Module 1

Major Pests

Welcome to module 1! This module

comprises two units. Unit I – Introduction and Unit
II – Major pest group. Lessons in unit I include the
basic concepts of Crop Protection which discusses
about the status of the world and Philippines in
terms of population and food supply and Role of
crop protection in increasing food supply. In
addition, it seeks to answer the question “What is a
pest?”, economic importance of pests and various
disciplines involved in crop protection.
Unit II also consist of three lessons which
discusses about the plant pathogens or those
microorganisms that causes plant diseases and
other disciplines involved in plant pathology,
weeds which introduces you to the definition and
concept of weeds, characteristics and classification
of weeds, and effect of weeds on Human affairs.
Moreover, this unit also includes Arthropod and
Vertebrate pests which help you to define the term
“Entomology”, know the characteristics of insects,
how insects affect man, insect orders and know the
vertebrate pests.

Objectives
At the completion of this module, you should be able to:
 Understand, discuss and explain the principles and concepts involved in
crop protection.
 Discuss and explain the definition, economic importance, concepts and
basics of plant pathology, weed science and entomology.
 Understand, discuss and explain the characteristics and classification of
plant diseases, weeds and arthropods and vertebrate pests.

This module discusses the following lessons:

Unit I
Lesson 1. Basic Concepts of Crop Protection
Unit II
Lesson 1. Plant Pathogens
Lesson 2. Weeds
Lesson 3. Arthropod and Vertebrate Pests
Unit I 1
Module

Introduction

Lesson 1
Learning Objectives
Basic Concepts of Crop Protection
❖ Recognize the food
situation in the growing
world population Crop protection deals with the nature, concepts
❖ Describe the role of crop and possible management control of pests which caused
protection in increasing several losses in agricultural crops and animals.
food supply Examples of pests are weeds, vertebrate and
❖ Define pest invertebrate pests such as insects and rodents and
❖ Discuss the various pathogens such as bacteria, fungi and nematodes. This
discipline involved in crop lesson introduces you to the basic concepts of crop
protection protection. We begin with population and food supply
status the of the world and Philippines and the role of
crop protection in increasing food supply. Moreover,
this lesson helps you to define and identify kinds of
pests, economic importance of pests, and recognize
various disciplines involved in crop protection.

Activity
Instruction: Terms below are Scientific names of different pests, it could be
Pathogens (Plant Pathology), Weeds (Weed Science), or
Insect pests (Entomology). Arrange the following terms to the
table provided.

1. Meloidogyne incognita 6. Tridax procumbens

2. Cyperus rotundus 7. Rhopalosiphum maydis (Fitch)
3. Helicoverpa armigera 8. Bactrocera dorsalis
4. Pectobacterium carotovorum 9. Pistia stratiotes
5. Fusarium oxysporum 10. Ralstonia solanacearum

11. Echinocloa glabrescens

12. Echinocloa colona
13. Ostrinia furnacales
14. Locusta migratoria manilensis
15. Mycosphaerella fijiensis

Entomology Weed Science Plant Pathology

1. 1. 1.
2. 2. 2.
3. 3. 3.
4. 4. 4.
5. 5. 5.
Basic Concepts of Crop Protection

World Population and Food Supply

Definition of terms:

 Per capita: for each head; per individual/per person.

 Kcal: kilocalorie; 1,000 calories where 1 calorie = 4.183 joules (energy
unit used for human functioning and activities).
 Percent Daily Value: the percentage of a nutrient that a one serving of
food can provide to a person based on a 2,000-calorie daily diet
requirement of healthy adults.
 Food security is a situation that exists when all people, at all times, have
physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious
food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active
and healthy life” (FAO, 2002).
 Food insecurity is a situation that exists when people do not have
adequate physical, social or economic access to food (FAO, 2002)

Fig. 1. World Population

Fig. 2. World Food Situation

 World Population and Food Supply

 World Population (as of 2017): 7.5304 Billion

 Population Growth Rate (2017): 1.16%
 Life expectancy (2015): 71.66 years
 Total Agricultural Land Area (as of 2015): 48.6265 Million km2
 Food Supply (cereal, 2016): 2.608 Billion tons (USDA)
 Beef and Veal Production (2017): 61.56 Million metric tons
 Poultry (Meat, 2017): 90.72 Million metric tons

Philippine Population and Food Supply

 Philippine Population (as of

2018): 104.9181M (ranked 13
most populous countries)
 Population Growth Rate (2018):
1.52%
 Population density per km2:
357
 Life Expectancy (2015): 68.41
years
 Total land area: 298,170 km2
 Total Agricultural Land area
(2002): 9.67 Million Hectares,
7.19 Million Hectares (2012)
 Food Production
❖ Palay (2016): 17.63 Fig. 3. Philippine population
million metric tons
❖ Corn: 7.22 million metric
tons
❖ Hog: 2.23 million metric
tons
❖ Chicken: 1.67 million
metric tons

Role of Crop Protection in increasing Food Supply

Annual crop losses worldwide, 2002 data (Agrios 2005):

 Attainable crop production = $1.5 trillion

 Actual crop production = $950 billion
 Crop production without crop protection = $455 billion
 Losses to crop production = $550 billion
 Losses prevented by crop protection = $415 billion

Four major advances in agriculture have significantly

increased food production:
 The introduction of mineral fertilizer.
 Agricultural mechanization
 Genetic research
 The use of pesticides and plant growth regulators
What is a Pest?
 Any organism that causes damage to
agricultural crops and animals;
 Examples: weeds, vertebrate and
invertebrate pests such as insects and
rodents, and pathogens such as bacteria
and nematodes.
Kinds of Pests
Key pest or Major pest: organism
that is economically important due
to its significant reduction in crop
quantity (i.e. yield) and quality
every season.
Potential pest: organism that
currently does not cause significant
damage to crops under the
prevailing farming system but has
the potential to become a key pest if
farming system is modified.
A. B.
C. D.
Fig. 4. Examples of pests. (A) Rodents,
(B) Weeds, (C) Fungi, (D) Insect.
Occasional pest: organism that cause
economic problem to crop production
once in a while when its population
increase due to several factors such as
the environment, but is not always a
problem every season.
Migrant pest: organism that is
mobile which has the means to
transfer from one place to another,
and once in a while, causes significant
or serious damage to crops at a short
period of time.
Economic Importance of Pests

❖ Importance of pests to agriculture: Generally, pests directly reduce crop

quantity and quality (i.e. yield), and indirectly cause negative impact to crops
and animals such as disrupting plant functions or serving as alternate host.
❖ Losses due to pests: Based on year 2002 data, 31-42% of all crops in world
per year are destroyed by pests - diseases, insects and weeds, with an average
of 36.5% (Agrios, 2005).
❖ Estimated losses due to each pest (Agrios, 2005):
Weeds = 12.2% = $190 billion
Insects = 10.2% = $159 billion
Diseases = 14.1% = $220 billion

Various Disciplines Involved in Crop Protection

Disciplines Pest Group General Characteristics

Weed Science Weeds -Plants
 Broadleaves, Sedges and
Grasses
Entomology Invertebrate pests: -Animals
 Arthropods: Arachnids and
insects
 Mollusks
Vertebrate pests: -Animals
 Rodents and Weaver (i.e.
birds)
Plant Pathology Abiotic causes of disease: -Environment
 Environmental factors such
as pH
Biotic causes of disease:
 Higher parasitic flowering -Plants
plants
 Nematodes -Worms
 Fungi and Oomycetes -Microorganisms
 Bacteria and Mollicutes -Microorganisms
 Viruses and Viroids -Particles (Microbe like)
 Others pathogens
Unit II

Major Pest Group

Lesson 1
Learning Objectives Plant Pathogens
At the completion of this lesson,
you should be able to:
❖ Discuss the definition of Hello! In this lesson you will explore the basics
plant pathology. in plant pathology. This lesson helps you to understand
why there is sudden wilting, yellowing and death in
❖ Discuss the economic
your crops. Plant diseases are caused by these two
importance of plant factors, abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) factors.
diseases. We begin with the definition of terms commonly used
❖ Discuss the concepts of throughout the course, knowing the economic
plant diseases. importance and concepts of plant diseases and discuss
❖ Identify the causes of plant the plant disease epidemiology as well as the variability
diseases. in plants pathogens. Understanding the basics and
principles of the plant pathology is a big help for you as
❖ Describe the disease cycle.
students in gaining knowledge as you pursue your
❖ Discuss plant disease career in agriculture.
epidemiology.
❖ Describe the variability in
plant pathogens.

Activity

Instruction: Below is a list of plant diseases caused by fungi, bacterial, plant parasitic
nematodes and virus. Give the scientific name of the causal
organism/pathogen.
Name of the Disease Causal Pathogen/Organism
1. Rice Blast
2. Leafspot of corn
3. Corn Rust
4. Downy Mildew of Corn
5. Bacterial blight of rice
6. Bacterial wilt of tomato,
eggplant
7. Citrus canker
8. Bacterial blight of anthurium
9. Tobacco mosaic
10. Abaca bunchy top
11. Tomato leaf curl
12. Root knot of Okra
13. Blackhead/Toppling of banana
14. Ufra disease of rice
15. White tip of rice
Plant Pathology

 Also known as Phytopathology is a

branch of agricultural, biological or Objectives of
botanical science which deals with the Plant Pathology
study of diseases in plants - their  To study living, non-living
causes, etiology, epidemiology, and environmental causes
resulting losses and management. of diseases or disorders of
 Relation to other Sciences the plants.
❖ Plant pathology is related to  To study the mechanism of
many other sciences such as plant disease development.
virology, mycology, bacterio  To study interaction
logy, microbiology, physiology, between host/susceptible
chemistry, genetics, biotech and the pathogens.
nology etc., all of which provide  To develop systems of
the knowledge required for the management of plant
correct diagnosis and mana- diseases and reducing
gement of plant diseases. losses caused by them.

Plant Pathology from the Greek word

Pathos which means Logos which means

“suffering” “to study”

Study of the suffering

plant. (Do plants
really suffer?
As a Science As an Art

❖ Plant pathology tries to increase our ❖ Deals with the application of the
knowledge of plant diseases and at the knowledge gained from the science.
same time it tries to develop methods, This includes:
equipment, and materials through which • Disease diagnosis
plant diseases can be avoided or controlled. • Disease assessment
 Understand the nature of plant and forecasting
disease • Recommendation of
• Cause – Etiology of plant appropriate control
disease measures and
• Plant Pathogen inter actions • Field of application of
• Characteristics of diseases suitable control
• Determine factors affecting measures.
disease development
• Study methods of control or
management of disease
Economic importance of plant diseases
Plant diseases are paramount importance to Types of losses brought
humans because they damage plants and plant products
on which humans depend for food, clothing, furniture, the
about by plant diseases:
environment and housing.
 Uncontrolled plant diseases may result in less food ❖ Losses due to
and higher food prices, or in food of poor quality reduction in yield
and low nutrient value. ❖ Losses due to
 Toxins or poisons produced by disease on the reduction in quality of
commodity make it unfit for consumption. the produce
 Some diseases may wipe out entire plant species. ❖ Losses due to
 High cost of materials, equipment and labor deterioration during
incurred in controlling the disease result in high storage, marketing, or
cost of production and handling. transport
 Sometimes the environment may be contaminated ❖ Losses due to
or affected by such toxic chemicals used to control predisposition of host
disease which include humans, animals, soil, to attack by other
beneficial organism, our water sources and plants. pathogens
 Harvested produce deteriorate during storage, ❖ Losses from produce
marketing and transit. contaminated with
 Diseases predispose the commodity to attack by toxins that cause
other pathogens. various disorders
 About 34% of the crop produce is lost annually due to and/or death to
diseases, insect-pests and weeds on the global basis animals and man
(Cramer, 1967); out of which, 12% is lost due to
diseases (caused by fungi, bacteria or viruses), 11%
due to nematodes, 7% due to insect-pests and 3% due
to weeds.
 When plant protection measures are not implemented,
annual loss of 30-50% are common in major crops
including horticulture (Encyclopedia Britannica,
2002)

Effects on Society

 Infected grains or the fruits may contain toxins (such as aflatoxin, fumonosin)
which cause insanity, paralysis, stomach disorder and liver cancer.
 The money spent on the management of plant diseases is also a loss because in the
absence of diseases this money could be saved.
 There are many other implications on the transport and agro-based industry in the
event of plant disease inflicted yield loss.
 There is restriction on the movements of food grains and other agricultural
produce due to the threat of quarantine pathogens and pesticide residues in the
produce causing further loss.
 Other Famines
 Wheat rust epidemics occurred from
time to time in many countries.
Wheat rusts forced farmers to
change their cropping pattern and
wheat was replaced by corn or maize
or rye.
 Coffee rust caused by Hemileia
vastatrix forced to cut down the
coffee plants in Sri Lanka in 1867.
 Powdery mildew of grapevines
caused by Uncinula necator, by 1854,
reduced the French wine production
by 80 per cent.
 In 1878, the downy mildew caused
by Plasmopara viticola ultimately led
to the discovery of Bordeaux mixture.
In the Philippines, enormous
economic losses have been brought
about by plant diseases such as:
 The cadang cadang disease – over
$200M losses since it was first
observed in 1918.
 Downy mildew – destroys as
much as 95% of the corn crop
(losses is over $170M annually)
before its control by chemical
seed treatment discovered in
1978.
 Coffee rust and later by citrus
decline - devastated the coffee
and citrus plantations in
Batangas Province
 Tungro – affected 70,000 has. of
rice fields in 1971 causing a loss
of 1.22M cavans of of rough rice
valued at P30.36M
Epidemics
 Late blight of potato caused by
Phytophthora infestans was
responsible for causing Irish
famine in 1845 by destroying the
potato crop, the staple food of the
people.
 Hundreds of thousand people died
of hunger and disease, and there was
a large-scale migration of the
population to other countries
including North American continent.
 The population of Ireland was 8
million in 1940, which was reduced
to 4 million after the famine.
 This single disease forced man to
realize the importance of plant
diseases, and brought the science of
Plant Pathology to lime light.
History and Early Development of
Plant Pathology
Pre Scientific Period
❖ The Greeks and Hebrew (500 BC. to about 280 B.C.) -
believed that diseases to their crops were brought
down on them by punishment for their sins by a
displeased wrathful god. They so attributed to bad
weather and unfavorable soil conditions.
❖ Theophrastus (370-286 8.0.) - the great Greek
philosopher, and known as the "Father of Botany"
recorded several diseases of grains, trees and
vegetables in his Historic Plantarum.
❖ The Romans (320 B.C. to around 475 AI* held an
annual festival,- called Robigalia, to placate their rust
gods, Rohigus and Robigo who they believed were
responsible for the ravages caused by various rust
diseases on their crops.
❖ Pliny, the Elder, (a Roman philosopher wrote about
blights and rusts in his Historia Naturalis. He even
recommended that early sowing of grains allowed
wheat and barley to escape rust infection.
❖ Around 875 AD. and many years thereafter, ergot
epidemics in humans swept through various parts of
Europe.
❖ Ergot of rye is a disease caused by Claviceps
purpurea where the sclerotium of the fungal
pathogen replaces the cereal grain. The sclerotiurn
contains alkaloids which impede blood circulation
causing gagrene and loss of arms, legs, toes, fingers
and finally cause death to people who happen to eat
infected grains.
❖ The disease called Holy Fire or St. Anthony's Fire,
was believed to be sent as divine punishment for
man's sire.
 Beginning and Advances in
Scientific Studies
❖ Sir Francis Bacon (1605) who advocated inductive
reasoning methods, as against deductive reasoning and
speculation, to interpret natural occurrences and thus
propelled the-development of science to stop further.
❖ Franz Unger is credited with the "autogenetic theory of
disease" which states that when plants are in the declining
phase, the cellular constituents call forth new forms of life
by a vital force. The concept of spontaneous generation
continued to prevail for such a long time mainly because
microorganisms (which are the cause of most diseases)
were not yet made visible to man.
❖ Hans and Zaccharias Jansen (1590) - invented the
compound microscope in 1590.
❖ Hooke (1665) - was the first to see plant cells in cork pith
and hi his Micrographia, was the first to illustrate in detail
a plant pathogenic microscopic fungus. Leeuw-enhoek
(1963) found bacteria, protozoa, and other
microorganisms in water and other substrates.
❖ The "germ theory of disease" which is the foundation of
the science of plant pathology was enhanced by the works
of various people.
❖ Pier Antonio Micheli (1729) - described several genera
of fungi and made complete illustrations of their fruiting
bodies and spores in his Nova Plantarum Genera. He was
the first to watch the germination of spores, mycelial
development and formation of spores' characteristic of the
species. He was convinced that fungi arose from their own
spores.
❖ Tillet (1755) - noted that dust (which was actually spores)
from smutted wheat, when sown on healthy wheat seed,
resulted in smutted wheat plants. Although he showed that
the wheat bunt disease was contagious, he considered the
spore dust to be merely the carriers of the "poisonous
entity".
❖ Targioni-Tozzetti (1776) and Fontana (1767) did some
studies on cereal rusts and concluded that the disease was
caused by the rust fungi associated with it.
❖ Prevost (1807) was the first to conclusively demonstrate
that the bunt disease of wheat is caused by a fungus
pathogen. His work laid a firm foundation for plant
pathology; He also noted that wheat seeds soaked in a
copper sulfate prevented spore germination.
 Heinrich Anton de Bary (1853) - concluded that from all
evidences made by previous workers on rusts and smuts of
cereals; diseases were caused by parasitic microorganisms
which were separate entities in themselves. He clearly
demonstrated that fungi are the cause and not the result of
plant disease. This marked the end of the autogenetic
theory and the acceptance of the germ theory of disease.
 Heinrich Anton de Bary - is considered as the "Father of
Plant Pathology”. His work placed on a Sound foundation
the science of plant pathology. He showed that the fungus
Phytophthora infestans is the cause of potato late blight.
 Julius Kuhn (1858} wrote the first textbook on plant
pathology entitled "The Diseases of Cultivated Plants, their
Causes and their Prevention”.
 Louis Pasteur (1860) - completed the overthrow of the
theory of spontaneous generation, when he provided
irrefutable evidence that microorganisms arise from pre-
existing living entities.
 Thomas J. BurriII (1878-1883) of the United States and
J.H. Wakker (1883- 1889) of Holland, proved that bacteria
can incite diseases in plants. BurriII showed that fireblight
of apple and pear is caused by a bacterium.
 Wakker demonstrated that the yellow disease of hyacinth
is also caused by a bacterium.
 E.F. Smith studied several more bacterial plant diseases
showing how important these pathogens are.
 lvanowski (1892) and Beijerink (1898)- showed that
some plant diseases are caused by very small entities that
could pass through bacteria-proof filters. This started the
field of virology.
 Stanley (1935) - crystallized a virus for the first time (the
tobacco mosaic virus) which he considered as an
autocatalytic protein that is capable of multiplying in the
living cells of the host.
 Sawden and co-workers (1936) - showed that crystalline
virus preparation consisted of protein and nucleic acid.
 Kausche and co-workers (1939) - were the first to see the
virus particles under an electron microscope.
 Gierer and Schramm (1956) - established that the nucleic
acid is the infective component of the virus particle.
 Needham (1743) - first observed nematodes as plant
pathogens inside wheat galls (kernels).

