward the load end, as described in (2).
Here, the position of the maxima of the impedance gradient
Fig. 1. Schematic of an arbitrary impedance taper.
can be controlled by the appropriate choice of the parameter
impedance (Z 2 , Z 2 = Z 1 ). Fig. 1 represents a schematic of an n (n > 0). Henceforth, this set of taper profiles is termed as
arbitrary impedance taper with respect to the normalized taper the set-n taper of order n as shown in Fig. 2(c) for n equals
length. Here, we consider a real source and load impedance. to 10 and 20
An ideal impedance taper would require no reflection at the   
dZ(x) 2πx x n
source end and maximum power transfer to the load end = −a cos +a , 0 ≤ x ≤ L. (2)
dx L L
in the frequency domain. This section first discusses the
conventional exponential [5], Klopfenstein [7], parabolic [11], To find the order n for which the maxima of the impedance
and hyperbolic taper [11] which has been designed mostly gradient is located at the desired position x 0 (where L/2 ≤
from a frequency domain viewpoint. The mathematical rep- x 0 ≤ L, i.e., toward the load end), one can differentiate (2) to
resentations of the conventional tapers have been described obtain the value of n 0 as
in Appendix A. The impedance profile of the conventional x   x 
0 0
tapers has been compared in Fig. 2(a) for source impedance n 0 = −2π cot π . (3)
L L
(Z 1 = 50 ) and load impedance (Z 2 = 100 ). The
corresponding slope of the impedance profile has been shown With this choice of gradient, corresponding impedance profile
in Fig. 2(b). It has been observed from Fig. 2(b), that the slope for even n can be expressed as discussed in Appendix B-A
of impedance at the source and the load end has a nonzero  n+1 n 
q n!(−1) 2
value. The Klopfenstein taper which provides the optimum Z (q) = aeven |n − F(q) + Z 1 . (4)
n+1 (2π)n+1
reflection characteristics also exhibits finite discontinuity in the
impedance profile. These shortcomings were also discussed Here, q = (x/L), is the normalized length, with 0 ≤ q ≤ 1,
by Hecken [15]. It has been observed from Fig. 2(a) that and
the Klopfenstein taper (with ripple factor = 40 dB) has a
F(q) = [sin(2πq) cos(2πq)|even|n − cos(2πq) sin(2πq)|even|n ]
discontinuous jump from 50 to 50.5  at the source end and
a jump from 99 to 100  at the load end of the impedance (5)
profile. The corresponding slope of the impedance has a
where the truncated sines and cosines are defined as
significant nonzero value at both the source and load end as
n
observed from Fig. 2(b). This discontinuity is responsible for 2
(2πq)2i
the dispersion distortion of the output time-domain signal. cos(2πq)|even|n = (−1)i (6a)
(2i )!
We will show later that all the conventional tapers suffer i=0
n
from poor time-domain characteristics. Henceforth, the ansatz 2
(2πq)2i−1
used here to design a nonuniform taper with a continuous sin(2πq)|even|n = (−1)i−1 . (6b)
(2i − 1)!
impedance along with the slope profile gradually achieving the i=1
exact terminal values over the given length of the transmission The parameter aeven for the even value of n is
line. We believe and establish later (in this article) that this
optimum taper eliminates the ringing completely to provide Z2 − Z1
aeven |n =  n
. (7)
distortionless output. 1
+ n!(−1) 2
sin(2π)|n
n+1 (2π )n+1

Proposed Taper Here, sin(2π)|n can be calculated by considering

In this article, an NTL taper of length L between an unequal q = 1 in (6b).
source (Z 1 ) and load (Z 2 ) impedance has been proposed whose Impedance variation of the set n taper for odd value of n
gradient of impedance profile approaches zero at both the can be expressed as given in Appendix B-B
source and load end. Mathematically, a particular choice of  n+1 n−1 n−1 
gradient of the impedance profile (Z (x)) can be represented q n!(−1) 2 n!(−1) 2
Z (q) = aodd |n − G(q) + + Z1
as n+1 (2π)n+1 (2π)n+1
  (8)
dZ(x) 2πx
= −a cos + a , 0 ≤ x ≤ L. (1)
dx L where
This tapered profile is referred to here as the basi c taper
profile. Here, a is constant whose value depends on the G(q) = [sin(2πq) sin(2πq)|odd|n + cos(2πq) cos(2πq)|odd|n ].
boundary conditions at the source and load end. The gradient (9)

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2126 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 70, NO. 4, APRIL 2022

Fig. 2. (a) Impedance profile and (b) slope of the impedance profile of the conventional tapers. (c) Slope of the impedance profile (m = n = 0 is the basic
taper) and (d) impedance profile of the proposed taper.