 Berkeley - noted root knot nematodes in galls formed in roots and cucumber.
 Cobb (1913 - 1932) - conducted extensive studies on the morphology and taxonomy of plant parasitic nematodes.
 Lafont (1909) - first observed Flagellate protozoa in the latex-bearing cells of laticiferous plants.
 Stahel (1931) - found protozoa causing abnormal phloem formation and wilting of coffee trees.
 Vermeulen (1963) -confirmed that flagellates are also believed to cause the "hart rot disease", a phloem disorder of coconut
trees.
 Doi and co-workers (1967) - first reported Mycoplasrna-like organisms (MLOs) as plant pathogens to infect aster yellows in
Japan.
 Eshlie and co-workers (1965) -observed that treating infected plants with tetracycline caused a temporary disappearance of
the symptoms and the mycoplasma like bodies.
 Davis and co-workers (1972) - observed what they called spiroplasma. This motile, helical microorganism cause stunt
disease of corn. The Phytoplasmas and Spiroplasmas are placed taxonomically in Class Mollicutes Order Mycoplasmatales, they
are also referred to as mollicutes.
 Diener et. al. - observed viroids as plant pathogens of potato causing spindle tuber disease. A viroid - is an infectious
ribonucleic acid molecule which is the smallest agent of plant disease and is not capable of independent multiplication,
Example: Cadang-cadang of coconut, citrus exocortis potato spindle tuber.
 Pierre Marie Alexis Millardet (Oct. 1882) - discovered Bordeaux mixture, a highly effective fungicide. This formed the
foundation for the chemical control of plant diseases.
Development of Plant Pathology in the Philippines

❖ The first diseases studied:

 Coffee rust (Hemilia vastatrix)
 Coconut bud rot (Phytophthora palmivora, Butler)

❖ Coffee rust (1885) - was first noted in Batangas and five years later (1890) it destroyed
all the trees in the province.
❖ Coconut bud rot - was initially observed in Laguna then it spread to Quezon Province
causing tremendous damage. Fortunately, the disease was held in check upon the
enactment of Laguna legislation for its control. The results of the investigation of E.B.
Copeland on we disease was published in 1908.
❖ Dr. E.B. Copeland - was the first dean of the U.P. College of Agriculture established in 1908.
This is where phytopathological work in the country ail started and still going strong today.
❖ C.B Robinson (1911) - reported early attention on leaf blight of corn C. Baker (1912) -
observed downy mildew of corn. Published (1914) "The Lower Fungi of the Philippine
Islands" (a review of Phil. Plant diseases) & the first supplement to the list of lower fungi.
❖ Botany 4 (Diseases of Plants) - the first course in plant pathology In the Dept. of
Agronomy, College of Agriculture, UP (1910) until (1917) when the Dept. of Plant
Pathology was put up.
❖ Otto A. Reinking was the first department head and the basic course in plant pathology,
Botany 4, was changed to Plant Pathology (Gen. Plant Pathology). He published "Philippine
Economic Plant Disease" (1918). This work describes the symptoms, causes and control
measures of various diseases.
❖ Gerardo a Ocfemia (1918) - joined the Department of Plant Pathology and became
department head from 1933 to 1955. He made numerous studies on the nature and cause
of abaca bunchy top including the vector of the causal agent. His outstanding research
work and devotion earned him the title "Dean of Filipino Plant Pathologist".
❖ Davide and co-workers (1983-1984) - encouraged investigations on finding alternative
control of a fungus (Paecilomyces lilacinus) which is antagonistic to plant parasitic
nematodes. The biocontrol agent is commercially known as Biocon.

Examples of Severe Losses Caused by Plant Diseases

Disease Location Description

Fungal
1. Cereal rusts Worldwide Frequent severe epidemics; huge annual
losses
2. Cereal smuts Worldwide Continuous, although lesser, losses on all
grains
3. Ergot of rye and wheat Worldwide Infrequent, poisonous to humans and
animals
4. Late blight of potato Cool, humid climates Annual epidemics, e.g., Irish famine
(1845-1846)
5. Brown spot of rice Asia Epidemics, e.g., the Great Bengal famine
(1943)
6. Southern corn leaf blight U.S. Historical interest, epidemic 1970, $1
billion lost
7. Powdery mildew of grapes Worldwide European epidemics (1840s-1850s)
8. Downy Mildew of grapes U.S., Europe European epidemic (1870s-1880s)
9. Downy mildew of tobacco U.S., Europe European epidemic (1950s-1960s);
epidemic in North America (1979)
10. Chestnut blight
11. Dutch elm disease
12. Pine stem rusts
13. Dwarf mistletoes
14. Coffee rust
15. Banana leaf spot or
Sigatoka disease
16. Rubber leaf blight
17. Fusarium scab of wheat
Viral
18. Sugarcane mosaic
19. Sugar beet yellows
20. Citrus tristeza (quick
decline)
21. Swollen shoot of cacao
22. Plum pox of sharka
23. Barley yellow dwarf
24. Tomato yellow leaf curl
25. Tomato spotted wilt virus
Bacterial
26. Citrus canker
27. Fire blight of pome fruits
28. Soft rot of vegetables
Phytoplasmal
29. Peach yellows
30. Pear decline
Nematode diseases
31. Root knot
32. Sugar beet cyst nematode
33. Soybean cyst nematode
Additional Diseases Likely to Cause Severe Losses in the Future
Disease
Fungal
1. Late blight of potato and tomato
2. Downy mildew of corn
U.S. Destroyed almost all American chestnut
trees (1904-1940)
U.S., Europe Destroying American elm trees (1918 to
present)
Worldwide Causing severe losses in many areas
Worldwide Serious losses in many areas
Asia, South America Destroyed all coffee in southeast Asia
(1870s-1880s) since 1970 present in
South and Central America
Worldwide Great annual losses
South America Destroys rubber tree plantations
North America Severe losses in wet years
Worldwide Great losses on sugarcane and corn
Worldwide Great losses every year
Africa, Americas Millions of trees being killed
Africa Continuous heavy losses
Europe, North America Spreading severe epidemic on plums,
peaches, apricots
Worldwide Important on small grains worldwide
Mediterranean Severe losses of tomatoes, beans, etc.
countries, Caribbean
Basin, U.S.
Worldwide On tomato, tobacco, peanuts,
ornamentals, etc.
Asia, Africa, Brazil, U.S. Caused eradication of millions of trees in
Florida in 1910s and 1990s
North America, Europe Kills numerous trees annually
Worldwide Huge losses of fleshy vegetables
Eastern U.S., Russia Historical, 10 million peach trees killed
Pacific coast states and Millions of pear trees killed
Canada (1960s),
Europe
Worldwide Continuous losses on vegetables and most
other plants
Northern Europe, Continuous severe annual losses on sugar
Western U.S. beets
Asia, North and South Continuous serious losses on soybean
America
Description
New mating type of fungus spreading worldwide.
Just spreading beyond southeast Asia
 3. Karnal bunt of wheat
4. Soybean rust
5. Monilia pod rot of cacao
6. Chrysanthemum white rust
7. Sugar cane rust
8. Citrus black spot
9. Sweet orange scab
Viral
10. African cassava mosaic
11. Streak disease of maize (corn)
12. Hoja blanca (white tip)
13. Bunchy top of banana
14. Rice tungro disease
15. Bean golden mosaic
16. Tomato yellow leaf curl
17. Plum pox
Bacterial
18. Bacterial leaf blight of rice
19. Bacterial wilt of banana
20. Pierce’s disease of grape
21. Citrus variegation chlorosis
22. Citrus greening disease
Phytoplasmal
23. Lethal yellowing of coconut palms
Viroid
24. Cadang-cadang disease of coconut
Nematode
25. Burrowing nematode
26. Red ring of palms
27. Pinewood nematode
Destructive in Pakistan, India, Nepal; since the
1980s introduced into Mexico and in the 1990s
into US.
Spreading rom southeast Asia and from Russia;
already in Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and South America
Very destructive in South America; spreading
elsewhere
Important in Europe, Asia, and recently in
California
Destructive in the Americas and elsewhere
Severe in Central and South America
Severe in Australia
Destructive in Africa; threatening Asia and the
Americas
Spread throughout Africa on sugar cane, corn,
wheat, etc.
Destructive in the Americas so far
Destructive in Asia, Australia, Egypt, Pacific
islands
Destructive in southeast Asia
Caribbean basin, Central America, Florida
East Mediterranean, Caribbean, the Americas
Destructive in Europe, spreading into U.S.
Destructive in Japan and India; spreading
Destructive in the Americas; spreading elsewhere
Deadly in southeast U.S.; spreading into California
Destructive in Brazil; spreading
Severe in Asia; spreading
Destructive in Central America; spreading into
U.S.
Killed more than 15 million trees in the
Philippines to date
Severe on banana in many areas and citrus in
Florida
Severe in Central America and the Caribbean
Widespread and becoming severe in north
America
Concept of Plant Diseases, Terminologies and Diagnosis

 Whetzel (1929), considered disease as a "physiological malfunctioning caused

by animate agents".
 Stakman and Farrar (1957) considered disease as "any deviation kern normal
growth or structure of plants 'that is sufficiently pronounced and permanent to
produce visible symptoms or to impair quality or economic value.
 Horsfatt acid Dick old (1959) states that disease is "a malfunctioning, process
caused by continuous irritation".
 Merril (1980) defines disease as "a dynamic interaction, between an organism
and its environment which results in abnormal physiological and often
morphological or neurological changes in the organism".
 Agrios (1998) defined disease as “any malfunctioning of host cells and tissues
that result from continuous irritation by a pathogen or an environmental factor
and leads to the development of symptoms.”
 The salient points in most of the definition of disease are:
❖ The presence of physiological disorders that is generally detrimental.
❖ Morphological abnormalities result from the physiological
malfunctioning.

Definition of Terms in Plant Pathology

 Parasite is called necrotroph when it kills the host tissue in advance of penetration and then lives
saprophytically, e.g. Sclerotium rolfsii and Pythium species. Similar to necrotrophs are facultative
parasites which live as saprophytes but under favourable conditions they can attack living plants and
become parasites. The necrotrophs are also known as perthotrophs or perthophytes.
 Biotrophs are the organisms which regardless of the ease with which they can be cultivated on artificial
media obtain their food from living tissues only in nature in which they complete their life cycle). They
were earlier also called obligate parasites, e.g., rusts, smuts, powdery mildews etc.
 Disease resistance is the ability of an organism to overcome completely or in some degree the effect of
a pathogen or other damaging factor; whereas susceptibility in the inability of the plant to resist the
effect of the pathogen or other damaging factor.
 Disease: According to Horsfall and Diamond (1959), disease may be defined as a malfunctioning process
that is caused by continuous irritation by a pathogen and/or environmental factor resulting in some
suffering producing symptoms.
 Disorder: The diseases caused by the deficiency of nutrients or unfavorable environmental are
sometimes termed as disorders or physiological disorders.
 Facultative parasite is an organism which has the ability to be a parasite although it is ordinarily a
saprophyte. Saprophyte is an organism that lives on dead organic or inorganic matter.
 Facultative saprophytes are ordinarily parasites which can grow and reproduce on dead organic
matter under certain circumstances. They are also called hemibiotrophs which attack the living tissues
in such a way as biotrophs but continue to grow and reproduce after the tissues is dead.
 Hypersensitivity is the extreme degree of susceptibility in which there is rapid death of the cells in the
vicinity of the invading pathogen. It halts the further progress of the pathogen. Thus, hypersensitivity
is a sign of very high resistance approaching immunity.
 Immunity of a plant against a disease is absolute quality. It denotes the freedom of plant from disease,
when the pathogen cannot establish parasitic relationship with the host. High resistance and low
susceptibility approach immunity.
 Incubation period is the time elapsing between penetration and completion of infection i.e.
development of the disease symptoms.
 Infection is the establishment of the parasitic relationship between the pathogen and host following
entry or penetration.
 Invasion and colonization are the growth and multiplication of the pathogen through the tissue of the
host varying extent.
 Obligate parasite is an organism that is restricted to subsist on living organisms and attacks only living
tissues.
 Parasite: These are the organisms which derive the food materials needed for their growth from other
living organism (the host). All the pathogens are parasites but all the parasites are not pathogens. As
some of the parasites live on their hosts without causing any damage to them as symbiotic
relationships, e.g., Rhizobium bacterium in legume roots, mycorrhizae and lichens.
 Parasitism is a phenomenon by which a plant parasite becomes intimately associated with the plant;
it draws nutrition and multiplies and grows at the expense of the plant host.

 Pathogen - is any agent (biotic or abide)/ that causes a disease. However, generally refer to a living
organism, such as fungus or a bacterium, that causes disease.
 Pathogenicity is the ability of a pathogen to cause disease under a given set of environmental conditions.
Whereas, pathogenesis is the chain of events that leads to development of a disease in the host.
 Saprophytes/saprobes are the organisms which derive their nutrition from the dead organic matter.
Some parasites and saprophytes may have the faculty or (ability) to change their mode of nutrition.
 Virulence is a measure or degree of pathogenicity of an isolate or race of the pathogen. The term
aggressiveness is often used to describe the capacity of a pathogen to invade and grow in the host plant
and to reproduce on or in it. This term like virulence is used as measure of pathogenicity.
Symptoms and Signs of Plant Diseases

Symptoms of Plant Diseases

❖ Symptoms are the expressions by the suscept or host of a pathologic condition

by which a particular plant disease may be distinguished from other diseases.
 Primary symptoms – are those that are the immediate and direct
results of the causal agent's activities on the invaded tissues.
 Secondary symptoms – are the effects on the distant and uninvaded
plant parts.
▪ Example: Sclerotium rolfsii
 Localized symptom - characterized by distinct and very limited
structural changes usually in form of lesions such as canker, leaf spot and
gall.
 Systemic symptoms - more generalized pathological conditions such as
mottling, mosaic and wilting.
 Histological symptom - is essentially internal, and seen only upon the
dissection of the diseased plant portion and examination under the
microscope. It is expressed as an abnormality in cell content structure or
arrangement.
▪ Ex. Cell enlargement, vascular discoloration
 Morphological symptoms - are those malformations and other changes
that are visible to the naked eye.
▪ General Classification of Symptom:
a. Necrotic symptoms
b. Hypoplastic symptoms
c. Hyperplastic symptoms
 Necrotic Symptoms - involve the death of protoplast, coils or tissues Ex:
spot, blight, scorch, canker, and die-back.
 Hypoplastic symptoms -- appear when there is an inhibition or failure
in the differentiation or development of some aspect of plant growth.
▪ Ex: Stunting, chlorosis, mottle, mosaic, curling and rosetting,
 Hyperplastic symptoms are expressed with the occurrence of
excessive multiplication, enlargement or overdevelopment of plant
organs including the abnormal prolonged retention of the green color.
▪ Ex. Gall formation, fasciation, scab, premature defoliation or fruit
drop/ and greening
 Hypertrophy - Overdevelopment may result from an increase in the size
of cells.
 Hyperplasia - an abnormal increase in the number of cells.
Specific Symptoms
1. Abscission – Premature falling of leaves, fruits or flowers due
to early laying down of the abscission layer.

2. Anthracnose – It causes dark, sunken lesions on leaves,

stems, flowers, and fruits.

3. Blast – Term applied to the sudden death of young buds,

inflorescence or young fruits.

4. Bleeding – Flow of sap from wounds.

5. Blight – An extensive, usually sudden, death of host tissue,

such as leaf blight.

6. Blotch – Large, irregular spots on leaves or fruits with

necrotic injury of epidermal cells.
7. Callus – An overgrowth of tissue formed in response in injury
in an effort of the plant to heal the wound.

8. Canker – An often sunken necrotic area with cracked border

that may appear in leaves, fruits, stems and branches.

9. Chlorosis – Yellowing caused by some factor other than light

such as infection by a virus or a mycoplasma.

10. Curling – Abnormal bending or curling of leaves caused by

overgrowth on the side of the leaf or localized growth in
certain portions.
11. Damping-off – Rotting of seedlings prior to emergence or
rotting of seedling stems at an area just above the soil line.
12. Die-back – A drying backward from the tip of twigs or
branches.
13. Etiolation – Yellowing of normally green tissues caused by
inadequate light.

14. Fasciculation or fasciation – Clustering of plant organs

around a common focus.

15. Flecks – Extremely tiny spots on leaves, fruits, stems, etc.

16. Galls – Are swollen masses of abnormal tissue that are range
in size from small to quite large.

17. Gumming or gummosis – Oozing out of viscid gum from

wounds in bark.
18. Leak – The host’s juices exude or leak out from soft-rotted
portions.

19. Mosaic – The presence, usually on leaves, of variegated

patterns of green and yellow shades with sharply defined
borders.

20. Mottling – The variegation is less defined than mosaic and

the boundaries of light and dark variegated areas are more
diffused.
21. Mummification – An infected fruit is converted to a hard,
dry, shrivelled mummy.

22. Phyllody – Metamorphosis of sepals, petals, stamens or

carpels into leaf-like structures.

23. Pitting – Definite depressions or pits are found on the surface

of fruits, tubers, and other fleshy organs resulting in a
pocketed appearance.
24. Powdery Mildew – Infected plants display white powdery
spots on the leaves and stems.

25. Rossetting – Shortening of the internodes of shoots and

stems forming a crowding of the foliage in a rosette.

26. Rotting – Disintegration and decomposition of host tissue.

Any plant part may suffer from rot.
➢ A dry rot is a firm, dry decay,
➢ A soft rot is a soft, watery decomposition

27. Russetting – A superficial brownish roughening of the skin of

fruits, tubers or other fleshy organs usually due to
suberization of epidermal or subepidermal tissues following
injury to the epidermis.
28. Rust – Commonly seen as coloured powder, Plants may
appear stunted, chlorotic (yellowed), or otherwise
discolored.
29. Sarcody – Abnormal swelling of the bark above wounds due
to the accumulation of elaborated food materials.
30. Savoying – The cuppling or pocketing of parts of the leaf; also
curling of puckering; due to the underdevelopment of veins
or leaf margins.

31. Scab – Slightly raised, rough, ulcer-like lesions due to

overgrowth of epidermal and cortical tissue accompanied
with rupturing and suberization of cell walls.

32. Shot-hole – A perforated of a leaf as the dead areas of local

lesions drop out.
 33. Smut – Symptoms appear at flowering, and infected plants
are unable to produce grain.

34. Spot – A localized necrotic area also referred to as a lesion.

Individual spots may be circular, angular, or irregularly
shaped. Several spots may run together or coalesce forming
large necrotic areas.

35. Streak or stripe – Long, narrow necrotic lesions on leaves or

stems.

36. Vein clearing – The leaf veins are translucent or pale while
the rest of the leaf is its normal color.

37. Virescence or greening – Development of chlorophyll in

tissues or organs in which it is normally absent.