The truncated sines and cosines are defined as The truncated sines and cosines are as discussed in (6a) for
n+1 even parameter, with the parameter n replaced by m.
 2
(2πq)2i−1 The impedance variation of the set-m taper for odd value
sin(2πq)|odd|n = (−1)i−1 (10a)
i=1
(2i − 1)! of m can be expressed as discussed in Appendix B-D
 m−1 m−1 

n−1
m!(−1) 2 p m+1 m!(−1) 2
2
(2πq)2i Z ( p) = aodd |m G( p) − −
cos(2πq)|odd|n = (−1)i . (10b) (2π)m+1 m +1 (2π)m+1
(2i )!
i=0 + Z 2 (17).
The parameter aodd for the odd value of n is
where
Z2 − Z1
aodd |n =  n−1
. (11) G( p) = [sin(2π p) sin(2π p)|m + cos(2π p) cos(2π p)|m ].
1
n+1 + n!(−1) 2
(2π )n+1 (1 − cos(2π)|n ) (18)

Here, cos(2π)|n can be calculated by considering The parameter aodd for the odd value of m is
q = 1 in (10b). Z2 − Z1
aodd |m =  . (19)
Similarly, the maxima of the gradient can be shifted toward m−1

the source end as given by (12). Here, the position of the

1
m+1 + m!(−1) 2
(2π )m+1 (1 − cos(2π)|m )
maxima of the impedance gradient can be controlled by the
The truncated sines and cosines are as discussed in (10a)
appropriate choice of the parameter m (m > 0). Henceforth,
for odd parameter, with the parameter n replaced by m. The
this set of taper profiles is termed as the set-m taper of order
impedance profile for set-m and set-n tapers are shown in
m as shown in Fig. 2(c) for m equals 10 and 20
  Fig. 2(d). The impedance profile of the basi c taper can be
dZ(x) 2π x x m obtained by substituting n = 0 in (4) (or m = 0 in (14)) is
= −a cos +a 1− , 0 ≤ x ≤ L. (12)
dx L L given as
To find the order m for which the maxima of the impedance Z (q) = Z 1 ((1 − q) − sin 2π(1 − q)) + Z 2 (q − sin 2πq).
gradient is located at the desired position x 0 (where 0 ≤ x 0 ≤ (20)
(L/2), i.e., toward the source end), one can differentiate (12)
to obtain the value of m 0 as Section III discusses the drawbacks of conventional tapers
 x0   x0  and improvement provided by the proposed taper by analyzing
m 0 = −2π 1 − cot π 1 − . (13) their frequency and time-domain characteristics.
L L
With this choice of gradient, corresponding impedance profile
III. F REQUENCY AND T IME D OMAIN A NALYSIS OF NTL S
for even m can be expressed as discussed in Appendix B-C
 m  A lossless ideal transmission line model has been considered
pm+1 m!(−1) 2 to analyze the time and frequency domain behavior of the
Z ( p) = aeven |m − + F( p) + Z 2 . (14)
m+1 (2π)m+1 NTLs described in Section II. An impedance transition of
length 40 mm from 50  (Z 1 ) to 100  (Z 2 ) has been
Here, p = 1 − (x/L) = (1 − q), is the normalized length from
considered throughout the analysis. For time-domain analysis,
the load end, 0 ≤ p ≤ 1
a Gaussian monopolar pulse has been considered as an input
F( p) = [sin(2π p) cos(2π p)|m − cos(2π p) sin(2π p)|m ]. signal where the output can be expressed as
 2
(15) t −τ
− Td
y(t) = A p e . (21)
The parameter aeven for the even value of m is
Here, A p is the peak value of the output, T is related to the
Z2 − Z1 pulsewidth of the input signal and τd is the time delay. The
aeven |m =  . (16)
m
pulse [Fig. 3(a)] with T of 85 ps has a frequency spectrum
1
+ m!(−1) 2
sin(2π)|m
m+1 (2π )m+1 between dc to 4 GHz [corresponding to −10 dB power

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CHATTERJEE AND DE: THEORY OF OPTIMUM TAPER FOR DISTORTIONLESS PULSE TRANSMISSION
Fig. 3. (a) Gaussian pulse. (b) Normalized power spectrum.
spectrum as shown in Fig. 3(b)] and has been widely used for
UWB applications [14]. It will be shown here that the Klopfen-
stein taper provides good impedance matching although its
GD varies widely over the desired frequency range, thereby
leading to poor time-domain characteristics. This shortcoming
motivates us to propose a new kind of nonuniform taper profile
that offers optimum time-domain output. In the following
sections, we first analyze the conventional tapers, highlighting
some of their shortcomings, following which we analyze the
performance of the proposed taper.
A. Analysis of the Conventional Tapers
The parabolic and the hyperbolic taper does not pro-
vide good impedance matching properties in the frequency
domain like the exponential and the Klopfenstein taper as
observed from Fig. 4(a). The Klopfenstein taper provides
optimum equi-ripple return loss characteristics over the desired
passband. Therefore, the main focus in the frequency and
time-domain analysis is the Klopfenstein taper over the other
conventional tapers. Fig. 4(b) shows that the impedance match-
ing in the frequency domain improves as the length of the
Klopfenstein taper increases with a prefixed passband ripple
factor ( p). Here, p is chosen as 40 dB. p (expressed in
decibel) signifies the level of return loss characteristics in the
passband. The return loss becomes poorer with a decrease
in p. On the contrary to the frequency domain analysis where
the return loss characteristics improve with the increase in
length of the taper, there is a sharp degradation in the time-
domain characteristics. Fig. 4(c) shows that with the increase
in length of the Klopfenstein taper, the time-domain output is
considerably distorted due to the presence of the trailing edge
ringing. One can now look into the transmission characteristics
in the frequency domain. GD which is the derivative of the
transmission phase varies widely over the observed frequency
range with an increase in length of the taper as shown in
Fig. 1(a) of the supplementary section. GD physically implies
the time taken for the transmission of energy from the source
to the load end. Distortionless pulse transmission requires
flatness in the GD over the desired frequency range, such
that the energy transmitted from the source at each frequency
reaches the load with similar delay, thereby retaining the pulse
shape. Next, we look into the performance of the Klopfenstein
taper of fixed length 40 mm for various prefixed passband
ripple factor ( p).
It is evident from Fig. 1(b) of the supplementary section,
that with the decrease in p, even though the return loss
characteristics degrade, the passband shifts toward the lower
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2127
frequency range. Furthermore, it can be seen from Fig. 4(d)
that the GD varies widely with the decrease in the passband
ripple factor ( p) over the observed frequency range. This is
visualized in Fig. 4(e), where the peak value of the undesired
ringing in the time-domain output increases considerably with
the decrease in the passband ripple factor ( p) and with the
increase of the taper length. Fig. 1(c) of the supplementary
section shows the time-domain output variation for different
p. For larger lengths, the peak value of the ringing is almost
constant (at −30 dB) irrespective of the value of the passband
ripple factor p. These observations suggest that the length
of the Klopfenstein taper must be small enough to provide a
reduced ringing at the trailing edge of the time-domain output
at the cost of degradation in its return loss characteristics over
the desired frequency range. This provides a restriction in the
choice of the length of the Klopfenstein taper.
B. Analysis of the Proposed Taper
We consider here the proposed taper governed by (2) for set-
n and (12) for the set-m taper of length 40 mm with the same
source and load impedance as before. The trailing edge ringing
of the output can be controlled by choosing an appropriate
order of m and n. The variation of the ringing and GD in the
case of set-m and set-n taper for different orders are shown in
Figs. 2 and 3 of the supplementary section. Figs. 2(a) and 3(a)
of the supplementary section show the variation for various
order m where the minimum amount of ringing has been
obtained for m-opt equals 20. Similarly, Figs. 2(b) and 3(b)
of the supplementary section shows the variation for various
orders of n where the ringing is completely eliminated beyond
n equals 40. Set-n taper with n equals 40 and 50 have similar
time-domain output characteristics. It is also to be noted that
with increase in n, the peak value of the time-domain output
and the average return loss over the desired frequency range
degrades. A choice of n equals 40 balances all these tradeoffs
judiciously which ensures considerably decent time-domain
output compared to the conventional (Klopfenstein and expo-
nential) ones. Fig. 5(a) compares the time-domain ringing of
set-m and set-n taper for various orders. It can be seen that
the set-n taper is much less sensitive to the order variation.
One can now study the variation in the length of the taper
for a fixed choice of m-opt and n-opt. The variation of the
time-domain output signal for different lengths of the taper in
the case of m-opt and n-opt are shown in Fig. 4(a) and (b) of
the supplementary section, respectively. It has been observed
that the ringing at the trailing edge of the time-domain output
signal becomes prominent after a length of 50 mm for set-
m taper and 80 mm for set-n taper. It is to be noted that as
discussed earlier the Klopfenstein taper required a length of
less than 10 mm with a passband ripple factor ( p) of 80 dB
to have decent time-domain characteristics. Fig. 1(d) of the
supplementary section compares the undesired time-domain
ringing at the output for various pulsewidths of the input sig-
nal. For L equals 20 mm of the Klopfenstein taper, the ringing
decreased with an increase in pulsewidth but is significantly
higher compared to the proposed one. Henceforth, the set-
n and set-m taper can effectively minimize the trailing edge
2128 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 70, NO. 4, APRIL 2022

Fig. 4. (a) Return loss of the conventional tapers, (b) return loss, (c) time-domain output signal, (d) GD, and (e) peak value of the ringing of the output
signal for Klofenstein taper by varying length (L) and ripple factor ( p).