38. Wilting – May be due to an infectious agent or lack of water.

Signs of Plant Diseases

❖ Signs refer to the structures of the

pathogen that are found associated
with the infected plant part.
A B C
 Example: fungal mycelia,
spores and fruiting bodies,
bacterial ooze, sclerotial
bodies, nematodes at various
growth stages and plant parts D E
Fig. 5. Examples of signs/structure of the Pathogen (A)
of phanerogams (parasitic
Mycelia, (B) Ooze, (C) Pycnidia, (D) Rhizomorph,
flowering plants). (E) Nematodes

Plant Disease Diagnosis

 Diagnosis – is the identification of specific plant diseases through their

characteristic symptoms and signs including other factors that may be related to
the disease process. Studies and work that require actual proof of pathogenicity
require the application of Koch's rules of proof.
  Symptomatology
➢ diagnosis is done based on the characteristic symptoms and signs, particularly
for diseases which are quite common and having distinct symptoms and obvious
signs.
➢ However, different diseases/pathogens may exhibit similar symptoms on a host
and a single pathogen may cause different symptoms on a host depending on the
host variety, the environment and race of the pathogen.

Rules of Proof of Pathogenicity or Koch’s Postulates

➢ For diseases, which are of unknown etiology or having no previous reports,

the Koch’s postulates had to be carried out to verify the causality of the
pathogen to the particular diseases.

Koch’s postulates involve 4 steps:

1. ASSOCIATION
 The pathogen must be found
associated with the disease in all
the diseased plants examined.
 The suspected pathogen must
always be present in the plant
when diseases occur.
2. ISOLATION
 The pathogen must be isolated and
grown in pure culture in the
Robert Koch – A German medical doctor and nutrient media, and its
bacteriologist who discovered causal agents characteristic described (non-
of anthrax, tuberculosis, and cholera. obligate parasites), it is must be
grown on a susceptible host plant
(obligate parasite), and its
appearance and effects recorded.
3. INOCULATION
 The pathogen from pure culture
must be inoculated on healthy
susceptible plants of the same
species or variety on which the
disease appears, and it must be
produce the same symptoms and
signs of the disease.
4. RE-ISOLATION
 The suspected causal organism
must be re-isolated in pure culture
again, and its characteristics must
be exactly like with those observed
in step 2.
Classification of Plant diseases
Based on plant part affected

 Root diseases – Affect water and mineral uptake

 Leaf diseases – Affect photosynthesis
 Fruit diseases – Affect reproduction
 Stem diseases – Affect water conduction
➢ Localized – if they affect only specific organs or parts of the plants.
➢ Systemic – if entire plant is affected.

Based on perpetuation and spread

 Soil borne - when the pathogen perpetuates through the agency of soil.
 Seed borne - when the pathogen perpetuates through seed (or any propagation material).
 Air borne - when they are disseminated by wind e.g. rusts and powdery mildews.

Based on the signs and symptoms produced by the pathogens

 Diseases are classified as rusts, smuts, powdery mildews, downy mildews, root rots, wilts,
blights, cankers, fruit rots, leaf spots, etc.
➢ In all these examples, the diseases are named after the most conspicuous symptom of
the disease appearing on the host surface.

Based on major Causes

 They can be classified as:

➢ Fungal diseases
➢ Bacterial diseases
➢ Viral diseases
➢ mycoplasmal diseases, etc.
Based on Infection Process

 Infectious – All the diseases caused by animate causes, viruses and viroids can be
transmitted from infected host plants to the healthy plants and are called infectious.
➢ diseases caused by fungi
➢ diseases caused by mycoplasrnas
➢ diseases caused by bacteria
➢ diseases caused by viruses
➢ diseases caused by viroids
➢ diseases caused by parasitic flowering plants
➢ diseases caused by nematodes
 Non-infectious – Non-infectious diseases cannot be transmitted to a healthy plant. Also
referred as non-parasitic disorders or simply physiological disorders, and are incited by
abiotic or inanimate causes like nutrient deficiency or excess or unfavorable weather
conditions of soil and air or injurious mechanical influences.
➢ extremely high or excessively tow temperatures
➢ unfavorable oxygen relations
➢ unfavorable moisture conditions
➢ nutrient deficiencies o Mineral toxicities
➢ Pollution
➢ toxicity of pesticides
➢ unfavorable soil pH
➢ improper agricultural practices
 Classification of Animate Diseases in Relation to Their Occurrence

 Endemic diseases – which are more or less constantly present from year to year in a
moderate to severe form in a particular geographical region, i.e. country, district or location.
 Epidemic or epiphytotic diseases - which occur widely but periodically particularly in a
severe form. They might be occurring in the locality every year but assume severe form only
on occasions due to the favorable environmental conditions occurring in some years.
 Sporadic diseases - occur at irregular intervals and locations and in relatively few instances.
 Pandemic diseases - A disease may be endemic in one region and epidemic in another. When
epiphytotic become prevalent throughout a country, continent or the world, the disease may
be termed as pandemic.

Requisites of Disease

Disease development requires the presence

of:
1. A susceptible plant
2. The pathogen
3. Favorable environment

Causes of Plant Diseases

Two general causes of plant diseases:

 Abiotic causes – non-living or environmental factors causing diseases to crops; non-

biological or non-infectious; usually symptoms are uniform throughout the affected field.
Ex. Diseases caused by:
• too low or too high a temperature
• Lack or excess of moisture or water
• Lack or excess light
• Lack of oxygen
• Air pollution
• Nutrient deficiencies or mineral toxicity
• Soil pH
• Toxicity of pesticides
• Improper cultural practices
 Biotic causes – living organisms or living-like particles causing diseases to crops;
biological or infectious; usually the site of initial inoculation is distinguishable at the early
stage of infection. Include viroids, viruses, bacteria, mollicutes, fungi, nematodes and
parasitic plants.
Fig. 6. Various symptoms caused environmental factors.

Fig. 7. Morphology and ways of multiplication of some of the groups of plant pathogens.

Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of the shapes and sizes of certain plant pathogens in relation to a plant
cell. Bacteria, mollicutes, and protozoa are not found in nucleated living plant cells.
Biotic Organisms Causing Plant Diseases

1. Fungi and Oomycetes

ss
Fungi Oomycetes

 Eukaryotic, spore bearing  A group of fungal like organisms, the

achlorophyllous organisms Oomycota generally referred to as
with absorptive nutrition that (Oomycetes), until about 1990 were
generally reproduce both called considered as lower fungi.
sexually and asexually and  Majority have cell wall composed of
whose somatic structures glucans and small amount of cellulose,
known as hyphae are but not chitin.
surrounded by cell wall  Now regarded as members of the
containing chitin and glucans kingdom Chromista (also known as
(but no cellulose) as the Straminopila) rather than Fungi; but
skeletal components. continued to be discussed with fungi
because of their many other similarities
to them, especially the way they cause
disease in plants.

Morphology

 Mycelium – A filamentous vegetative body.

 Hypha (pl. hyphae) – Individual branch of mycelium which are generally uniform in
thickness, usually about 2-10 µm in diameter. The hyphae may be septate or aseptate
 Coenocytic hyphae – The aseptate or non-septate hyphae having the nuclei scattered in the
cytoplasm.
 Septate hyphae – The hyphae have septa having perforations through which cytoplasmic
strands, containing nuclei can migrate from one cell to the other.
 A characteristic dolipore septum is formed in certain basidiomycetes.
 Diameter of hyphae may be as narrow as 0.5 µm and as wide as 100 µm.
 The vegetative thallus may consist of only one cell or may even be naked, amoeboid,
multinucleate plasmodial mass without cell wall or a system of strands of varying diameter
called rhizomycelium.

In some fungi, hyphae form aggregates and develop various kinds of structures. These may be:

 Rhizomorphs – thicker root like aggregates.

 Sclerotium – a hard roundish or amorphous structure and has a hard rind surrounding a
soft interior i.e. medulla.
 Stroma – some fungi also develop mat like structures which contain the fruiting bodies.
 Rhizomorphs and sclerotia help the fungus to survive from one cropping season to the
other and also function in initiating the disease as a primary inoculum.
 Pseudoparenchyma – Sometimes the hypahe aggregate to form tissue like structure called
plectenchyma. In cross section, it appears like parenchymatous cells of the higher plants.
This is called pseudoparenchyma and consists of rounded fungal cells.
 Prosenchyma – Less compact structures consisting of hyphae made of elongated cells.
These are found mostly in the stroma or fruiting bodies of Ascomycota or Basidiomycota.
Transmission of Fungi and Oomycetes

 Vegetative propagation, Mechanical, Seed and pollen, Insects and mites,

Nematodes, Other vectors and Air and water

Diseases caused by Fungi

 Genus: Fusarium
• F. oxysporum f. sp. dianthi on Dianthus (carnation)
• F. oxysporum f. sp. gladioli on Gladiolus
• F. oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici on tomato
• F. oxysporum f. sp. melonis on Cucumis (melons, cucumber)
• F. oxysporum f. sp. narcissi on Narcissus (daffodil)
• F. oxysporum f. sp. pisi on pea
• F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum on cotton
 Genus: Verticillium
• V. dahlia: fungi with microsclerotia
• V. alboatrum: fungi no microsclerotia
 Powdery mildew: Blumeria, Brasilomyces, Erysiphe, Leveillula, Microsphaera, Phyllactinia,
 Podosphaera, Sphaetotheca and Uncinula. Anamorphs: Oidium, Ovulariopsis and Oidiopsis.
 Leaf spots and blights:
• Mycosphaerella musicola (Anamorph: Pseudocercospora musae) causes Yellow
Sigatoka or banana leafspot
• Mycosphaerella musae causes leaf speckle of banana
• Mycosphaerella fijiensis (Anamorph: Paracercospora fijiensis) causes Black Sigatoka
of banana
• Cercospora causes Cercospora leaf spot
 Blackleg: Leptosphaeria maculans (Anamorph: Phoma lingam) causes blackleg of brassicas
(e.g. cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli and radish)
 Rusts: Hemileia vastatrix of coffee (coffee rust)
 Anthracnose: Colletotrichum of mango, banana and other fruits and vegetables

Diseases caused by Oomycetes

 Damping-off – Phytophthora and Pythium

 Late blight – Phytophthora infestans on potato (caused the Irish Potato Famine: ~½
million people died and ~ ½ million migrated to the Americas)
 Downy mildew – caused by obligate parasites of species Plasmopara (P. halstedii on
sunflower, P. viticola on grapes, Peronosclerospora philippinensis (Philippine corn
downy mildew) and Sclerospora maydis ('Java' downy mildew) of maize.

Other common downy mildew:

• Bremia lactucae on lettuce, Peronospora destructor on onion, P. parasitica on Brassica
spp. (e.g. cabbage), P. sparsa on rose, P. trifoliorum on Lucerne (alfalfa), P. viciae on
Pisum sativum (pea) and Vicia sativa (vetch), Peronosclerospora maydis on corn,
Plasmopara viticola on grapes, Pseudoperonospora cubensis on cucurbits,
Sclerophthora macrospora on wheat and other grasses
Control of Fungal and Oomycetes Diseases

Cultural control:
 planting resistant varieties
 crop rotation for pathogens with limited host range
 rouging (removing and burning of infected plant parts)
 sanitation
 hot water treatment
 controlling the vectors
 other physical Methods such as heat Treatment, eliminating certain light
wavelengths, drying, refrigeration, radiation, trench barriers

Biological control:
 Mycoparasitism – The mycelium and resting spores (oospores) or sclerotia of
several phytopathogenic soil oomycetes and fungi (e.g. Pythium, Phytophthora,
Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, and Sclerotium) are invaded and parasitized by another
non-parasitic fungi or other microbes; examples:
• Trichoderma spp., mainly T. harzianum, host: Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium,
Pythium, Phytophthora, Fusarium and Heterobasidion (Fomes)
• Laetisaria arvalis (Corticium sp.), host: Rhizoctonia and Pythium
• Sporidesmium sclerotivorum, Gliocladium virens and Coniothyrium
minitants, host: Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
• Talaromyces flavus, host: Verticillium
• Non-plant pathogenic Pythium spp., host: pathogenic Phytophthora and
Pythium spp.
• Pichia gulliermondii (a yeast), host: Botrytis and Penicillium
• Bacteria Bacillus, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas, and Pantoea, host:
Phytophthora sp., Pythium sp., Fusarium, Sclerotium ceptivorum, and
Gaeumannomyces tritici
• Mycophagous nematode Aphelenchus avenae, host: Rhizoctonia and
Fusarium
• Amoeba Vampyrella, host: Cochliobolus sativus and Gaeumannomyces
graminis.
• Mycolysis – When phytopathogenic oomycetes and fungi are lyzed by
another fungi.
• Suppressive Soils – soils containing microorganisms antagonistic to the
pathogen or because the plant that is attacked had been inoculated
naturally with antagonistic microorganisms before or after the pathogen
attack; also effective against other plant pathogens
• Hypovirulence/cross protection – the antagonistic microorganisms are
avirulent strains of the same pathogen; also effective against other plant
pathogens especially viruses

Chemical control
 Fungicide applied foliar or as soil fumigant; insecticides to control vectors.
 2. Bacteria and Mollicutes
ss
 General characteristics of bacteria Flagella
(bacterium, singular form):  Most of the plant pathogenic
Prokaryotes and single-celled. bacteria have delicate thread like
With large circular chromosome flagella, which are usually longer
(DNA) not bounded by membrane than the cell.
(no nucleus). and small (70S)  They are the organs of locomotion.
ribosomes.  The arrangement of flagella on
bacterial cell is an important
Contain plasmids (extracellular
taxonomic character that aid in
DNA). bacterial classification.
With cytoplasm bounded by cell  This arrangement may be
membrane and cell wall. • Monotrichous- with one polar
Some bacteria have a flagella (use flagellum
for movement). • Lophotrichous -tuft of flagella
Usually sensitive to antibiotics (e.g. at one end
penicillin). • Amphitrichous- at both the
Asexually reproduce by binary ends
• Peritrichous - distributed all
fission.
around the cell or surface.
Can be parasitic, epiphytic or • Atrichous- bacteria lacking
saprophytic. flagella.
By far the largest group of plant
pathogenic prokaryotes.
Include fastidious phloem- or
xylem-inhabiting bacteria (for
several years thought) to be
rickettsia-like organisms, RLOs).
Mostly rod-shaped; 0.6 to 3.5
micrometers in diameter.
Have 3 sexual-like processes for
horizontal gene transfer:
• Conjugation – two
Fig. 9. Flagellation in bacteria
compatible bacteria come
in contact and transfer a
small portion of DNA
through a conjugation
bridge or pilus.
• Transformation – DNA
fragments are absorbed
and incorporated into the
cell and released during
cell rupture or death.
• Transduction – a bacterial
virus (phage) transfer
genetic material to another
bacterium.
Fig. 10. Sexual like processes in bacteria.

Gram Staining
 Bacterial species are often distinguished from one another by Gram staining.
 In this process, a bacterial smear is heat fixed on glass slide, stained with crystal violet and
mordanted with iodine and finally rinsed with ethanol.
 When the bacteria retain the crystal violet stain after rinsing, the bacteria are called gram
positive; and those which do not retain the stain are called gram negative.
 The later are then counter stained with pink colour safranin.
 The ability of bacteria to retain crystal violet stain or not, depends upon fundamental structure
of cell wall.
 Gram Positive Bacteria Gram Negative Bacteria
1. Cell wall is thicker and 1. Cell wall is thinner and usually thin
homogemous. layered.
2. Contains lower content of lipids (5- 2. Contains higher content of lipids
10%) (up to 40%)
3. Peptidoglycan comprises up to 90% 3. Peptidoglycan comprises only 10%.
of the cell wall and hence maximum 4. Techoic acid absent.
lipid. 5. Low content of amino sugars
4. Techoic acid present. 6. Varying cell wall shape and is
5. Cell wall has higher amino sugar tripartite (3-layered).
content (10-20%) 7. Mesosomes less prominent.
6. Cell wall is simple in shape and is 8. Retains red dye
single layered. 9. Examples: Erwinia, Pseudomonas,
7. Mesosomes more prominent. Xanthomonas, Agrobacterium,
8. Retains violet dye Xylella
9. Examples: Bacillus, Clavibacter,
Streptomyces
Table 1. Comparison between gram positive bacteria and gram negative bacteria.

 General characteristics of mollicutes:  Transmission of

Similar to bacteria (share a number of bacteria and mollicutes
characteristics with bacteria) • Vegetative
Main difference with bacteria is their propagation
cytoplasm is surrounded by a cell • Mechanical
membrane only (not cell membrane and • Seed and pollen
cell wall as in bacteria), thus, • Vectors
pleomorphic • Air and water
Resistant to penicillin, sensitive to
tetracycline Note about mollicutes: The
Include phytoplasmas (previously refer nature of phytoplasmas
to as mycoplasma-like organisms or and their taxonomic
MLOs) and spiroplasmas position among the lower
Phytoplasmas: phloem inhabitants, organisms is still uncertain
difficult to culture in media
Spiroplasmas: spiral/helical, easy to
grow in culture media

Classification of Bacterial Plant Pathogens

Division I – Gracilicutes
 They include prokaryotes with thin cell walls consisting of outer membrane with fatty acid
glycerol ester-type lipids and are usually gram negative. They do not form endospores.
Division II – Firmicutes
 It included prokaryotes with thick (firm) cell wall consisting of peptidoglycan and unit
membrane but without any outer membrane. Some of them produce endospore. They are
gram positive.
Division III – Tenericutes
 They lack cell wall and cells are enclosed by a unit membrane only. They include mollicutes
or mycoplasma like organisms (now called phytoplasma).
Detailed Classification of Phytopathogenic Bacteria:
 Kingdom: Prokaryotae
1. Division I: Gracilicutes
o Class: Proteobacteria (mostly single-celled, non-photosynthetic)
✓ Family 1: Enterobacteriaceae (They are peritrichous bacteria
⎯ Genus: Erwinia
• E. amylovora causing fire blight of apple and pear
• E. carotovora pv. carotovora causing soft rot of
vegetables
• E. carotovora pv. atroseptica causing black leg of potato
✓ Family 2: Pseudomonadaceae
⎯ Genus: Pseudomonas
• P. syringae pv. syringae causing stone fruit bacterial
canker
• P. syringae pv. tabaci causing wild fire disease of
tobacco
⎯ Genus: Ralstonia
• R. solanacearum causing bacterial wilt of solanaceous
crops
⎯ Genus: Xanthomonas
• X. campestris pv. campestris causing black rot of
cabbage,
• X. campestris pv. phaseoli causing common bean blight
• X. campestris pv. vesicatoria causing tomato bacterial
spot
• X. oryzae pv. oryzae causing bacterial leaf blight of rice
• X. axonopodis pv. citri causing citrus canker
✓ Family 3: Rhizobiaceae
⎯ Genus: Agrobacterium
• A. tumefaciens causing crown gall of stone fruits
• A. rhizogenes causing hairy root of apple
✓ Family 4: Still unnamed
⎯ Genus: Xylella
• X. fastidiosa [earlier called RLO’s rickettssia like
organisms] xylem- inhabiting causing Pierce’s disease
of grapevines, phony peach, almond leaf scortch
• Candidatus liberobacter asiaticus, phloem-inhabiting
causing citrus greening Unnamed, latex-inhabiting,
causing bunchy top disease of papaya
2. Division 2: Firmicutes
o Class 1: Firmibacteria (Simple gram positive bacteria)
⎯ Bacillus subtilis – biocontrol agent
o Class 2: Thallobacteria (Gram positive, branching bacteria)
⎯ Streptomyces scabies causing common scab of potato
⎯ Clavibacter michiganense pv. sepedonicum causing ring rot of
potato
⎯ Clavibacter michiganense pv. michiganense causing bacterial
canker of tomato
⎯ Curtobacterium (Corynebacterium) flaccumfaciens causing
bacterial wilt of bean
3. Division 3: Tenericutes
o Class: Mollicutes (wall less prokaryotes)
⎯ Family: Spiroplasmataceae
• Spiroplasma citri causing citrus stubborn
• Spiroplasma kunkelii causing corn stunt
 Fig. 11. Most Common Plant Pathogenic Bacterial Species.