Fig. 5. Variation of (a) peak value of the ringing for different order of set-m and set-n taper (L = 40 mm), (b) peak value of the ringing for different length
of the conventional and proposed taper, (c) comparison of ringing characteristics of tapers in terms of the variation of T , (d) return loss comparison between
m-opt = 20 and n-opt = 40 for various length, and (e) peak value of the desired time-domain output for varying length of the proposed taper for m-opt and
n-opt.

ringing at the time-domain output over a much larger length

variation than the Klopfenstein taper and can provide even
better time-domain output with almost no ringing. Fig. 5(b)
shows the peak amplitude of the undesired ringing for various
lengths of both the tapers. It can be concluded that set-n
taper provides a better time-domain output over a wider length
variation than set-m taper. For the other conventional tapers
ringing increases considerably with length and reaches the
level of −30 dB with respect to the input signal. However,
the return loss characteristics of set-m taper with order m-opt
is slightly better than the set-n taper of order n-opt as can
be seen from Fig. 5(d). For both the sets of taper, the return
loss degrades with the decrease in the length. Hence, it is
not always advisable to go for smaller length tapers (for
example, less than 10 mm) keeping in mind the impedance
matching characteristics. The peak value of the time-domain
output of set-m taper (m-opt) is also slightly higher than the
set-n taper (n-opt) as can be observed from Fig. 5(e). Thus,
it can then be concluded that the set-n taper is less sensitive to
the variation in order and provides distortionless time-domain
response over a larger length of the taper with considerably flat
GD. Set-m taper (m-opt) provides better impedance matching
characteristics, therefore a little higher peak value of the output
compared to the set-n taper.
C. Comparison Between the Proposed and Conventional
Taper
A comparison between proposed, Klopfenstein, exponential,
parabolic, and hyperbolic taper of length 40 mm has been
shown in Fig. 6(a) in terms of the GD performance. It has been
observed that the proposed taper (m-opt, n-opt) yields flatter
GD characteristics than the conventional tapers. Fig. 6(b)
compares the time-domain output signal of the NTLs. The
proposed taper provides negligible ringing in comparison to
the conventional tapers. Fig. 5(c) compares the peak value of
Fig. 6. Comparison of (a) GD and (b) time-domain output of the proposed,
and the conventional tapers.
ringing of the conventional tapers with respect to the proposed
one over various pulsewidths of the input signal. It can be
seen that the proposed taper can be used for a wide variation
of input pulse with negligible ringing at the output. The
amount of ringing can be mathematically quantified by ringing
rejection ratio (RRR). RRR can be defined as a ratio between
the energy contained in the sidelobe of the output signal to
the energy contained in the main lobe of the output signal.
Another important parameter to characterize the time-domain
response is the cross correlation (CCR) efficiency of the NTL.
Consider the input pulse x(t), t ∈ (0, T ). The output of the
NTL is denoted by (21). One can define the CCR efficiency
between the input signal to the output signal as
τd +T
τ x(t − τd )y(t)dt
Efficiency (CCR)  max d T . (22)
τd x 2 (t)dt
0
Here, τd is the delay of the input signal, to ensure the
maximum energy overlap between the input and the output
signal.
The CCR efficiency and the RRR for each NTLs have been
tabulated in Table I. Table I also quantifies the variation of
GD over the desired frequency range and the peak value of
the output for different NTLs. The proposed taper is much

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CHATTERJEE AND DE: THEORY OF OPTIMUM TAPER FOR DISTORTIONLESS PULSE TRANSMISSION 2129

TABLE I
T IME -D OMAIN C HARACTERISTICS FOR THE NTL TAPERS

Fig. 7. Variation of (a) GD and (b) time-domain output for different source
to load IR of the proposed set-n taper.
TABLE II
GD 1 VARIATION OF THE TAPERS

superior compared to all of them with slightly reduced (by

0.07 dB) peak value of the output signal as seen from Table I.
D. Analysis of the Proposed Taper for Varying IR Between
Source and Load
The frequency and the time-domain behavior of the pro-
posed taper of length 40 mm for different source to load
IRs have been analyzed here. Because of the less sensitivity
and better ringing rejection ability of set-n taper, we consider
here the case for n-opt. As before the source impedance (Z 1 )
is maintained at 50  while the load impedance is varied
from 5  (IR of 1:0.1) to 300  (IR of 1:6). The variation
in GD over the desired frequency range for various ranges of
IR is shown in Fig. 7(a). Note that the GD is considerably
flat over a decade of load impedance variation, between the Fig. 8. Flowchart for the design of the NTL taper.
IR range of 1:0.3–1:3, beyond which the performance slowly
degrades and is much superior to the conventional ones as here the impedance profile of the set-n taper ((4) for n even
discussed in Table II. The time-domain output signal of n-opt, and (8) for n odd) and set-m taper ((14) for m even and (17)
as shown in Fig. 7(b) shows that the trailing edge ringing is for m odd) of length L for a given source impedance Z 1 and
almost negligible for such a wide range of load impedance load impedance Z 2 . Consider a Gaussian pulse as the input
variation whereas the time-domain output of the conventional signal. The maximum frequency range ( f 0 ) corresponds to
tapers shows a substantial amount of ringing for different IR −20 dB of the normalized power spectrum of the input pulse.
as shown in Fig. 5 in the supplementary section. The proposed taper has been subdivided into piecewise linear
In this section, we have analyzed the performance of NTLs (LNTLs) subsections rather than piecewise uniform
the new NTL taper which provides optimum time-domain subsections to obtain faster convergence [16]. The number
characteristics and is less sensitive to the length variation, of LNTL subsections has been chosen to ensure that the
as well as impedance variation in comparison to the NTL time-domain results such as peak value of ringing and peak
tapers of existing literature. In Section IV, we have practically value of the output have reached significant accuracy. Our
implemented the proposed NTL taper in stripline configuration empirical study (as seen from Fig. 6 of the supplementary
to justify the proposed optimality. section) suggests that the length of each LNTL subsection
should be less than (λ0 /40), where λ0 is the effective wave-
IV. I MPLEMENTATION OF P ROPOSED TAPER IN S TRIPLINE length corresponding to the maximum frequency range ( f 0 ).
The design guidelines for the implementation of the pro- For each section, the width profile can be calculated by con-
posed NTL are described as a flowchart in Fig. 8. We consider sidering the impedance variation, the height h, and dielectric

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2130 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 70, NO. 4, APRIL 2022

TABLE III
RRR FOR D IFFERENT O RDER n IN S TRIPLINE

Fig. 9. Comparison of (a) time-domain output signal and (b) GD in stripline

configuration.

constant r of the substrate for the stripline/microstrip line

implementation [17].
TABLE IV
A. Full Wave Simulation of Stripline Configuration T IME -D OMAIN C HARACTERISTICS FOR S TRIPLINE
A stripline configuration of the proposed taper has been
implemented here for 50–100  impedance variation on FR4
(r = 4.3, h = 1.6 mm, and tanδ = 0.025) substrate.
The full-wave simulation in the time-domain of the proposed
stripline was performed using CST Microwave Studio. The
variation of the output signal and GD for set-n and set-m
taper by varying the order of the taper has been shown in the
supplementary section (Figs. 7–11). Table III of this section
shows the variation of the RRR for various order n. This table
suggests that n equals 40 is the optimum choice of order n
Fig. 10(a). Deembedding using TRL calibration has been used
as RRR is minimum for a wide range of length (L = 40 mm
to obtain the scattering parameters of the proposed fabricated
and L = 100 mm) and source to load IR (1:0.2, 1:2, 1:6).
stripline taper. The measurement of the scattering parameters
Tables II and III of the supplementary section provides CCR
of the proposed stripline has been done in the VNA (E5071C
efficiency and GD variation of the set-n taper of various order
ENA series). These measured scattering parameters are then
for L equals 40 and 100 mm, respectively, in detail. It has
converted to the scattering parameters of the proposed taper
been observed from Fig. 11(a) and (b) of the supplementary
having 50–100  port impedance variation. These measured
section, the optimized output for set-m taper has been obtained
S-parameters are then multiplied with the spectrum of the input
for m-opt as 30. This m-opt for stripline implementation
pulse, followed by inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT) to
is different from the case of the ideal transmission line,
obtain the time-domain output signal. Section IV-C discusses
as the set-m taper is more sensitive to the taper architecture.
the analysis of the measured result of the proposed taper.
The GD and ringing characteristics of the proposed taper in
stripline configuration have been studied and compared with C. Analysis of the Measured Results for Stripline
conventional tapers in Fig. 9 for IR equals to 1:2. It has been
The return loss characteristics of the proposed fabricated
observed that the proposed taper yields improved time-domain
stripline configuration of length 40 mm having an impedance
output with ringing characteristics better than 20 dB and
transformation between 50 and 100  have been shown in
flatter GD variation in comparison to the conventional tapers.
Fig. 10(b). The measured return loss of the proposed stripline
The CCR efficiency, RRR, and GD variation of the NTLs in
has been compared with the return loss of the conventional
stripline configuration has been tabulated in Table IV. Because
tapers in stripline configuration having the same length as
of the reduced sensitivity of the set-n tapers, a stripline
shown in Fig. 10(b). The GD characteristics of the proposed
implementation of order n-opt, having a length of 40 mm has
taper have been compared with the other nonuniform tapers in
been considered for fabrication using the same substrate. The
Fig. 9(b). It has been observed that the measured GD of the
experimental procedure is described in the following section.
proposed taper follows closely with the full-wave simulated
results and is fairly constant over the frequency range, unlike
B. Experimental Procedures for Stripline Configuration the conventional tapers. Fig. 10(c) compares the measured
The terminal impedance of the two ports of the vector output amplitude at the trailing edge of the time-domain output
network analyzer (VNA) is 50 . Therefore, the terminal signal of the proposed stripline taper with the conventional
impedance of the proposed stripline has to be converted to ones in stripline configuration. It has been observed that the
50  at both ends. This is done by adding a 50  stripline measured output shows around 25 dB improvement in ringing
of known length at both ends of the proposed stripline. Both over the conventional tapers and matches closely with the
the proposed stripline taper and thru-reflect-line (TRL) setup simulated results. The measured efficiency, RRR, and GD
have been fabricated on the low-cost FR4 substrate as shown in variation have been tabulated in Table IV.