Members of the Class Mollicutes: Diseases caused by Phytoplasmas:

 Phytoplasmas: The organisms  Ash yellows: caused by
observed in plants and insect Candidatus Phytoplasma
vectors, i.e., the phytoplasmas, fraxinii
which do not include the  Australian tomato big bud:
spiroplasmas, resemble caused by Candidatus
mycoplasmas of the genera Phytoplasma Australasia
Mycoplasma or Acholeplasma in  Aster Yellows
all morphological aspects.  Lethal Yellowing of Coconut
Genetically, phytoplasmas are Palms
more related to Acholeplasma  Apple Proliferation
than to Mycoplasma.  European Stone Fruit Yellows
 No phytoplasmas have been  Elm Yellows (Phloem
given accepted Latin binomials, Necrosis)
only tentative names  Peach X-Disease
(Candidatus).  Pear Decline

Control of bacterial and mollicutes diseases:

 Cultural control: planting resistant varieties, sanitation, disinfection of
tools and equipment, seed treatment by soaking in weak acid solution or
sodium hypochlorite, crop rotation and proper water management
 Chemical control: antibiotic; penicillin for bacteria and tetracycline for
mollicutes (expensive method).
 3. Viroids and Viruses
ss
Characteristics of viroids: Characteristics of viruses:
 Low molecular weight RNA  Obligate parasite
 Smaller than viruses (250 to 370  Ultramicroscopic, 4 to 20
bases) kilobases
 No protein coat (free 'naked'  Is a nucleoprotein: Composed
RNA) of nucleic acid (RNA or DNA);
 Replicate themselves; closely most plant pathogenic viruses
associated with the cell's are RNA (only 2 groups are
nucleus, especially the DNA viruses in plants,
chromatin. Geminiviruses and
 Spread by mechanical means Caulimoviruses); surrounded
during propagation, or by by protein coat
vegetative propagation  Various shapes: ex. rod shaped,
 Can survive outside the host, polyhedral, spherical,
dead matter or in perennials bacilliform, cylindrical, bullet-
 Cause at least 40 plant diseases shaped

Other important information about viruses and viroids:

 >2,000 viruses known to date (-50% cause diseases to plants)
 A plant can be infected by more than 1 virus.
 Plant viruses behave like microorganisms due to genetic functions, reproduction and
pathogenicity, but also behave like chemical substances.
 Virus particles are called virions.
 Viruses require wounds to enter their host, thus called "wound parasite" or "wound
pathogen".
 Bacteriophages – viruses that infect bacteria; non-pathogenic to plants.
 Satellite viruses – viruses that act as parasites of other viruses, cannot cause infection
by themselves so must be associated with a helper virus; a virus that infects another virus;
usually associated with an autonomous virus before causing infection or be replicated in
host plant.
 Satellite RNAs – small, linear or circular RNAs that may or may not be related to the RNA
of a virus but also act as parasites of viruses.
 Cadang-cadang disease caused by viroids killed more than 15 million trees in the
Philippines as of the year 2005 (Source: Agrios, 2005).

Transmission of plant viroids and viruses: Controlling viroid/viral diseases of plants:

 Vegetative propagation
 Mechanical means
 Seed and pollen
 Vectors: Insects and mites;
Nematodes; Fungi; and other
vectors such as protozoans
(myxomycota, plasmodio-
phoromycetes) and dodders
 Cultural and regulatory control including
preventive measures (most important):
using disease-free planting materials or
resistant varieties; quarantine and
certification; cutting and burning of infected
parts; using clean and disinfected farm/
garden tools; hot-water treatment (not
effective against viroids); and controlling the
vectors.
 As of the moment, no biological and chemical
control measures are available for
controlling viral diseases of plants.
 4. Nematodes
ss
General characteristics of Nematodes:
 Threadlike animals (~4 mm
long, 15 to 35 micrometers
wide)
 Unsegmented worms with
colorless cuticles with
striations or other markings
 Life stages include egg, 2
juvenile stages and adult. Life
cycle completes within 3 to 4
weeks.
 Require moisture and aeration
to survive, thus, are found on
the top 15-30 cm of the soil
Other information about nematodes:
 Most nematodes living in fresh or
salt waters or in the soil are
predators of other microorganisms
and microscopic plants and
animals.
 >100 species feed on living plants
 Plant parasitic nematodes possess
spear or stylet type of mouthparts
 The female nematode may look
different from its male counterpart.
 The 2nd juvenile stage is the most
destructive stage of nematodes.
The 1st stage juvenile is still inside
the egg.

Types of nematodes based on feeding

behavior:
 Saprophagous – feed on
decaying matter
 Predaceous – feed on other
organisms
 Plant parasitic – feed on
plants:
 Endoparasitic – inserts
its body completely or
partially into the plant to
feed
 Exoparasitic/Ectoparasi
tic – feeds outside the
plant
Fig. 12. Morphology and related sizes of some of the most important
plant parasitic nematodes.
 Some nematodes feed on fungi
and bacteria. Plant parasitic
nematodes are mostly obligate
parasites thus dependent on
the living host for survival as
they feed and reproduce only
in theft host.
 Most plant parasitic
nematodes have a stylet which
is hollow, needle-like spear. As
the nematode feeds, the stylet
is inserted inside a plant cell
and the plant juices are
withdrawn through the
esophagus by a sucking action.

Fig. 13. Types of symptoms caused by some of the most important plant
parasitic nematodes.

parasitic nematodes.
Groups of Plant Parasitic Nematodes

Based on movement while

Based on feeding position:
feeding:
 Ectoparasites - feed from the outside and only
 Migratory - move from
the stylet enters the plant cells. They do not the
one part of the plant to
roots. They feed mainly on root hairs and root
another portion of the host
tips so that the roots may form lateral branches
or move from the plant soil
and stop growing.
and back.
Example:
Example:
• genera Xiphinema
• Radopholus (the
• Trichodorus burro-wing
• Tylenchorhynchus nematode)
• Pratylenchus (the
 Semiendoparasites - Iced by burying the front lesion nematode)
part. of the body into the host cells while the • Ditylenchus
posterior portion is outside the host. dipsaci (the stern
Example: and hulb
• Rotylenchulus reniformis (the nematode)
reniform nematode) • Aphelenchoides
• Tylenchulus semipenetrans (the (foliar and seed
citrus nematode) nematode)
• Helecotylenchus (the spiral  Sedentary - attach
nematode) themselves to the roots or
burrow into the root; in
 Endoparasites - the entire nematode body each case they remain
enters the plant cells while it feeds. sedentary.
Example: Example:
• Heterodera (the cyst nematode) • Meloidogyne
• Pratylenchus (the lesion nematode) • Rotylerachulus
which feeds on the root cortex of • Tylenchulus
many plants.

Symptoms of Nematodes Damage

 Galls on me roots are usually formed by the root knot nematode as a result of
hypertrophy and hyperplasia.
 Stunting of the above-ground parts.
 Abnormal foliage coloration
 Wilting results when nematodes injure the roots.
 Leaf spots, distortion, twisting and swellings.
 Necrotic lesions in roots and excessive root branching

Control of Plant Parasitic Nematodes

 Nematicides
 The fungus, Paecelomyces lilacinus
 Other control measures:
• Crop rotation
• Fallow
• Flooding
• Solarization
• Use of trap crops
• Use of resistant varieties
 5. Plant Parasitic Flowering Plants
ss
There are over 2500 higher plants that 'Parasitize other plants in varying degrees of
dependence. However, only few of them cause significant damage on crop plants or
forest trees. The phanerograms or parasitic seed plants that are harmful to agriculture
and forestry are considered.
 The Hemi-parasites - depend on their hosts for water and minerals but not for
photosynthates because their leaves contain chlorophyll.

Example:
• Striga asiatica or witch weed
• Phorandendron spp. or true mistletoes

 The True Parasites - obtain food for its growth while depriving the host.

Example:
• Cuscuta sp., or dodder attacks host plant forming yellow to orange
leafless vine strands around the host.
• Orobanche spp. or Broomrapes - appear on clusters of yellowish,
brownish or purplish stems arising, from the soil at the bases of the host
plants.

Parasite VS Saprophyte

Parasite Saprophyte
➢ Is an organism which depends wholly or partly ➢ is an organism that lives
on another living organism for its food. Most on dead organic or
parasites are pathogens. inorganic matter.
➢ An organism living on or in another living ➢ organisms that use
organism (host) and obtaining its food to the organic material for food.
latter. ➢ Facultative saprophyte
➢ Obligate Parasite • Has the ability to
• Subsist on living organisms and become a
attacks only living tissues (Ex. Virus, saprophyte but is
Rust fungi, downy mildew fungi, etc.) ordinarily a
• is an organism that in nature can grow parasite.
and multiply only or in living
organisms.
➢ Facultative Parasite
• An organism, which has the ability to
become a parasite but ordinarily a
saprophyte.
Plant Disease Triangle and Disease Cycle
For the disease to develop, these components
should be:
• Pathogen – Should be
virulent/aggressive to initiate
infection.
• Environment – Should be
favorable/conducive for the
pathogen to attack or thrive.
• Host – Should be susceptible/not
resistant for infection to manifest
visible symptom.

DISEASE CYCLE – stages in the

development of disease.
- a series of events that
leads to the
development of
disease

Events of parts of a disease cycle:

 Inoculation
 Penetration (Ingress)
 Establishment or infection
 Colonization (invasion)
 Growth and reproduction of the
pathogen
 Dissemination of the pathogen
 Survival of the pathogen in the
absence of the host Fig. 14. Stages in the development of a disease
cycle.

Inoculation
 the coming in contact of a pathogen with a plant.
 Inoculum – any part of the pathogen that can cause initial infection.
Examples: spores, fungal, hyphae, sclerotia; bacterial cells; virus particles;
nematode eggs, larvae and adults.
Types of inoculum:
Primary inoculum – inoculum that causes original infections or inoculum from a
dormant stage that causes original infections.
Secondary inoculum – inoculum produce from primary infection that causes secondary
infections.

Sources of Inoculum:
➢ Plant debris, soil in the field where the crop is grown
➢ Seed, transplants, tubers or other propagative organs
➢ Nearby plants or infested fields
➢ Alternative Hosts such as perennial weeds
Dissemination
 movement of inoculum to new areas, new hosts, etc.

Agents of Dissemination:
Air – Fungal spores mostly disseminated through air
Water – rain, irrigation water etc.
Vectors – insects such as aphids, leafhoppers, planthoppers, mites, nematodes
Seed, transplants, nursery stock
Human – through handling, through tools, soil-contaminated feet, equipment, imported
new varieties, planting materials that harbor pathogens.

Inoculum Survival:
 In infected host tissues and
debris
 In soil as resting sages like
sclerotia, chlamydospores
etc.
 In alternate hosts like other
perennial plants and weeds
 In vectors
 Survival as saprophytes in
non-living matter
Fig. 14. Form and locations of survival of fungi and bacteria
between crops.

Pre-penetration
 Inoculum deposited in or near infection court may be affected by various physical,
chemical (abiotic) and biological factors (biotic) of the environment before
penetration takes place.
• Abiotic factors affecting pre-penetration – moisture and minerals on leaf
surface, soil moisture, RH, soil temperature, etc.
• Biotic factors – other microorganisms in the inoculation sites that may
compete for moisture and minerals, toxic compounds produced by these m.o.
Fungistasis – the incapability of spores of soil-borne fungi to germinate in some soils
due to the existence of a variety of antagonistic m.o. that cause starvation and
production of toxic metabolities. These types of soils are called suppressive soils

Penetration or ingress
 the entry of pathogen into the host plant.

Three modes of ingress or ports of pathogen entry:

• Direct penetration through intact cuticle.
• Through wounds
• Through natural openings (stomata, lenticels, hydathodes)

Fungi – direct, through wounds or natural openings.

Bacteria – through wounds or natural openings.
Viruses – through wounds.
Appresorium – the swollen tip of a hypha or germ tube of a fungus that facilities
Attachment and penetration of the host by a fungus.
Fig. 15. Methods of penetration and invasion of bacteria

Fig. 16. Methods of penetration and invasion of fungi

Fig. 17. Methods of penetration and invasion of nematode

Infection
 the process by which pathogens establish contact with the susceptible cells or tissues of
the host and procure nutrients from them.
 successful infections result in the appearance of symptoms

Latent infections – do not produce symptoms right away but at a later time when the
environmental conditions or the stage of maturity of the plant becomes more favorable.
Incubation period – time interval between inoculation and the appearance of disease
symptoms.
Local infections – infections that involve single cell, a few cells or a small area of the plant.
Caused by some fungi, bacteria and protozoa.
Systemic infections – invasion by the pathogen of most or all susceptible cells and tissues
throughout the plant. Example: Vascular wilt fungi and bacteria, viruses, phytoplasmas

Colonization – Growth and reproduction of the pathogen inside the host.

Colonization by viruses, viroids, and phytoplasma (Mycoplasma)

• These pathogens invade and infect new tissues within the plant by reproducing
at a rapid rate and increasing their numbers tremendously in the infected
tissues. The progeny may then be carried passively into new cells and tissues
through plasmodesmata (viruses and viroids), through phloem (viruses, viroids
and Phytoplasmas, some fastidious bacteria and protozoa.

Colonization by bacteria
• Some bacteria colonize usually through the xylem and in some bacteria, they
may move through cells in their own power.

Colonization by fungi
• Invade the infect tissues by growing into them from one initial point of
inoculation then continue to grow and branch out within the infected host.

Colonization by nematodes
• Multiply initially at one point then may be carried through the xylem or through
cells in their own power.

Types of Disease Based on

Disease Cycles:
 Monocyclic – pathogen
completes only one or
even part of one
disease cycle in 1 year.
 Polycyclic – pathogen
goes through more
than one generation of
disease per growth
season.

Fig. 18. Diagram of monocyclic (left) and polycyclic (right) plant

diseases. Monocyclic lack secondary inoculum and
secondary infections during the same year.
 Specifics Monocyclic Polycyclic
Inoculum type Primary inoculum only Primary inoculum
produces
Secondary
Inoculum Infected plant parts, soil, air
Dissemination etc. Same as monocyclic but
primarily air and vectors

Presence of secondary No Yes

inoculum and
infections
Greater at the end than start Multiplies every cycle
Amount of inoculum at of the season
end of season
Steady increase year to year 10-50% per day
Inoculum build up
smuts, soilborne
smuts, soilborne pathogens pathogens potato leaf
Examples blight, riceblast
bunchy top

Disease Cycle – The chain of events in every infectious disease characterized by a series of
more or less distinct events occurring in succession and leading to the development and
perpetuation of the disease and the pathogen.

Life cycle vs. Disease cycle

 Life cycle – only shows the growth and development of the pathogen.
 Disease cycle – fairly closed to the life cycle of the pathogen but primarily refers
to the appearance, development, and perpetuation of the disease as a function of
the pathogen rather than to the pathogen itself.

Plant Disease Epidemiology

Terminologies:
 Epidemic – any increase of disease in a population. Occurs when the pathogen
spreads to and affects many individuals within a population over a relatively large
area and within a relatively short time.
 Epidemiology – study of epidemics or study of the increase of disease in a
population and the factors that influence them.
 Plant disease epidemic- sometimes called epiphytotics.
 Endemic – disease is one that is native or indigenous to a particular place.
 Exotic – disease is introduced from some other area.
 Pandemic – disease is one of worldwide or widespread occurrence throughout a
continent or a region.
 Sporadic – diseases are those that occur at irregular intervals.
The elements of an Epidemic:

Susceptible host
Virulent pathogen
Favorable environment Form the disease tetrahedron or
disease pyramid
Man as manager

Plant disease epidemic develop as a result of the timely combination of the same elements
that result in plant diseases: susceptible plants, virulent pathogen and favorable
environmental conditions. Humans may help to initiate and develop epidemics through some
of their activities for example: by topping or pruning plants in wet weather; introduction of
new pathogen from other areas through contaminated planting materials, etc.

Factors that affect the development of epidemics

Host Factors
 Levels of genetic resistance susceptibility of the hosts
- host plants carrying major or minor genes for resistance less likely
to develop an epidemic than host plants with no genes for resistance.

 Degree of uniformity of host plants

- when genetically uniform host plants, particularly with regard to the
genes associated with disease resistance, are frown over large areas,
a greater likelihood exists that a new pathogen race will appear that
can attack their genome and result in an epidemic.

 Type crop
- In annual crop such as corn, vegetables, rice etc.. epidemics
generally develop much more rapidly (usually in a few weeks) than
they do in diseases of perennial woody plants.

 Age of host plants

- younger plants are generally more susceptible than adults (adult
resistance).
Pathogen Factors
 Levels of virulence
- virulent pathogens capable of rapidly infecting the host to
ensure faster production of larger amounts of inoculum, and
thereby, diseases than pathogens of lesser virulence.

 Quality of inoculum near hosts

- amount of initial inoculum. The greater the no. of pathogens
propagules (bacteria, fungal spores and sclerotia, nematode
eggs, virus infected plants etc., within or near fields of hosts
plants, the more the inoculum reaches the host and at an
earlier time, thereby greatly increasing the chances of
epidemics.

 Ecology of the pathogen

- pathogens like fungi that produce inoculum (spores)non the
surface of the aerial parts of the plants can disperse with ease
and are more responsible for the epidemics than internal
pathogens like the vascular fungi.

 Mode of spread of the pathogen

- aerially dispersed pathogen cause more of the epidemics.

Environmental Factors
 Moisture
- prolonged or repeated high moisture whether in the form of
rain, dew or high humidity is the dominant factor in the
development of most epidemics.

 Temperature
- epidemics are sometimes favored by temperature, higher or
lower than the optimum for the plant because they reduce
the plant’s level of resistance. Plants growing at such
temperature become “stressed” and pre disposed to diseases
provided the pathogen remain vigorous.