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CHATTERJEE AND DE: THEORY OF OPTIMUM TAPER FOR DISTORTIONLESS PULSE TRANSMISSION
Fig. 10. (a) Measurement setup, comparison of (b) measured return loss, and (c) time-domain output signal of the measured proposed, conventional tapers
in stripline configuration.
Fig. 11. (a) Schematic of modified set-n taper and (b) measurement setup
for microstrip implementation.
V. I MPLEMENTATION OF P ROPOSED
TAPER IN M ICROSTRIP
Following the similar design guidelines as discussed in
the earlier section as in Fig. 8, we have considered the
implementation of the NTL taper in a more popular microstrip
configuration. Unlike the case of stripline which follows
closely with the ideal transmission line model (i.e., TEM
mode), the microstrip line provides a frequency dispersive
nature due to its quasi-TEM characteristics [17]. The effective
dielectric constant of the substrate of the microstrip line
has frequency-dependent characteristics that aggravates the
problem of nonlinearity of the transmission phase, variabil-
ity in the GD, and ringing in the output signal. Therefore
a straightforward implementation of the taper in microstrip
does not provide optimum time-domain output. Section V-A
discusses a methodology to tackle this dispersive effect.
A. Full Wave Simulation of Microstrip Line Configuration
A 50–100  proposed microstrip line taper has been
designed on the same low-cost FR4 substrate as used for
stripline. The time-domain output of the proposed microstrip
line taper for different values of the order n and m are shown in
Fig. 12(a) and (b), respectively, in the supplementary section.
As in the case of stripline, the optimum values of order m
and n are 30 and 40, respectively, for the microstrip line
configuration. The peak value of ringing is optimum for m
and n are 30 and 40, respectively. We choose n-opt equals
40 due to its less sensitivity. The time-domain output of the
proposed taper is compared with the conventional Klopfenstein
and Exponential taper of the same length in Fig. 12(a). It has
been observed that although the amplitude of the ringing gets
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2131
reduced in the case of the proposed taper, the duration of
the ringing is enhanced. Therefore, a modification has been
proposed to reduce both the peak value of the ringing as
well as its duration. The NTL taper has been subdivided
into sections, with the first transition from 50  (Z 1 ) to
an intermediate impedance Z im , following which a second
transition from Z im to 100  (Z 2 ) as illustrated in Fig. 11(a).
It has been observed that by subdividing the taper architecture
into such intermediate transitions, provides a way to tackle the
dispersive nature of the microstrip line. The peak amplitude of
ringing is −29 dB in the case of the Klopfenstein taper. The
proposed microstrip taper with n-opt provides only 5 dB of
improvement in ringing. A choice of Z im equals 45  provides
an improvement by more than 10 dB for the peak amplitude
of ringing. Fig. 12(a) shows the comparison for other choices
of Z im . The CCR efficiency, RRR, and the GD variation for
this modified taper have been tabulated in Table V, which
shows significant improvement in the time-domain results.
A similar fabrication and measurement procedure has been
carried forward for the proposed microstrip line implemen-
tation (Z im = 45 ), as in the case of stripline discussed
in Section IV-B. The measurement setup for the microstrip
implementation is shown in Fig. 11(b).
B. Analysis of the Measured Results
The return loss characteristics of the fabricated modified
microstrip line of length 40 mm having an impedance transfor-
mation between 50 and 100  with an intermediate impedance
(Z im = 45 ) have been shown in Fig. 12(b). Fig. 12(b) also
compares the measured return loss of the proposed microstrip
taper with the simulated return loss of the conventional tapers
having the same length. The measured GD characteristics of
the proposed taper have been compared with the simulated GD
characteristics of the modified microstrip taper and the conven-
tional tapers as observed from Fig. 12(c). The simulated and
the measured GD characteristics of the proposed modification
show less variability than the conventional tapers and have
been quantified in Table V. Fig. 12(d) shows the simulated
and measured time-domain output amplitude variation of the
proposed microstrip taper along with conventional ones. The
ringing at the trailing edge of the simulated and measured
time-domain output of the proposed microstrip (Z im = 45 )
has been compared in Fig. 13 of the supplementary section.
2132 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 70, NO. 4, APRIL 2022

Fig. 12. (a) Time-domain output for different intermediate impedance (Z im ), comparison of (b) return loss, (c) GD, and (d) output signal at the trailing edge.