Human Factors
 Site selection and preparation
- low lying and poorly-drained and aerated fields especially if
near other infected fields tend to favor the appear and
development of epidemics.

 Selection of propagative materials

- the use of seed, nursery stock and other propagative material
that carries various pathogens increases the amount of initial
inoculum within the crop and greatly favors the development
of epidemics.
  Cultural practices
- continuous monoculture, large acreages planted to the same
variety, high levels of N fertilization, non-till culture, dense
plantings, overhead irrigation, injury by herbicide application,
and poor sanitation all increase the possibility and severity of
epidemics.

 Disease Control Measures

- Sometimes, certain control measures, eg. the use of certain
chemical, planting a particular variety, etc. may lead to the
selection of virulent strains of the pathogen that either are
resistant to the chemical or can attack the resistant variety and
thus lead to epidemics.

 Introduction of new pathogens

- the ease the frequency of worldwide travel has also increased
the movement of seeds, tubers, nursery stocks and other
agricultural goods. These events increase the possibility of
introducing pathogens into areas where the hosts have not had
a chance to evolve resistance to these pathogens. Such
pathogens frequently lead to severe epidemics.

Measuring plant disease and yield loss

Disease incidence – number of diseased plant units out of total number of units examined.
 Disease severity – proportion of area or amount of plant tissue diseased.
 Yield loss due to disease – proportion of yield unharvestable due.
 yield – actual yield.
Disease forecasting – the prediction of probable outbreaks or increases in intensity of disease
and allows us to determine whether, when and where a particular management practice
should be applied.

Plant Disease Diagnosis

Disease diagnosis – the process of determining the cause of the disease; the key to forecasting
disease epidemic and developing disease warning systems, includes:
 Evaluation of epidemic threshold
 Evaluation of economic damage threshold/ economic threshold level (ETL)
 Monitoring weather factors

New tools in plant disease epidemiology

❖ Molecular tools – DNA and protein-based technologies
❖ Geographic Information System (GIS) – uses geographic coordinates and weather data.
❖ Global positioning system (GPS) – handheld devices, looking at crop units relative to the
field.
❖ Geostatistics – quantitative spatial and temporal patterns of disease development.
❖ Remote sensing – electromagnetic radiation instruments.
❖ Image analysis – photographed and electronic images.
❖ Information technology – computers and other electronic devices.
Variability in Plant Pathogens

Concepts:
 one of the most dynamic and significant aspects of biology is that characteristics of
individuals within a species are not “fixed” that is, they are not identical but vary
from one individual to another. This is due to constant change (evolution).

Mechanisms of Variation
❖ Recombination, heteroploidy, mutation (general).

Mechanisms of variability in fungi Sexual-like processes in bacteria

(sexual-like processes)
Heterokaryosis Conjugation
 a condition in which, as a  coming in contact of two
result of fertilization or compatible bacteria and
anastomosis, cells of the transfer of portion of
fungal hyphae or parts of a the chromosome of
hypha contain two or more plasmid from one
nuclei that are generally bacterium to another
different. through a conjugation
Parasexualism bridge of pillus.
 the process by which Transformation
genetic recombination can  bacterial cells are
occur within fungal transformed genetically by
heterokaryons. Comes absorbing and
about by the occasional incorporating in their own
fusion of two nuclei and cells genetic materials
formation of a diploid secreted by, or released
nucleus. rupture of other bacteria.
Heteroploidy Transduction
 the existence of cells,  a bacterial virus (phage)
tissues, or whole transfers genetic material
organisms with numbers from the bacterium in
of chromosomes per which the phage was
nucleus that are different produced, to the
from the normal 1N or 2N bacterium it infects next.
complement for the
particular organisms.

Stages of Variation in pathogens:

❖ Species
 a population of a particular organism (e.g fungi) that have certain
morphological and other phenotypic characteristics in common; a group of
genetically similar organisms that are capable of interbreeding etc.
Example: Puccinia graminis

❖ Varieties or special forms (formae speciales)

 Individuals within a species that attack only specific hosts.
Example: Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici – infects wheat
Puccinia graminis f.sp. avenae- infects oats
 ❖ Race
 even within each special form, some individuals attack some of the varieties
of some host species but not the others. Each group of these individuals makes
up a race.
Example: There are more 200 races of P.g. triciti.

❖ Variant
 suddenly one of the offspring of the race can suddenly attack a new variety
that it can barely infect before. This individual is called a variant.

❖ Biotype
 the identical individuals produced asexually by the variant makeup a biotype.
Each race consists of one several biotypes.

Genetics of Host-Parasite Interaction

(Genetic of Virulence in Pathogens and Resistance of Hosts)

Infectious plant Diseases

 result of the interaction of at least two organisms, the host plant and
the pathogen. The properties of these two organisms are governed by
their genetic make-up, the DNA that is organized into numerous
segments making up the genes.

Studies of the inheritance of resistance versus susceptibility in plants prove that single
genes control resistance and their absence allows susceptibility. Studies of the
inheritance of avirulence versus virulence in pathogens prove that single genes control
avirulence and their absence allow virulence. Studies of their interactions prove that R
genes in the plant are specific for avr genes in the pathogen. These varieties possessing
certain genes for resistance react differently against the various pathogen races and
their genes for avirulence.

It appears in the above that, under favorable environment conditions, the

outcome-infection (susceptibility) or none-infection (resistance) – in each host
pathogen combination is pre-determined by the genetic make material of the host and
the pathogen.

Remember!

The gene for gene concept explains the step-wise evolution of virulence and
resistance. It states, “For each gene that confers virulence to the pathogen there
is a corresponding gene in the host that confers resistance to the host and vice
versa”.
Knowledge Check!

Multiple Choice: Select your best answer.

1. Plant pathology is the study of

a. Pests c. Weeds
b. Plant diseases d. Insects

2. He is considered the father of plant pathology.

a. Heinrich Anton de Bary c. Theophrastus
b. Herodotus d. Pliny the elder

3. Mummification of fruits is an example of

a. Sign c. Suscept
b. Symptom d. Host

4. A diseased plant is considered a

a. Specimen c. Parasite
b. Suscept d. Abiotic

5. A virus that infects bacteria.

a. Prophage c. Bacteriophage
b. Baculovirus d. Macrophage

6. The walls fungi generally contain

a. Chitin c. Glucan
b. Chitin and glucan d. Pectin

7. This refers to an organism which has the ability to be a parasite but ordinarily a saprophyte.
a. Pathogen c. Facultative parasite
b. Obligate parasite d. Saprophyte

8. The expression of a diseased plant with certain characteristics.

a. Symptoms c. Conditions
b. Signs d. Indications

9. This refers to the structures of the pathogen associated with the infected plant.
a. Symptoms c. Signs
b. Conditions d. Indications

10. When a tomato plant has a root and stem rot disease, which leads to wilting, the wilting
symptoms are classified as
a. Primary symptoms c. Localized symptoms
b. Secondary symptoms d. Systematic symptoms

11. This refers to an extensive, usually sudden death of host tissue.

a. Hypertrophy c. Blast
b. Blight d. Spot
12. Yellowing caused by some factors other than light such as infection by a virus or a
mycoplasma.

a. Chlorosis c. Etiolation
b. Necrosis d. Yellowing

13. Abnormal bending or curling of leaves caused by overgrowth on the side of the leaf or
localized growth in certain portions.
a. Chlorosis c. Curling
b. Damping off d. Necrosis

14. This is not a source of pathogen.

a. Soil c. Infected weeds
b. Plant debris d. Uninfected plant

15. Non-living or environmental factors causing diseases to crops.

a. Biotic c. Abiotic
b. Infectious agents d. Pathogens

16. Feed on decaying organic matter

a. Saprophagous c. Predaceous
b. Plant parasitic d. Aggravators

17. Which is not a mechanism of bacteria to the host?

a. Direct penetration c. Through hydathodes
b. Through stomata d. Through wounds

18. This refers to the sequence of events that leads to and is involved in the production of
disease.
a. Infection c. Diseases
b. Disease cycle d. Life cycle

19. This occurs when the pathogen has become established in the plant tissues and obtains
nutrients from the host.
a. Infection c. Disease
b. Disease cycle d. Life cycle

20. What is the term for the plant disease epidemics that occur throughout the world?
a. Pandemic c. Endemic
b. Sporadic d. Natural

21. What is the term for the plant disease that is native or indigenous to a particular place?
a. Pandemic c. Endemic
b. Exotic d. Sporadic

22. What is the term for the plant disease that occur at irregular intervals?
a. Pandemic c. Endemic
b. Exotic d. Sporadic

23. Following are the elements of epidemic, except

a. Susceptible host c. Nonconducive environment
b. Man as manager d. Virulent pathogen
23. The primary reproductive structures of fungi are
a. Filaments c. Mycelium
b. Spores d. Fungus

24. Which among the following is not a fungi?

a. Rusts c. Smuts
b. Mushrooms d. Algae

25. The feeding structure of plant parasitic nematodes.

a. Denticles c. Mural tooth
b. Stylet d. All of the choices

26. The most destructive stage of nematodes

a. 1st juvenile stage c. 2nd juvenile stage
b. 4th juvenile stage d. Mature stage

27. This is the component of plant viruses

a. RNA c. Protein
b. DNA d. All of the choices

28. A disease caused by a plant viroid

a. Cadang-cadang diseased of coconut c. Tobacco mosaic
b. Peanut mottle d. Citrus decline

29. This is not a type of plant viruses according to persistence in their insect vector
a. Non-persistent c. Invasive viruses
b. Circulative viruses d. Propagative viruses

30. The symptom that shows dry or soft decomposition of tissues.

a. Chlorosis c. Mummification
b. Rot d. Blight
Unit II

Major Pest Group

Learning Objectives
At the completion of this lesson,
you should be able to:
❖ Discuss the definition of
weed science
❖ Describe the characteristics
of weeds
❖ Describe the relationship
among weeds, crops and
other pests
❖ Classify weeds
❖ Describe the effects of
weeds on human affairs
❖ Describe the mechanism of
reproduction and
establishment of weeds
❖ Discuss the mechanism of
crop-weed competition
❖ Discuss the mechanism in
change in weed
population
Lesson 2
Weeds
Hello students? In lesson 2, you will explore the
concept of weeds and what is weed science is all about
specifically, the benefits, adverse effect and
characteristics of weeds. As we all know, weed science
is the scientific discipline that studies plants that
interfere with human activity. Areas of weed science
range from basic biological and ecological
investigations (science) to the design of practical
methods of managing weeds in the environment (art).
But the question is, “What is a weed?” before a plant can
be considered a weed, humans provide a definition.
Many different definitions have been developed for
weeds, depending on the situations where they occur
and the plants involved. Some define a weed as a plant
growing where it is not desired, or a plant out of place.
So, read and enjoy your learning journey!

Activity
Instruction: Below is the list of different species of weeds. Give the scientific
name of the following.

Common name Scientific name

1. Purple Nutsedge
2. Carabao grass
3. Carpet grass
4. Cogon
5. Spiny Amaranth
6. Bermuda grass
7. Devil weed
8. Jungle rice
9. Itch grass
10. Paragrass
 WEED SCIENCE
1. Weed science defined
 Weed Science is the study of weeds and their control. It is an offshoot of
plant physiology having evolved from the study of plant growth regulators.
Its main goal is the formulation of most effective, economical, and
satisfactory methods of controlling weeds.

1.1. Stages in the evolution of weed control practices (Hay, 1974)

 10,000 B.C. – removing weeds by hand
 6000 B.C. – use of primitive hand tools to till the land and destroy weeds
 1000 B.C. – animal powered implements like harrows
 1920 A.D. – mechanically powered implements like cultivators, blades, etc.
 1930 A.D. – biological control
 1947 – chemical control such as 2,4-D and MCPA (2-methyl 3
chlorophenoxyacetic acid)

1.2. History (klingman, 1961 In Mercado, 1979)

▪ 1908 – Bonnet (France), Shultz (Germany) & Dolley (USA) found that a
solution of copper and salts would selectively kill broadleaf weeds in
cereals.
▪ 1909 – Bolley (USA) used table salt, iron sulfate, and sodium arsenate to
control weeds in wheat.
▪ 1943 – Zimmerman & Hitchcock (USA) reported 2,4-D for field weeds.
▪ 1948 – 2,4-D was initially tested in the Philippines to eradicate weeds in
lawns, vacant lots and pastures.
▪ 1955 – other new herbicides and growth inhibitors were studied in the
country

2. What is a weed?
 A plant unwanted at a particular time and place.
 Unwanted and undesirable plants, which interfere with utilization of land
and water resources and thus adversely affect human welfare.

2.1. Concept of a Weed

 Weeds are important component of the agro-ecosystem. They are
important factors in the management of land and water resources and their
economic impact is greatest in agriculture. They often dictate many of the
crop production practices management decisions in growing crops.
 “Nature held o concept of disharmony or undesirableness. The needs of man
dictated whether a species would be a weed or a crop. Thus, the concept of a
weed is man-made”.
 However, some species occur as a weed 99% of the time, such as barnyard
grass and pickerelweed in a rice field; itch grass in a cornfield; purple
nutsedge in a vegetable field. Of the 300,000 species of angiosperms
recorded, some 30,000 or 10% behave as weed 99% of the time.

Origin of Weeds:
1. Obligate weeds are those that are associated with man or found in cultivated
areas.
 2. Facultative weeds are found both in the wild state and in cultivated habitats
Two possible origins:
• The wild species long adapted to sites of natural disturbances.
• The new species or biotypes that evolved with the development of
agriculture.

2.2. Characteristics of a Weed

a. They have rapid vegetative growth.
b. They reproduce rapidly and mature early.
c. Most weeds are very prolific and produce abundant seeds.
d. They have the ability to survive and adapt to adverse conditions.
e. Propagules possess dormancy or can be induced to become dormant under
unfavorable conditions.
f. Adapted to crop competition

2.3 Importance of Weeds/ Effects of Weed on Human Affairs

2.3.1. Losses due to weeds
a. Reduced yield of crops due to competition for sunlight, moisture and soil
nutrients.
b. Reduced quality of the products (both crop and animal products)
c. Added protection cost for other pests
- Scirpus maritimus is attacked (alternate host) by Pyricularia oryzae, the
causal organism of rice blast
- Most grasses – alternate host of green and brown leaf plant hoppers
(Table 1)
- Weeds provide suitable habitat for rodents and other pests
d. Losses due to problems in water management
- Aquatic weeds clog irrigation and drainage canals and hydroelectric gulls.
- Aquatic weeds give undesirable flavor and odor to potable water supplies.
e. Added cost of harvesting and other farm operation
-weeds contribute to harvesting losses by increasing fuel consumption and
equipment wear
- Expenses are incurred in weeding and in cleaning of crop seeds
f. Land and property depreciation
g. Hazard to health and livestock
- Chromolaena odorata and Lantana camara can cause diarrhea resulting
to death of animals. Foliage of Lantana contains pentacyclic triterpenoids
that can cause hepatotoxicity and photosensitivity in grazing animals such
as sheep, goats, bovines, and horses. Leaves and young shoots have
exceptionally high nitrate content that can poison feeding livestock.
- Pollens of Cynodon dactylon, Eleusine indica, Chrysopogon aciculatus,
Imperata cylindrica and Sorghum halepense were reported to cause allergy
- Pistia stratiotes serve as host of mosquitoes that carry the parasites
responsible for rural fillariasis and encephalomyelitis
Table 1. Weeds as secondary hosts for diseases, insects, and nematodes of rice and other crops
DISEASE/ INSECT HOST WEEDS
Bacterial Leaf Blight Leptochloa chinensis
Rice dwarf disease (virus) Echinocloa crusgali
Rice stripe disease Echinocloa crusgali, Cynodon dactylon
Tungro virus Cyperus rotundus, Fimbristylis miliaceae, Cyperus brevifolius

Melodoyne (nematode) Fimbristylis miliaceae, Echinocloa colona, Lantana camara

Root-knot nematodes (in Ageratum conyzoides
vegetables)
Tobacco mosaic virus Amaranthus spinosus

2.3.2. Benefits that may be derived from weeds

 Reduce soil erosion in hilly areas
- Cogon or I. cylindrica grows well in areas that are hilly and of low
soil fertility)
 Add organic matter to the soil when properly incorporated or plowed
under (e.g. Sesbania rostata, green manure in lowland rice)
 Provide food and cover for wild life.
- Some weeds are edible: Amaranthus species, Portulaca oleraceae, and
Corchorus olitorius
- Seeds of small grain weeds are used as food, and feed for birds and hogs
- some weeds are used as forage: Sorghum halepense, Panicum maximum or
guinea grass, Cynodon plectostachyus or star grass, Brachiaria mutica or
paragrass, Pennesitum purpureum or Napier grass, Pueraria phaseoloides or
kudzu, Brachiaria decumbems or signal grass
 Yield useful drugs and delicacies
 Provide habitat for insect predators
 Aesthetic Value (Beautify the landscape)
- Water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) and water fern (Salvinia auriculata)
were introduced in the region as ornamental.
 Provide reservoir of germplasm and constitute a potential source of
domesticated plants

3. Classification and Identification

3.1. Based on Lifespan

a. Annual weeds – complete their life cycle in one season and mainly reproduce
e.g Itchgrass (Rottboellia cochinchinensis), Gooseweed (Sphenoclea
zeylanica), Water purslane (Ludwigia octovalvis), Gabi-gabi (Monochoria vaginalis)
b. Perennial weeds – weeds that live for more than one season for several years
reproducing vegetatively and by seeds.
 Simple perennials – reproduce only by seeds
Example: Sida (Sida acuta), Makahiya (Mimosa pudica), Devil weed
(Chromolaena odorata), Lantana (Lantana camara)
 Creeping perennials – reproduce by seeds and vegetative propagules as
▪ Stolon – Bermuda (Cynodon dactylon)
▪ Rhizome – Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense); Cogon (Imperata
cylindrical)
 ▪ Tuber – Purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus)
▪ Off-shoots – water lettuce – Pistia stratiotes; water hyacinth –
Eichornia crassipes

3.2. Based on Habitat

 Upland/Terrestrial – well adapted to well-drained soils.
 Lowland/Aquatic – weeds thrive best under saturated or flooded conditions of
the soil
 Emergent – when upper portion is above water but roots anchored to the
ground (e.g. Cyperus iria, Sphenoclea zeylanica)
 Submerged – all parts are under water (e.g. Hydrilla vericillata)
 Floating – upper portion is above water but roots are not anchored to the
ground (e.g. water lettuce or Pistia stratioes, Azolla pinnata, Salvinia
molesta)
 Aerial or Ephiphytic – weeds growing in air, attached to trees or other support

3.3. Based on Growth Habit

 Erect – weeds grow vertically with a single or multiple stem; upright
growth habit
 Creeping/ Prostrate – weeds grow horizontally on the ground; can be
procumbent and decumbent
▪ Decumbent – lying flat with ascending apex
▪ Procumbent – stem trailing or lying flat but not rooting at nodes,
apex not ascending
 Twining/Climbing – these plants need support to grow vertically

3.4. Based on Stem Structure

a. Herbaceous – stems are soft and succulent; usually annuals
b. Woody – stems are hard and with a bark; usually perennials

3.5. Based on Area of Origin

a. Exotic/ Imported – weeds originating from a particular place, introduced
to another area, adapt to the new place and in time become a serious weed.
b. Native/endemic – the weed is native to the area.
c. Naturalized/ adventives – these are exotic weeds that need the
interference of man in order to grown in a new place.

3.6. Based on morphological characteristics:

▪ Grasses- from the Family Gramineae (Poaceae); stem, referred to as culm, is
cylindrical; culm has well defined nodes and internodes; leaves arise alternately
in two rows; basal part of the leaf is the leaf sheath which clasp the culm, upper
part is the blade with parallel venation; ligules, a hairy membranous outgrowth
between the leaf blade and leaf sheath exist.
e.g. Barnyard grass (Echinocloa crusgali), Bermuda (Cynodon dactylon),
Itchgrass (Rottboellia cochinchinensis
▪ Sedges – from the Family Cyperaceae; they closely resemble grasses except that
their culm aretriangular; indistinct nodes and internodes located at the basal part
of the culm; leaf sheath fused to form a tube around the culm forming rosette leaf
arrangement; root system is fibrous.
 e.g. White kyllingia (Cyperus kyllingia) Fimbristylis (Fimbristylis miliaceae),
Tikiw (Scirpus grossus)

▪ Broadleaves – from Monocotyledonae and Dicotyledonae. They are identified by

their fully expanded, broadleaf structure. Most have netted leaf venation. Many
broadleaves have succulent stems and taproot system. They may be monocots or
dicots. Families commonly represented are:
• Asteraceae (Compositae) – largest family of flowering plants
e.g. Tropic ageratum (Ageratum conyzoides), Little iron weed
(Vernonia cinerea)
• Euphorbiaceae – weed with milky sap
e.g. Garden spurge (Euphorbia hirta), kaliskis (Euphorbia prostrata)
• Amaranthaceae – with sessile, apetalous flowers
e.g. Spiny amaranth (Amaranthus spinosus), slender amaranth
(Amaranthus viridis), Taling talingan (Celosia argentea)
• Araceae
e.g. Water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes)
• Pontederiaceae
e.g. Water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes), Pickerelweed
(Monochoria vaginalis)
• Sphenocleaceae
e.g. Gooseweed – Sphenoclea zeylanica
• Papillonaceae/ Leguminosae
e.g. Cover crop (Calopogonium muconoides), Hairy centrosema
(Centrosema pubescens)
• Mimosaceae
e.g. Common sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica), Giant sensitive plant
(Mimosa invisa)
• Caesalpinaceae
e.g. Balatong aso - Casia tora
• Convulvulaceae
e.g. kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica), kamuti-kamuti (I. triloba)
• Commelinaceae
e.g. Sabilau (Commelina benghalensis)
• Verbenaceae
e.g. Sapinit or lantana (Lantana camara), kandi-kandilaan
(Stachytarpheta jamaicensis)

General Groups of Weeds

1. Common weeds – weeds that are more or less found in every farm but are not
exceptionally injurious and are readily controlled by ordinary good farming
practices.
2. Noxious weeds – weeds that are particularly undesirable, because of their
certain undesirable characteristics, like the presence of an extensive perennial
underground system that enables to resist all the most determine effort to
control.
- Noxious weeds are persistent, highly competitive,
and difficult to control and reduce crop yield even at low
density.
 Persistence – is a measure of the adaptive potential of a weed that enables it to grown
in environment disturbed by man.

Table 1. Classification and identification of the ten world’s worst weeds.

Scientific Name English/Common Life Span Habitat Body Texture & Growth
Name Habit
Cyperus rotundus Purple nutsedge Perennial In dryland field Herbaceous
crops Erect
Cynodon Bermuda Perennial In dryland field Herbaceous
dactylon* crops Creeping
Echinocloa Barnyard grass Annual In wetland rice Herbaceous
crusgali Erect
Echinocloa colona Jungle grass Annual In wetland area Herbaceous
(decumbent) & Decumbent
dryland field crops
Eleusine indica Goose grass Annual In dryland field Herbaceous
crops Prostrate to ascending
Sorghum Johnson grass Perennial In plantation crops Herbaceous
halepense* Erect
Panicum Guineagrass Perennial In plantation crops Herbaceous
maximum Mostly Erect
Eichornia Water hyacinth Perennial In wetland rice Herbaceous
crassipes (floating) Erect
Imperata Cogon Perennial In pastures and Herbaceous
cylindrica plantation crops Erect
Lantana camara Lantana (sapinit) Perennial In pastures and Woody/Shrub
plantation crops Erect
In the Philippines, Echinocloa species may be ranked next to C. rotundus and S. halepense
and C. dactylon may be replaced with Paspalum sp. and Rottboellia cochinchinensis

4. Weed Establishment

4.1 Soil as seedbank of weeds

- Average number of weed seeds in the soil – 30,000 to 350,000/m2 or 3 to 3.5
B/ha
- Phil. Lowland rice field condition – 804,076.074 M seeds containing of 12
species/ha
- Predominant species: Fimbristylis littoralis and Scirpus supinus var. lateriflorus
- Cultural practices that can modify weed seed population: crop rotation, fertilizer
application and tillage practices

4.2 Longevity of weed seeds

Longevity – refers to the length of life or viability of weed seed or vegetative
propagules
Factors to consider: soil type, sunlight exposure, cultural practices and moisture
content
4.3 Dormancy of weed seeds
 Dormancy – the inability of the seed or any vegetative organ or tissue to
germinate under favorable conditions
- acquired through primary or natural dormancy or secondary
dormancy
 Primary/Natural/Innate Dormancy- inherent property of the mature seed
as it leaves the parent plant
 Secondary dormancy – induced through encounter with unfavorable
conditions
 Induced dormancy – develops when a non-dormant seed becomes dormant
after exposure to such specific environmental conditions
 Enforced dormancy – limitations of the habitat or environment prevents
seeds from germinating

Mechanisms of Dormancy:
 Physical – impermeability of water and or oxygen
 Physiological – immature embryo or presence of inhibitors

Methods of breaking dormancy:

 Microbial action or abrasive treatments: sulfuric acid, stratification
 Passage through alimentary tract of livestock
 Dehulling (physical dormancy)
 Alternate wet and dry conditions
 KN03, GA3, Cytokinin, Auxin, etc.
 Light and temperature treatment

4.4. Weed seed germination

 Germination – the resumption of growth of the embryo in the seed or of the young
plantlet in a tuber, bulb or rhizome.

Steps/Phases of germination
1. Imbibition- absorption of water accompanied by swelling
1.1. Physical process: absorption of water by starch or non-living part of
the seed

1.2. Physiological process: absorption of water by the embryo; initiation

and progress of starch hydrolysis; activation of enzymes; breakdown of
food reserve that trigger rapid metabolic activity
2. Period of rapid metabolic activity – cell division and cell elongation proceed
at a fast rate supported by a rapid synthesis of materials. The result is the
perceptive growth of the embryo.
3. Emergence of root – radical and root-like structure break through the seeds
and grow into the soil
4. Emergence of the shoot – the shoot grows above the ground
5. Period of independent growth – the dependence on food reserve ceases and
the seedling start to manufacture its own carbohydrate.
Factors affecting weed germination
a. Environmental factors – moisture, temperature, oxygen
b. Cultural factors – water management, cultivation and light,

4.5. Seedling growth and development

The Seedling Stage

- The most competitive stage being characterized by a high demand for soil
nutrients water and light in order to sustain a rapid phase of growth.
- the most sensitive to environmental influences
- high water requirement
- most vulnerable and most practical stage for control
- most susceptible stage to herbicide action

Factors affecting seedling growth and development:

➢ Soil factors – Most weeds are more efficient than the crops in drawing nutrient
from the soil. Amaranthus accumulates calcium, Cleome and Pistia accumulate
potassium
➢ Light – shading increases RH in the area causing decrease transpiration and slow
nutrient uptake from the soil; high RH can cause higher incidence of diseases
• Species sensitive to shading: C. dactylon, I. cylindrical, P. stratiotes, C.
rotundus
➢ Adaptation to growing condition
• Cynodon dactylon – introduced to Southeast Asia as a turf grass is now
growing luxuriantly as a weed
• Echinocloa crusgali- native of Central and East Asia can survive in sub-
temperate condition
• Rotboellia cochinchinensis – strictly tropical in distribution is now found in
sub temperate areas
• Eichornia crassipes – introduced as ornamental during the Spanish regime
➢ Competitive power of the weed
Most weeds derived their competitive power from their rapid development
manifested by:
- Rapid root growth and development
- Rapid leaf production
- Multiple shoot development
- Formation of large and expansive foliar-type of cotyledon allowing early
photosynthetic function
- Formation of toxin, which may be toxic to other higher plants

5. Weed reproduction and dispersal

 Weeds have a very efficient method of reproduction and remarkable capacity for
survival under a wide range of conditions. This is due to their morphological and
physiological adaptations, which are expressions of their high degree of
specialization.
5.1. Methods of Reproduction
a. Seeds or sexual reproduction – annual weeds reproduce by seeds. Most weeds
are prolific seed producers.
- Flowering in most annual weeds start as early as five weeks after planting
and coincides with the period of rapid leaf, shoot or tiller production of
most crops.
e.g. E. crusgali starts flowering 48 DAP and mature seeds are produced
in another 14 days; R. cochinchinensis flowers in 47 days and produce mature
seeds in 19 days
- Flowers of most weeds are small, inconspicuous and rarely occur singly

b. Vegetative or asexual reproduction- important in the spread of perennial

weeds. Vegetative reproduction adds to the difficulty of control due to the
production of dormant underground propagules.
- The principal types of vegetative propagules are: rhizomes, tubers, bulbs,
stolon, off-shoot. Some weeds have more than one type of vegetative
propagules (Table 3).
- A rhizome resembles a root but is differentiated into nodes, internodes and
scale leaves (e.g. cogon, Paspalum distichum). In some species, the terminal
portion of the rhizomes develops into a fleshy storage organ, the tubers.
Some tubers may develop into the basal bulbs, which send out rosette of
aerial leaves (C. rotundus). Stolon resemble rhizomes in most respect but
they remain above the round. The young plant arises from the lateral but
near the basal part of the stem axis (C. dactylon).

Table 3. Mode of asexual reproduction of some perennial weed species

Scientific Name English/ Common Name Propagation
Cyperus rotundus Purple nutsedge Rhizomes, tubers and basal bulbs
Cynodon dactylon* Bermuda Runners or leafy stolons and
rhizomes
Panicum maximum Guineagrass rhizomes
Eichornia crassipes Water hyacinth stolons
Imperata cylindrica Cogon Rhizomes
Lantana camara Lantana (sapinit) Rooting from the lower branches
Scirpus grossus Tikiw Stolons and tubers
Paspalum conjugatum Carabao grass runners
Calopogonium muconoides covercrop Cuttings
Cynodon plectostachyus stargrass Stolon or runner

5.2. Disseminating agent and dispersal of weeds

 Dispersal unit = refers to the reproductive structure usually single-seeded
together with accessory parts that separates from the mother plant and is
disseminated to other areas.
 Wind – the various modifications of seed structure that equip them for
wind dissemination are termed SACCATE, winged comate (hair-covered),
parachute and plumed.
e.g. Echinocloa sp. are light and can be easily blown by wind.
Imperata cylindrica and Saccharum spontaneum seeds are with parachute
 like structure. Ageratum conyzoides and Tridax procumbens are with
pappus consiting of a circle of silky hairs.
 Water – seeds of many weeds are light or are covered with an oil film,
enabling them to float on the water surface. Some have air-filled
membranous seed envelops or corky adjuncts of mature fruits which can
float on the surface of water.
 Animals – the dispersal of seeds in the form of incompletely digested
materials passing through the animals is termed ENDOZOOCHORY.
Fruits and seeds of some species may have special structure such as
spines, hooks or sticky substance which enable them to cling to fur or hides of
animals or clothes of man.
 Explosive mechanism of weeds – members of the legume family sometimes
explode and scatter their seeds upon maturity.
 Man – some species have specialized structure hooks, spines, barbs and
awns that cling to man’s clothing and footwear or agricultural implement
used by man.

6. Weed Interference- refers to all types of positive and negative interactions between
species

6.1. Crop Weed Competition

Competition occurs when two or more plants make demands for the same
resources of the environment in excess of the immediate supply or when the resources
are supplied in the limited amount. The overall effect of competition is a reduction in the
reproductive potential of the competitors.
6.1.1. Types:
 Interspecific competition – competition between plants of different species.
 Intraspecific competition – competition between plants of the same species.

6.1.2. Component of Competition: Influence of weed on crop growth, Partial control

of weeds due to the presence of crop.
6.1.3. Resources being competed for: water, nutrients, and sunlight
6.1.4. Factors affecting the degree of competition
 Weed species – Echinocloa competes with rice better than Monochoria
because of its extensive root system
 Density – the amount of competition increases with the number of
individual species per unit area and their size
 Time of weed competition – the critical periods of competition for many
crops: 1) at the end of the crop establishment period; 2) beginning of the
tillering stage of the crop; 3) beginning of the fruiting period; and 4)
beginning of the maturation (Table 4 and 5).
 Crop variety of cultivar – crop varieties adopted to the locality are better
competitors than introduced varieties.
 Seeding methods – crop given a headstart to grow can compete better with
the weeds. Closer distance of planting makes the crops more competitive
with weeds.
 Nutrients in the soil- weeds grow better under adequate levels of nutrients
making them more competitive against the crop indicating their
efficiency
 Critical Period of Competition – the length of time wherein the crop is very
sensitive to weed competition.
Critical Threshold Level – the density of weeds above which yield reductions
could be incurred.

Table 4. Critical period for weed control in different crops

CROP PERIOD FROM PLANTING (DAYS) DAYS TO MATURITY
Corn 49 120
Soybean 42 125
Mungbean 21-35 60-65
Peanut 42 105
Upland rice 50 120
Lowland rice 30-40 120

Table 5. Stages to be obtained by some vegetables when weeding can be stopped

CROP DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE
Garlic Bulb initiation
Okra 10-15 cm height
Carrot 7-10 cm height
Bean Canopy formation
Cucumber Runner initiation
Cabbage Head initiation
Tomato 20-30 cm height

6.2 Allelopathy
It is the harmful effect of one plant or another through the production of toxins or
inhibitors that escape into the environments. It is a biochemical interaction between
plants resulting to a direct or indirect effect of one plant on another. Such effect could be
inhibition of germination, inhibition of root elongation as cellular disorganization and
other adverse effects.
-toxins from S. viridis cause a disruption and disorganization of cabbage roots. This
affects nutrient absorption and makes cabbage less competitive.
- Cogon has an inhibiting substance in the rhizome that can inhibit the growth of
tomato and cucumber (koline)
- Toxin from itch grass seeds inhibit the growth of cucumber seedlings
- Living and decaying rhizomes and leaves of Johnson grass excreted inhibitory
activity on Setaria viridis, Digitaria sanguinalis and Amaranthus retroflexus

Toxic substances classification:

1. Antibiotic – produced by microorganism and effective against microorganism
2. Marasmin – produced by microorganism and toxic against higher plants
3. Phytoncide – produced by higher plant and work against a microorganism
4. Koline – produced by higher plants and work against another higher plants
 Knowledge Check!

Identification: Identify the items called for and write your answer in the space provided.

_____________1. Deals with the nature, concepts and possible control of weeds.
_____________2. Year that 2,4D was discovered.
_____________3. Plants that interfere with man or areas of his interest.
_____________4. What society defined weed as “a plant growing out of place”.
_____________5. Removing of weeds is under what control?
_____________6. 2,4D Is a ___________ derivatives.
_____________7. Weeds that complete their life cycle in one season only.
_____________8. Phytochemicals found in Lantana that can cause hepatoxicity in grazing
animals.
_____________9. Weeds that reproduce through stem, rhizome, tuber and off-shoots.
_____________10. Weeds that are well adapted to well-drained soils.

Multiple choice: Select your best answer.

1. Plant part that sedges do not have.
a. Stem c. Leaves
b. Ligule d. Root hairs

2. Environmental factor that is optional for seed germination.

a. Moisture c. Temperature
b. Oxygen d. Light

3. First sign of weed growth under field condition.

a. Emergence of shoot c. Rapid metabolic activity
b. Absorption of water d. Root elongation

4. Germination of stringbean seeds is under what type of germination

a. Hypogeal c. Monocots
b. Epigeal d. None of the choices

5. Cultural factor that causes anaerobic condition that inhibit seed germination
a. Flooding c. Aeration
b. Cultivation d. Dehusking

6. Most successful factor/mechanism of seed dispersal

a. Wind c. Water
b. Animals d. Human

7. Weeds competes with crops for the following, Except

a. Nutrients c. Time
b. Space d. Light

8. Water absorption is under what process of germination

a. Imbibition c. Root elongation
b. Rapid metabolic activity d. Independent growth

9. Plants are subjected to low temperature to flower

a. Stratification c. Scarification
b. Vernalization d. Chilling

10. Water impermeability of oxygen is under what mechanism of dormancy?

a. Physical mechanism c. Structural mechanism

b. Physiological mechanism d. Both a and c
 Unit II

Major Pest Group

Lesson 3
Learning Objectives Arthropods and Vertebrate Pests
At the completion of this lesson, you
should be able to:
❖ Discuss the definition of entomology Hello students, in lesson 3 you will explore the
❖ Recognize the difference between an concept and principles of entomology as a field in crop
insect and a mite protection. You will learn about the parts, biology and
some important aspects related to this field.
❖ Describe the characteristics of insects
Entomology is the study of arthropods and
that make them a very successful their relationship to humans, and other organisms.
group of arthropods
❖ Describe how insects affect man as a
consequence of varied habits and
behavior
❖ Recognize insect orders
❖ Discuss the representative insect
pests and important considerations
to make in the formulation of
strategies/programs for their
management
❖ Identify and characterize important
vertebrate pest

Activity
Instruction: Below is the list of different species of insects. Give the scientific name of
the following.