TABLE V by introducing an intermediate transition to tackle the disper-

T IME -D OMAIN C HARACTERISTICS FOR M ICROSTRIP L INE sion in the microstrip implementation.

A PPENDIX A
The impedance profile of the conventional tapers of length
L with terminal impedance Z 1 and Z 2 are discussed here.

A. Parabolic Taper [11]

The impedance profile can be expressed as
 
Z2 − Z1 2
Z (x) = Z 1 + x , 0 ≤ x ≤ L. (23)
L2

B. Hyperbolic Taper [11]

It has been observed that the measured output shows the The impedance profile of the Hyperbolic taper is
betterment over the simulated output of the conventional tapers       
having the same length. This figure shows that the peak ringing Z2 + Z1 Z2 − Z1 x
Z (x) = + tanh 6 − 0.5 .
of the measured output is −43 dB, which is 15 dB lower than 2 2 L
the peak ringing of the conventional tapers. The efficiency (24)
and RRR have been improved in the case of the proposed
microstrip taper as compared to the conventional tapers as C. Exponential Taper [5]
observed from Table V. We have thereby established that
Exponential tapers have often been used in practical appli-
by introducing an optimum intermediate impedance variation
cations due to its easy formulation and can be expressed as
(Z im ) which leads to a nonuniform, nonmonotonic taper pro-   
file, one can tackle the dispersion nature of the microstrip line 1 Z2
Z (x) = Z 1 exp ln x . (25)
with reduced distortion of time-domain output. L Z1

VI. C ONCLUSION D. Klopfenstein Taper [7]

The Klopfenstein taper provides optimum return loss char-
A theory of optimum taper for distortionless pulse transmis-
acteristics over a particular passband in the frequency domain
sion has been proposed in this article, based on the ansatz
compared to the other conventional tapers is given as
that the impedance profile and its gradient be continuous at  
both the source and the load end. The proposed taper has 1 Z2   
1 2
ln Z1 2x
been fabricated and measured in both stripline and microstrip ln Z (x) = ln (Z 1 Z 2 ) + A 
2
− 1, A
line configurations to justify the optimality. For the ideal 2 cosh(A) L
transmission line model as well as the measured case, the (26a)
performance of the newly proposed taper provides negligible where
ringing at the trailing edge of the time-domain output with
(u, A) = −(−u, A)
preferably flat GD variation in comparison to the conventional   
ones in the existing literature. The taper provides optimum
u I1 A 1 − y 2
results for a wide variation of source and load IR, pulsewidth, =    dy, |u| ≤ 1. (26b)
and taper length. The performance has been quantified in 0 A 1 − y2
terms of three newly proposed parameters as RRR, CCR
I1 is the first kind of modified Bessel function of the first order.
efficiency, and GD variation. Closed-form expression has been
A is the quantity which controls the amount of ripple in the
provided here for the proposed optimum taper by introducing
passband and is related to the ripple factor ( p in decibel)
the truncated sine and cosine functions. A nonmonotonic,
nonuniform extension of the proposed taper has been proposed p = 20log10 (cosh(A)). (27)

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CHATTERJEE AND DE: THEORY OF OPTIMUM TAPER FOR DISTORTIONLESS PULSE TRANSMISSION 2133

A PPENDIX B The term associated with the cosine term of (33) can be
expressed as
The impedance profile of the proposed set-n and set-m taper  n−1 
of normalized length 1 having order n and m, respectively, u u n−3 u1
+ · · · + (−1) 2 −1
n
−
can be obtained by using the following procedure. The source (n − 1)! (n − 3)! 1!
and the load impedance has been considered as Z 1 (located at  n−1
u u n−3
= −(−1) 2 (−1) 2 −1 + (−1)( 2 −1)−1
n n n
z = 0) and Z 2 (located at z = 1) as shown in Fig. 1. (n − 1)! (n − 3)!
1
u
+ · · · + (−1)0
A. Impedance Profile F(z) of Set-n Taper for Even n 1!
n
The slope of the set-n taper at the normalized position z  −(−1) 2 [sin(u)|n ]. (35)
from the source end can be written as Equation (35) is the expression of sin u truncated to the order
d F(z) n and is denoted by sin(u)|n (truncated sine). Substituting (34)
= (−a cos 2π z + a)(z)n . (28) and (35) into (33) we can write
dz
 