Common name Scientific name

1. Green Leafhopper
2. Brown planthopper
3. Corn borer
4. Corn Armyworm
5. Banana aphids
6. Bean aphids
7. Lady bug
8. Fruit and shoot borer
9. Earwig
10. Human lice
 Entomology
Introduction
 History of Entomology
 Importance of insects to man and agriculture
 Distinguishing characteristics of insects
 General structure of an insect
 Type of insect antennae, mouthparts, legs and wings
 Type of insect metamorphosis

History of Entomology
 Johann Friedrich Eschsholtz – the first entomological investigator in the Philippines
appears to have been, who, as physician and naturalist on the Russian ship Rurik, visited
the Islands in 1816
 Hugh Cuming – one of the pioneer explorers who visited the islands, first in 1831 and
again in 1840 and made collections in Luzon, Mindanao and many of the smaller islands.
Cuming amassed in addition a large quantity of Philippine insects, some of the earliest
known species of Philippine Hemiptera were described from Cumin‟s material that found
its way to British museum.
 Hemiptera Insularum Philippinarum (1870), by Carl-Stahl, the famous Swedish
entomologist, who is generally considered the father of modern hemipterology, and Die
Schemetterlings der philippineschen Inseln; Rhopalocera (1868-1902), by Georg Semper, a
German zoologist, are both milestones in the Philippine entomology for all future works
of Hemiptera, and Lepidoptera. Lepidoptera is the best known order in the Philippines,
with alone 1,825 recorded species, according to Schultze‟s (1928) estimate.
 Insect collectors from 1848 to 1862:
Carl Semper, brother of Georg Semper, did a lot of insect collections
Hans Herman Behr (1848)
Pierre Joseph Michaael Lorquia (1856) – lawyer naturalist
Otto Staudinger (1862) – German lepidopterist
 French Baron Edmond de Selys-Longchamps – world authority on his time on dragonflies
damselflies, who published a paper on Odonates de Philippines in 1891.
 1885 to 1896 – The Philippinensis was better known entomologically in Europe and, to
some extent, also in America.
Ramon Jordana – Published Bosquejo geografico e historico natural del
Archipelago Filipino (1885) in Madrid.
Dominican Father Casto de Elera – published Catalogo sistimatco de toda la fauna
de Filipinas cococida hasta al presente, 3 volumes (1895-1896), University of Santo
Tomas Press, Manila.

 Toward the closing of the nineteenth century, resident collectors were beginning to
appear, especially in the persons of Alexander Schadenberg, who was one of the German
founders of Botica Boie, Regino Garcia and Father Francisco Sanchez, S.J., science
professor at the Ateneo de Manila, and his illustrious former pupils, Dr. Jose Rizal (during
his exile at Dapitan), and the Guerrero brothers (Doctors Leon and Luis)…
 Domingo Sanchez y Sanchez – an assistant zoologist in the Government Forestry Service,
published a paper on a coffee longhorned borer, entitled Memoria sobre un insecto
enemigio del cofeto (1890).
 Francisco Alcarraz (1895), who, although not an entomologist, proved himself a careful
and accurate observer of insects particularly on migratory locusts.
 “Ordinances of Good Government,” which were originally promulgated by Governor-
General Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera in 1642 and revised by Governor-General
Don Fausto Crusat y Gongora in 1696 (Blair and Robertson 5:211).
  The successful introduction of the starling, locally known as “martinez”, Aethopsar
cristatellus Linnaeus, from southern China between the years 1849 and 1852, in order to
control the locusts represents the earliest attempt of biological control of insects in the
Philippines.
 The cochineal insect (introduced first in 1826 and again in 1861), mulberry, and silkworm
were among the nineteenth-century importations of beneficial insects, which, however,
met with failure.
 Scientific work in economic entomology in the Philippines, as a major activity, was in
reality an aftermath of American occupation. The American bumblebee Bremus
americanorum (Fabricius), was introduced into the mountain province, Luzon, for the
purpose of fertilizing the clover, which was raised for the army horses and mules.
However, this species apparently did not become permanently established, although at
least two indigenous forms bumblebees are commonly caught on flowers in that locality.
 Chaarles S. Banks- appointed as the first Government entomologist in the Philippines in
1902 to organize entomological section in the Bureau of Government Laboratories (later
Bureau of Science). At about the same time, two other very enthusiastic workers (Farther
William A. Stanton, S.J., assistant director top the Weather Bureau, and Father Robert E.
Brown, S.J) were engaged in carrying out observations on various plant pests largely,
Lepidoptera and parasitic Hymenoptera. Their interesting notes were include in the
monthly bulletins of the Weather Bureau in the years 1903, 1904, and 1905.
 With the opening of the College of Agriculture at Los Banos, in 1909, and the organization
of an entomological section in the Bureau of Agriculture, Manila, in 1910, entomological
work in the Philippines received its much-needed reinforcement.
 Charles Fuller Baker, who was professor of agronomy and subsequently dean of the
College of Agriculture from 1912 until his death in 1927, with his Cuban collector, Julian
Valdez, whom he paid out of personal funds, did more than any other individual to
augment the knowledge of Philippine insect fauna.

Importance of insects to man and agriculture

 Insects are the dominant group of animals on earth. They far surpass all other terrestrial
animals in numbers and they occurred practically everywhere.
 A great many insects are extremely valuable to man and human society could not exist in
its form without them. By their pollinating activities they make possible the production
of many agricultural crops, including orchards, vegetables, plantation crops and
ornamentals, they provide us with honey, bee wax, silk and other products of commercial
value; they serve as many foods for birds, fish, and other useful animals and plants in
check and in scientific research, and they are looked upon by people in all walks of life. A
few insects are harmful and cause enormous losses each year in agricultural crops, stored
products and the health of man and animals.
 Insects have lived on earth for about 350 million years-compared with less than 2 million
for man- and during this time they have devolved in many usual picturesque and even
amazing features.

Distinguishing characteristics of insects

The distinguishing characters of insects my be listed as follows:

 Body
1. Body with three distinct regions: head, thorax, and abdomen.
 Head
2. One pair of antenna (rarely no antennae)
3. One pair of Mandibles
4. One pair of Maxillae
5. A hypopharynx
 6. A labium
 Thorax
7. Three pairs of legs, one pair of thoracic segments (a few insects are legless), and
some larvae possesses additional leglike appendages- such as prolegs on the
abdominal segments
8. Often one or two pairs of wings, borne by the second and or third of the three
thoracic segments
 Abdomen
9. The gonopore (external opening of the reproductive organs) at the posterior end
of the abdomen.
10. No locomotor appendages on the abdomen of the adult (except in some primitive
insects); the abdominal appendages, if present, are at the apex of the abdomen
and consists of a pair of cerci, an epiproct and a pair of paraproct.

General structure of an insect

A knowledge of the structure of insects is important to understand how insects live and
how they can distinguish one from another and from other animals.
Insects are generally more or less elongate and cylindrical in form and are bilaterally
symmetrical, that is, the right and left sides of the body are essentially alike. The body is
segmented and grouped into three regions-head, thorax and abdomen.

 THE BODY WALL

 The insect’s body wall serves not only as the outer covering of the body but also
as a supporting structure, and it is the body wall that most of the muscles are
attached.
 The body wall completely covers the insects and bends inward at various point to
form supporting ridges and braces. The trachea (breathing tubes) and the anterior
and posterior end of the digestive tract are invaginations of the body wall and are
lined with cuticle.

 Sclerotin and Sclerotization

⎯ The hardness of the cuticle is due to the presence in the exocuticle of a
horny substance called sclerotin. The process of hardening is called
sclerotization. Sclerotin is formed from protein component of the cuticle
by the action of quinones.
⎯ Certain areas of the cuticle contain an elastic protein called resilin, which
provides the elasticity of the cuticle and forms the elastic tendons for most
muscles.
1. Color and Pigmentation
⎯ The color of an insect may be due to the pigment in the body wall. Metallic
to iridescent colors are the result of refraction of the light by many minute
vanelike structures or ridges on the surface of the epicuticle; these tiny
ridges are usually visible under extremely high magnification (for
example an electron microscope). The cuticular pigment in the adult is
usually deposited shortly after the final molt; newly emerged adults are
generally pale (teneral). Pigment production in an insect is genetically
controlled, but it may be affected by environment, some pigments are
synthesized by the insect while others are obtained from food.

External and internal processes of the body wall

The body bears numerous external and internal processes. External processes include
setae, spines, scales and the like; some of this are solid cuticle, while others contain all these three
body-wall layers. The internal processes of the body wall may be ridgelike (apodeme) or spinelike
(apophysis); these unfoldings strengthen the body wall and serve as the place of attachment of
muscles.

External Processes:

Setae – a slender hairlike process of the cuticle formed by a plasmatic outgrowth from a single
epidermal cell. The epidermal cell that forms a seta, or any hairlike structure, is termed
the trichogenous cell or trichogen.
Scale – the small flat, scale- like structure that constitute the body covering of adult Lepidoptera
and some other insects are generally modified unicellular outgrowths of the body wall,
which have probably have been evolved from the ordinary setae.
Poison setae – the larvae of certain Lepidoptera are provided with setae from which is
discharged an irritant venom formed in special poison gland cells associated with the
trichogenous cell. The poison issues from the ends of the setae when the tips of the latter
are broken off. Species of caterpillars known to be poisonous occur in the Notodontidae,
Liparidae, Megalopygidae, Arctiidae, Noctuidae, Eucleidae, Saturniidae and Nymphalidae.

Two principal types of stinging structure in caterpillars:

a. The apparatus consists of an ordinary setae that has become toxic by the development of
a poison gland cell immediately adjacent to the trichogen, which extends into the lumen
of the setae.
b. The stinging element is the same as above, but the seta has been carried out on the end of
a multicellular spine or spur and becomes thus a terminal armament structure of the
latter.

 THE HEAD
⎯ The Head capsule and internal support
⎯ The head is the anterior capsule-like body region that bears the eyes,
antennae and the mouth parts. The shape of the head varies considerably
in different insects, but it is usually heavily sclerotized (that is the wall of
the head is quite hard).
⎯ Most insects have a pair of relatively large compound eyes, located
dorsolaterally on the head. The surface of each compound eye is divided
into a number of circular or hexagonal areas called facets; each facet is the
lens of the single eye unit or ommatidium. In addition to the compound
eyes.

Structures of mouthparts:
1. Labrum – a broad flaplike lobe situated below the clypeus on the anterior side of the head,
in front of the other mouthpart structures.
2. Mandibles – are the paired, heavily sclerotized, unsegmented jaws lying immediately
behind the labrum.
3. Maxillae – are paired structures lying behind the mandibles; they are segmented, and
Each maxillae bears a feeler like organ, the palp (mxp).
4. Labium – or lower lip (Ibm), is a single structure (through it probably evolved from two
Maxilla-like structure fusing along the midline) lying behind the maxillae.
5. Hypopharnyx – if the mandible and the maxillae are removed, one may see the
hypopharynx (hyp), a short tongue-like structure located immediately in front or above
the labium and between the maxillae.
Glands of the Head:
1. Antennal gland – glands connected with the antenna (not of common occurrence in
insects).
2. Maxillary glands – the presence of maxillary gland has reported in Protura, Collembola
Heteroptera, the larvae of some Neuroptera and Trichoptera and Hymenoptera; they also
occur in coleopterous larvae.
3. Labial glands – these glands are commonly known as „salivary glands‟; but since their
function is variable, they are better termed as labial glands. Labial glands are present in
all the principal orders of insect except Coleopteran. The secretion of the labial glands
generally has come functions connected with feeding, though not necessarily that of a
digestive fluid, for in the blood-sucking insects it may have inflammatory anticoagulatory
properties. In lepidopterous and hymenopterous larvae the labial glands are silk-
producing organs.

Type of insect antennae, mouthparts, legs and wings

 Antenna
The antenna are the first appendicular organs of the head present in adult insects.
The antennae are paired segmented appendages located on the head, usually between or
below the compound eyes. The antennae are sensory in function, and act as tactile organs,
organs of smell, and in some cases organs of hearing.
Insect antennae vary on size and form, and are much used in classification. The
following terms are used in describing the form of the antennae:
1. Setaceous – bristlelike, the segments becoming more slender distally; for example,
dragonfly, damselfly, leafhopper.
2. Filiform – threadlike, the segments nearly uniform in size, and usually cylindrical;
for example, ground beetle.
3. Moniliform – like a sting of beads, the segment similar in size and more or less
spherical in shape; for example, wrinkled bark beetle.
4. Serrate – sawlike, the segments particularly those in the distal half or two thirds
of the antenna, more or less triangular; for example, click beetle.
5. Pectinate – comblike, most segments with long slender, lateral processes; for
example fire-colored beetle.
6. Clubbed – the segment increasing in diameter distally.
a. Clavate – if the increase is gradual
b. Capitate – if the terminal segments are rather are suddenly enlarged
c. Lamellate – if the terminal segments are expanded laterally to form
rounded or oval platelike lobes
d. Flabellate – the terminal segment has long, parallel-sided sheetlike, or
toungelike lobes
7. Geniculate – elbowed, with the first segment long and the following segments
small and going off at an angle to the first; for example, stag beetle, ant, chalchid.
8. Plumose – feathery, most segments with whorls of long hair; for example, male
mosquito.
9. Aristate – the last segment usually enlarged and bearing a conspicuous dorsal
bristle, the arista; for example, housefly, syrphid fly.
10. Stylate – the last segment bearing an elongate terminal stylike or fingerlike
process, the style; for example, robber fly, snipe fly.

 Mouthparts
According to the position of the mouth parts the head may assume one of the three
types of structure:
1. Hypognathous – if the gnathal appendages are directed downward, and
the cranium corresponds in position to the body segments.
 2. Prognathous – the cranium is turned upward on the neck so that the
mouthparts are directed forward
3. Opisthognathous – deflection of the facial region, giving the mouthparts a
posterior ventral position, as in certain Homoptera.
The three types of head structure relative to the position of the mouth are adaptations to
the different habitats or ways of feeding, and all may occur among closely related insects.
Insect mouthparts typically consist of labrum, pair of mandible and maxillae, a labium and
hypopharynx. These structures are variously modified in different insect groups are often used
in classification and identification. The type of mouthparts an insect has determines how it feeds
and (in the case of injurious species) what sort of damage its. It is important therefore, that the
student have some knowledge of the structure of insect mouthparts.

Variation in Insect Mouthparts:

Insect mouth parts are of two general types:
 Mandibulate (chewing) – in mandibulate mouth parts the mandibles move sideways,
and the insect is usually able to bite off and chew its food.
 Haustellate (sucking) – insect with haustellate mouth parts do not have mandibles of
this type and cannot chew food; their mouth parts are in the form of somewhat elongated
proboscis or break through which liquid food is sucked. The mandibles in haustellate
mouth parts either are elongate and stylet-like or are lacking.

Both mandibulate are haustellate mouth parts are subject to considerable variation in different
insects.

A. Mandibulate Mouth Parts

⎯ This is more primitive type and occurs in adult Thysanura, Diplura, Collembola,
Orthoptera, Dermaptera, Psocoptera, Mallophaga, Ordonata, Plecotera, Isoptera,
Neuroptera, Mecoptera, Trichoptera, Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, as well as the
larval stages of many insects.
⎯ A few mandibulate insects obtain their food in liquid form by sucking it through a
channel of some sort in mouth parts; such mouth parts are sometimes described
as chewing-sucking and are found in bees and in some larvae. The larvae of some
Neuroptera (for examples antlions and owl flies) have the mandibles and maxillae
elongate, and suck up the body fluids of their prey through a channel between the
mandibles and maxillae.
B. Haustellate Mouth Parts
⎯ Some of or all the various parts are elongate and styletlike in this mouth parts.
There are eight principal variations in haustellate mouth parts:(1) thrips, (2)
Hemiptera and Homoptera, (3) “lower” Diptera, (4) robber flies, (5) “higher”
Diptera, (6) fleas, (7) sucking lice, and (8) Lepidoptera.

1. The Mouth Parts of Thrips

⎯ The proboscis in thrips is short, stout, asymmetrical, conical structure located
ventrally at the rear of the head. The mouth parts of thrips have been termed
“rasping-sucking”, but is probable that the stylets pierce rather than rasp the
tissues fed upon; the food ingested is generally in liquid form, but very minute
spores are sometimes ingested.
2. Mouth Parts of Hemiptera and Homoptera
⎯ The break is elongate, usually segmented, and arises from the front (Hemiptera)
or rear (Homoptera) of the head. The external segmented structure of the break
is the labium: The labium does no piercing, but folds up as the stylets enter the
tissues fed upon. The inner stylets in the break, the maxillae, fit together in such a
 way as to form two channels, a food channel and a salivary channel. The palps are
lacking.
3. Mouth parts of the Biting Diptera
⎯ The biting lower Diptera include the mosquitoes, sand flies, punkies, black flies.
These insects have six piercing stylets: the labrum, the mandibles, the maxillae
and the hypopharnyx; the labium usually serves as a sheath for the stylets. The
labium does no piercing and folds up or back as the stylets enter the tissue
pierced.
4. Mouth Parts of Robber Flies (Asilidae)
⎯ The mouth parts of these insects are similar to those of the preceding group, but
there are no mandibles and the principal piercing organ is the hypopharnyx.
There are four stylets: the labrum, maxillae and the hypopharnyx. The salivary
channel is in the hypopharnyx, and the food channel is between the labrum and
hypopharnyx. The robber flies on other insects or spiders, and only rarely bite
man.
5. The Mouth Parts of the Higher Diptera
⎯ By “higher” Diptera is meant the flies belonging to the Cyclorrhapa. The mandibles
in these flies are lacking, and the maxillae are represented by the palps (maxillary
stylets are usually lacking). The proboscis consists of labrum, hypopharnyx, and
labium. There are two modifications of the mouth parts in these flies: (a) piercing
type, and (b) a sponging or lapping type.
a) The higher Diptera with a piercing mouth parts include the stable fly,
tsetse fly, horn fly, and louse flies. The proboscis in the louse flies
(Hippoboscidae) is somewhat retracted into a pouch on the ventral side
of the head when not in use.
b) The higher Diptera with sponging or lapping mouth parts include the non-
biting Cyclorrpha such as the house fly, blow flies and fruit flies. The
mouth part structure is suspended from a conical membranous projection
of the lower part of the head called the rostrum. These flies lap up liquid
food; these foods may be in liquid form, or it may be liquified by salivary
secretions of the fly.
6. The Mouth parts of Fleas
⎯ Adult fleas feed on blood, and their mouth parts contain three piercing stylets: the
epipharynx and the lacinia of the maxillae. The food channel lies between the
epipharynx and the maxillary stylets, and the salivary channel lies between the
edges of the maxillary stylets.
7. The Mouth Parts of the Sucking Lice
⎯ The mouth parts of these insects are highly specialized and difficult to homologize
with those of the other insects. There is a short rostrum (probably the labrum) at
the anterior end of the head, from which three piercing stylets are protruded; the
rostrum is eversible and armed internally with small recurved teeth.
8. The Mouth Parts of Lepidoptera
⎯ This type of mouth part structure is sometimes called siphoning-sucking, for there
is no piercing and the insect merely sucks or siphon liquids up through the
proboscis. When used, the proboscis is uncoiled by blood pressure; it recoils by
its own elasticity.