Integrating (28) we obtain the impedance profile n
Jn (u) = n!(−1) sin(u) cos(u)|n − cos(u) sin(u)|n . (36)
2



F(z) = a z n dz − In (z) (29) Using (30) and substituting the boundary conditions
(F(z)|z=0 = Z 1 and F(z)|z=1 = Z 2 ), the impedance profile
where can be expressed in terms of truncated sine and cosine as

 (n+1) n 
z n!(−1) 2
In (z) = z n cos(2π z)dz. (30) F(z) = a − sin(2π z) cos(2π z)|n
(n + 1) (2π)n+1

Substituting, u = 2π z, we have − cos(2π z) sin(2π z)|n + Z 1 (37)

1
In (u) = (u n cos u)du where
(2π)n+1
  Z2 − Z1
1 a=  .
= Jn (u). (31) n
(2π)n+1 1
+ n!(−1) 2
sin(2π)|n
n+1 (2π )n+1
Note

B. Impedance Profile F(z) of Set-n Taper for Odd n

Jn (u) = (u n cos u)du
The last integral of (32) can be recursively computed using
= u n sin u + nu

n−1
cos u integration by parts for odd value of n and can be compactly
expressed as
− n(n − 1) u n−2 cos udu]. (32)  n 1
u u n−2 (n−1) u
Jn (u) = n! − + · · · + (−1) 2 sinu
The last integral of (32) can be recursively computed using n! (n − 2)! 1!
integration by parts for even value of n and can be compactly  n−1 0
u u n−3 (n−1) u
expressed as + − − · · · + (−1) 2
(n − 1)! (n − 3)! 0!
 n 0 
u u n−2 n u
Jn (u) = n! − + · · · + (−1) 2 sin u × cosu . (38)
n! (n − 2)! 0!
 n−1 
u u n−3 u1
− · · · + (−1) 2 −1 The factor associated with the sine and cosine term of (38)
n
+ −
(n − 1)! (n − 3)! 1! can be expressed by the truncated sines and cosines as in (34)

and (35). Therefore we can write
× cos u . (33)  
(n−1)
Jn (u) = n!(−1) 2 sin(u) sin(u)|n + cos(u) cos(u)|n . (39)
The factor associated with the sine term can be expressed as
 n 0
Using (30) and substituting the boundary conditions
u u n−2 n u
(F(z)|z=0 = Z 1 and F(z)|z=1 = Z 2 ), the impedance profile
− + · · · + (−1) 2
n! (n − 2)! 0! can be expressed in terms of truncated sine and cosine as
 0
n n u
n
n
−1 u
n−2
0u  (n+1) n n
= (−1) (−1)
2 2 + (−1) 2 + · · · + (−1) z n!(−1) 2 n!(−1) 2
n! (n − 2)! 0! F(z) = a + −
n (n + 1) (2π)n+1 (2π)n+1
 (−1) 2 [cos(u)|n ]. (34)  
× sin(2π z) sin(2π z)|n + cos(2π z) cos(2π z)|n
Equation (34) is the expression of cos u truncated to
the order n and is denoted by cos(u)|n (truncated cosine). + Z2 (40)

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2134 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 70, NO. 4, APRIL 2022

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F( p) = b − pm d p + Im ( p) (43) [9] H. Curtins and A. V. Shah, “Step response of lossless nonuniform
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D. Impedance Profile F(z) of Set-m Taper for Odd m
For odd value of m the derivations are similar like odd value Ranadhir Chatterjee (Student Member, IEEE)
of n. Using the boundary conditions (F( p)| p=1 = Z 1 and received the B.Sc. degree (Hons.) in physics and the
B.Tech. and M.Tech. degrees in radio physics and
F( p)| p=0 = Z 2 ) as in (40) electronics from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata,
 India, in 2008, 2011, and 2013, respectively. He is
p (m+1)
m−1 m−1
m!(−1) 2 m!(−1) 2 currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree with the Depart-
F( p) = b − − +
(m + 1) (2π)m+1 (2π)m+1 ment of Electronics and Electrical Communication
 Engineering, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India.

× sin(2π p) sin(2π p)|m + cos(2π p) cos(2π p)|m

+ Z2 (45)
Arijit De (Member, IEEE) received the B.Tech.
where degree in electronics and electrical communica-
Z2 − Z1 tion engineering from IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur,
b=  m−1
. India, in 2004, and the Ph.D. degree from Syracuse
University, Syracuse, NY, USA, in 2010.
1
m+1 + m!(−1) 2
(2π )m+1 (1 − cos(2π)|m ) He is currently an Associate Professor with the
Department of Electronics and Electrical Communi-
The closed-form expressions of the impedance profile of the cation Engineering, IIT Kharagpur.
proposed tapers has been validated by numerical methods as
discussed in Section VIII of the supplementary section.

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