 Legs
The legs of insect typically consist of the following segments: the coxa, trochanter,
femur, tibia, tarsus and pretarsus.
1. Coxa – the first segment off the leg.
2. Trochanter- a small segment freely movable by a horizontal hinge to the coxa
but fixed to the base of the third segment.
 3. Femur – usually the longest and stouted part of the leg, although it varies in
size in different groups of insect or stages of development.
4. Tibia – a slender segment, usually shorter than the femur, there usually are
spines and on its apex movable spine-like processes called spurs.
5. Tarsus – adult insects are usually subdivided into subsegments or tarsomeres.
The tarsomeres may vary from 2 to 5 and the basal tarsomere is sometimes
enlarged and called basitarsus. In certain Orthoptera, small pads, called
pulvilli (sing: pullvillus) are present under the surfaces of the tarsal
subsegments or they may appear as lateral lobes of the pretarsus arising
beneath the base of the claw.
6. Pretarsus – the terminal segment of the leg bearing usually a pair of movable
lateral claws and median lobe, the arolium. In Dioteria, in addition to the two
large pulvilli, one beneath each claw is a median process called empodium
which is spine-like or lobe-like just as the pulvilli.

Functional modification of legs:

Many insects have their legs modified to subserve functions other than walking.
The following are examples of some more common types of adaptation:
1. Saltatorial (hindlegs of grasshopper) – the hind leg is modified for leaping. The
femur is enlarged as compared with that of other legs. This provides room for
the large extensors of the tibia, the principal muscles used in leaping. The tibia
is strongly sclerotized since the force of leaping is exerted against it.

2. Grasping (praying mantis) – the foreleg is raptorial but the tarsus and
pretarsus take no. part in the grasping action. The tibia ends in a sharp curved
spine and the opposing edges of the femur and tibia are provided with long
sharp spines.

3. Clinging (head louse) – the legs are modified for clinging to the hair of its host.
The. tibia is stout and at one side bears a thumb-like process with a spine at
its distal end. There is a single tarsal segment to which the “thumb” is opposed,
and curved pretarsal claw. Tarsus and pre-tarsus work against the thumb in
much the same ways as the human forefinger works against the thumb in
grasping an object.

4. Swimming (cyprinid beetle) – the hindlegs are highly specialized for

swimming. The femur, tibia and first four subsegments of the tarsus are all
broad and flattened and their edges are beset with flattened setae which are
folded back against the leg when not in use.

5. Digging (passalid beetle) – the passalid beetle lives in decaying wood and uses
its. forelegs in helping to excavate its galleries. The foreleg is therefore,
adapted for digging (fossorial). The segments are strongly sclerotized and
rigid and that the tibia is flattened, with several tine-like processes. a) the
tarsus is slender and normal in structure. Many soil-inhabiting insects have
similar forelegs.

6. Cutting (mole cricket) – Mole is a subterranean insect and the forelegs are
perhaps more specialized than the legs of any other insect. The trochanter in
some species is produced distally into a flattened spade-like structure. Apart
from being very stout, the femur is not greatly modified, but the tibia is short
and stout, bearing distally two or three strong flattened and pointed tines. The
first two segments off the tarsus are also produced into strong tines, and tine
 of the first segment can work against one of the tibial; spines to function as
shears in cutting through fine rootlets.

7. Pollen-gathering (honey bee worker) – the leg has a specialized structure

described below.
(a)The pollen comb for removing pollen from the body hairs is made of
several rows of stiff hairs on the inner surface of the first segment of the
hind tarsus. (b) the corbiculae or pollen baskets form the concave outer
surface of the hind tibiae. (c) the tibia tarsal articulation of the hind leg is
so arranged that the approximated ends of the two segments form a pair
of nippers known as the wax pincers. (d) the apex of the middle tibia bears
a strong spur used in scrapping pollen from the baskets and also in
cleaning the wings. (e) on the front legs there is the antennal comb, a notch
in the proximal end of the flexor surface of the basal segment of the front
tarsus bears a row of spines used as an eye brush.

 Wings
The insect wing is flattened double-layered extension of the body wall. Its
structures have three features: the articulation to the body, the veins, and the
differentiation of the wing surface into regions.
1. The articular parts furnish the basal structure in the wing necessary for wing
movements in the distal area and also as a flexor apparatus in insects with
wing flexing mechanism.
2. The veins strengthen and adapt the wings to the movement of flight.
3. The wing regions are accessories to the act of flexion and partly subserve the
action of flight.
The wings of insect vary in number, size, texture, venation and in the position
when they are held at rest. Most adult insects have two pairs of wings, borne by the
mesothorax and metathorax, but some have only one pair (usually borne by the
metathohrax) and some are wingless. In some insects the wings are membranous (like
cellophane and bear tiny hairs or scales: in some insect the front wings are thickened,
leathery or hard, and sheathlike. Most insects are able to fold the wings over the abdomen
when at rest, but the dragonflies, damselflies, and mayflies cannot do this and hold the
wings either outstretched or together above the body when at rest.
 Wing Coupling
Insects possessing two pairs of wings have special devises to keep the
wings coupled during flight. The coupling devices are as follows:
1. Enlarged humeral angle – greatly expanded humeral angle fits under
the forewings of butterflies. Humeral angle is the basal anterior angle
or portion of the wing.
2. Frenulum – single spine or a group of spines in the female of some
moths arising from the humeral angle of the hindwing. The frenulum
fits into the group of scales on the underside of the forewing.
3. Hamuli – row of tiny hooks on the coastal margin of the hindwing
which engaged the forewing on a sclerotized fold along the posterior
margin. Hamuli are found in Hymenoptera and some Trichoptera.
4. Jugum – a lobelike process at the base of the forewing which overlasps
the hindwing. The coastal margin of the hindwing. The coastal margin
of the hindwing fits into a projecting jugum holding the hindwing in
place during flight, found in Trichoptera and Lepidoptera.
  Specialization, texture and vesititure of wings
In many insects the forewings become more scleotized for the protection
if the hindwings when not in use. In others,both wings are delicate membranous
structure cloth with thick or fine hairs sometimes variously pigmented. In few the
wings may be reduced or wanting.
1. Tegmina (sing. Tegmen) – the thickened or leathery forewings of
orthoperan. The texture is parchment-like but the veins are still
distinct. It covers the delicate membranous hindwing in a roof-like
manner.
2. Elytra (sing. Elytron) – a thickened highly scleotized, leathery or horny
forewings of Coleoptera and Dermaptera.
3. Hemelytra (sing. Hemelytron) – the basal 2/3 or 3 /4 of the forewing
is parchmentlike while the remaining distal part is membranous (half
elytron), the forewing of true bugs or Hemipterans.
4. Membranous – have wing cells that are thin and membranous; their
transparency). or translucency, however, may be obscured by various
color pigments, hairs or scales; wings of true flies, (Diptera), bees,
wasps and ants (Hymenoptera), dragonflies and damselflies
(Ordonata).
5. Fringe – margin of the wings are fringed with setae as in Strepsiptera
with fringed stub-like forewings, Thysanoptera (trips) with fringed
short narrow forewing with reduced venation, and Plitidae (smallest
known beetles) with narrow wings fringed with long setae but
without veins.

 Type of Insect Metamorphosis

The change in form of an insect during postembryonic development is known as
metamorphosis. Depending on the degree of specialization of the immature stages,
several types of metamorphosis are recognized.
1. Ametabolous Development – This type of development is restricted by
definition to insects which continue molting throughout adult life, are
wingless and whose ancestors never possessed wings. They also possess
paired of appendages on the proximal abdominal segments. No special name
is given to the young or immature stages.
Ex. Silverfish
2. Hemimetabolous Development – The immature stages of insects with
Hemimetabolous development are known as Nymphs or naiads. The adults of
most forms are winged but some have lost them in the same environment as
the adult, have the same type of mouthparts and eat the same food. The wings
develop as external wing pads, increase in size in successive instars, but are
not functional until the adult stage.
Ex. Grasshopper, cockroach, mantids, bugs, cicada, bedbug, sucking and
biting lice, giant water bug.
- In some hemimetabolous insect groups, the young stages are aquatic
while the adults are aerial. The immature stages are known as naiads
and have external wing pads (as do nymphs), but develop special
respiratory organs for their aquatic existence. The food is different in
naiads and adults.
Ex. Mayfly, dragonfly, damselfly, stonefly
3. Holometabolous or Complete Metamorphosis – Insects with complete
metamorphosis the extremely specialized growing immature stage or larva is
followed by a quiescent pupa. The larva nerve develop external wing pads. The
pupa on the other hand, has external wings, legs and mouthparts pads. The
pupa may be house in a protective cocoon of silk or various other substances
 or may be formed within the hardened cuticula of the preceding larva instar
which develop into a puparium. The immature stages may occur in the same
or different environment as the adults.
Insects’ larvae may be regarded as immature insects which leave the egg
in an earlier stage of morphological development than do the nymphs. The
embryonic features they retain are variously specialized for obtaining food
while internally the adult structures are gradually developing until sufficient
food is obtained when the pupa is formed. Morphologically the pupa
corresponds to the last nymphal instar of insects with hemimetabolous
development. The larval instars represent modified earlier nymphal instars
represent modified earlier nymphal instars.
Ex. Beetle, butterfly, moth, house fly

Classification and Identification of Insects

 The Science of Classification, The Hierarchy of Life, what is a Key
 Morphological characteristics used to distinguish insect orders
 Different orders of insects

 The Science of Classification, The hierarchy of Life, What is a Key

 The Science of Classification

Taxonomy is the science of classification. Group of organisms that share
the same characteristics be defined on the basis of those characteristics, given
scientific names and placed in a classification.
Two other scientific studies are near taxonomy and can be confused with
its systematics and nomenclature. Systematics deals with how organisms are
related to each other and attempt to describe the underlying reasons for that
relationship. Scientists use systematics when dealing with evolutionary concepts.
Nomenclature sets the rules under which organisms are given their scientific
names.

 Nomenclature
Animals have two types of names, scientific and common. Scientific names
are those used by scientists, they are used throughout the world, and very animal
taxon has one. Common names are vernacular names; they often less precise than
scientific names.

 The Hierarchy in Life

The major categories in the hierarchy are shown in taxonomic ladder
below. Some of the frequently recognized subdivisions of major groups are also
indicated.
Domain Eukarya
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Arthropoda Class Insecta (all insects)
Subclass Pterygota (winged insects)
Order Coleoptera (all beetles)
Suborder Phyllophaga (majority of beetles)
Family Curculionidae – name ends in idae
Subfamily Curculioninae – name ends in inae
Genus Cylas – name begins in a capital letter
Species formicarius – name begins in a small letter
Subspecies elegantulus – name begins with a small letter
 The species is the fundamental unit of classification. Species is defined as
“the smallest grouping capable of reproduction and the production of fertile
offsprings”. Individuals are grouped into species and species are grouped into
genus based on their greater similarity to each other than the species groups,
genera are grouped into a family and so on up to the classification ladder.

 What is Key?
A key is a tool that unlocks the door of identification of an unknown
organism. Keys are useful in any biological field where large number of taxa are
difficult to distinguish just by using the naked eye and memory. A key consists of
a series of pairs or groups of statements of contrasting characters, starting with
the most fundamental characters and working down to smaller and smaller
differences until finally specific characters are used to separate individual species.

 Morphological characteristics used to distinguish insect orders

In practice we rely on anatomical characteristics to distinguished between
taxa although other type of characters is also useful if available. This may include
behavioral, physiological and molecular characters. Morphological features used
in distinguishing insect orders include head, mouthparts, antennae, compound
eyes, legs, wings, abdomen and its appendages.

Different orders of insects

Insects are grouped into 20 to 34 orders. The number of orders varies with the different
authorities in the field. In the classification followed here 31 orders are recognized.

The Entognathous Hexapods

ORDER COLLEMBOLA (Greek, kollo = glue; embola = tail)

Common name: springtails
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Springtails are small, elongate globular hexapods with soft body without sclerites but
clothe with hairs and sometimes scales. Metamorphosis is simple or slight.

ORDER PROTURA (Greek, protos = first; ura = tail)

Common Name: None
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Proturans are small, whitish delicate hexapods 0.6-1.5mm that generally inhabit in leaf
litter and the surface of the soil. Eyes, wings, cerci and antennae wanting. Front are carried in an
elevated position like antennae. Metamorphosis is simple or slight.

The Ectognathous Hexapods

ORDER ARCHEOGNATHA (Greek, archeous = ancient; gnatha = jaws)

Common Name: bristletails
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Bristletails are primitive wingless insects. At first glance, they resemble silverfish,
however, silverfish have their abdominal filament nearly equal in length. In bristletailsthe central
filament is much longer than the two sides.
ORDER THYSANURA (Greek, thysanos, = fringe; ura = tail)
Common Name: silverfish
Distribution: Cosmopolitan
 Silverfish primitive, small, flattened wingless insect covered with silvery scales that run
from the insect body very easily. The scales are the reasons for the common name “silver” “fish”.

ORDER EPHEMEROPTERA (Greek, ephemeros = short-lived, ptera = wing)

Common Name: mayflies
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Mayflies are delicate soft-bodied insects with poorly sclerotized body and wings. They
have large eyes and minute antennae, 2 or usually 3 long joined appendages at the tip of the
abdomen. The wings have may cross-veins and the hind wings are usually relatively small.
Metamorphosis is gradual.

ORDER ODONATA (Greek, odous = tooth)

Common Name: dragonflies and damselflies
SUBORDER ANISOPTERA: dragonflies
SUBORDER ZYGOPTERA: damselflies

Odonata is a very ancient insect order of insects with fossils dating from the Upper
Carboniferous. Dragonflies and damselflies are very similar in appearance but differ as follows:
at rest, the wings of dragonflies are spread out perpendicular to the body (resembling aircraft
wing), damselflies bring their wings together loosely over the back of the abdomen; dragonflies
tend to be strongly built; damselflies tend to be rather delicately built; dragonfly nymphs are
heavily built mud-dwellers, while damselfly nymphs flattened abdominal appendages which are
absent in the dragonfly wings.

ORDER PLECOPTERA (Greek, plekos = to fold; ptera = wing)

Common Name: stoneflies
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Stoneflies are soft-bodied insect that generally have two unequal pairs off membranous
intricately veined wings. However, there are some wingless species. The forewings are smaller
than the hindwings and often longer than the abdomen of the insects. They are of interest because
of their archaic features in their structures and the aquatic habits of their nymphs.
Metamorphosis is simple.

ORDER BLATTODEA (Greek, blatta = an insect that shuns light)

Common Name: cockroaches
Distribution: Cosmopolitan, predominantly tropical

Cockroaches are short, broad, and dorsoventrally flattened insect the head nearly or
completely covered from above by the large, shield-like pronotum. They are usually of a
tectaceous or dark mahogany color but some tropical species are brightly colored.
Metamorphosis is slight.

ORDER ISOPTERA (Greek, iso = equal; pteron = wing)

Common Name: termites
Distribution: Cosmopolitan, mostly tropical and subtropical

Termites are soft-bodied, usually pale-colored, social and polymorphic insects living in
large communities composed of reproductive morphs together with numerous wingless, sterile
soldiers and workers. Metamorphosis is slight or absent.

ORDER MANTODEA (Greek, mantis = seer, prophet)

 Common Name: Praying mantis, preying mantis
Distribution: Cosmopolitan, predominantly tropical, subtropical

Mantis are well-known for their stance with upraised legs which resembles praying, or
for the raptorial spines used to empale prey. All species are “sit and wait” Predatory carnivores,
usually feeding on other insects.

ORDER GRYLLOBLATTODEA (Latin, gryllus = a cricket; Greek, blatta = an insect that

shun light)
Common Name: rock crawlers
Distribution: Northern Hemisphere

Grylloblattids are restricted to Wester North America and central to eastern Asia. They
tolerant to cold climate and high attitude. Adults are soft-bodid, palae, finely-haired wingless and
possess well develop mandibles. The compound eye are absent or reduced in size. Grylloblattids
lack organs for the production or reception o sound. Many are found in caves, snow-melt areas
and similarly cool regions.

ORDER DERMAPTERA (Greek, derma = skin, pteron = wing)

Common Name: earwigs
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Earwigs are elongate, often rather flattened insects with well-developed mandibles. The
distinguishing characteristics of this order is the presence of forceps at the end of the abdomen.
Forceps are used by earwigs in a threatening display when disturbed.

ORDER ORTHOPTERA (Greek, orthos = straight; pteron = wing)

Common Name: grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, katydids
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Orthopterans are usually medium- or larged-sized, winged, brachypterous or apterous

insects. Members of Orthopterans have antennae which may be extremely long (extends beyond
the insect body length) or relatively short (less than that of the body length). The forewings are
leathery and hindwings are membranous.

ORDER PHASMATODEA (Greek, phasma = apparition, phantom)

Common Name: stick insects, leaf insects, walking stick insects
Distribution: Warmer parts of the world, especially the topics

All phasmids are phytophagous and are remarkable for their ability to mimic twigs, stems,
leaves and sticks. Their body are varied as the vegetation they inhabit. Dry grass stems are
inhabited by species that are flattened and leaf-like with legs that are equal resemblance to
foliage. Wings may be present or absent. The forewings are leathery and form protective cover,
the hindwings are for flight. In winged species, only the males are capable of flight.
Phasmids actively feed at night and remain motionless during the day. Metamorphosis is
slight.

ORDER EMBIOPTERA (Greek, embio = lively; pteron = wing)

Common Name: webspinner, foot-spinner
Distribution: Tropics and warm temperature regions

Embiopterans or webspinners resemble termites. However, webspinners do not utilize

solid wood (such as fallen logs as food source although they do attack plant debris). Webspinners
are fragile insects with soft cuticle and soft cuticle and weak fliers. They are somber colored, being
either brown or yellowish brown with cloudy wings. The males are usually winged and females
apterous. Metamorphosis is slight or simple.

ORDER ZORAPTERA (Greek, zoros = pure; apterous = wingless)

Common Name: None
Distibution: Tropical and warm temperate regions

Zorapterans are minute, soft and unpigmented insects, 3 mm or less. They are
polymorphic. Metamorphosis is slight.

ORDER PSOCOPTERA (Greek, psocus = biting; pteron = wing)

Common Name: booklice, barklice
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Psocids are tiny insect that are extremely common but so small that they are frequently
overlooked. They are soft-bodied, usually delicate insects less than 2mm in size. They are either
brachypterous, micropterous or apterous. Metamorphosis slight or simple.

ORDER PHTHIRAPTERA (Greek, phthir = lice; aptera = wingless)

Common Name: lice
Distribution Cosmopolitan

Lice are obligate ectoparasites. They are found in all bird species and almost all mammals
except bats. The phthirapterans are apterous, flat-bodied insects entirely adapted to ectoparasitic
life. The majority of the biting species infest birds, while among the sucking group, two infest man,
about a dozen occur in domestic animals, the remainder have been found from several orders of
mammals. Metamorphosis slight.

ORDER HEMIPTERA (Greek, hemi = half; pteron = wing)

Common Name: bugs, leafhopper, planthoppers, cicadas, aphids, mealybugs, scale
insects)
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

The true bugs are readily recognized by the forms of the mouthparts which are adapted
for piercing and sucking. The habit of sucking is prevalent throughout their life except in the male
Coccidia, whose adults have atrophied mouthparts. Other body structures vary greatly within the
order so that no additional general character can be given. Metamorphosis gradual.

ORDER THYSANOPTERA (Greek, thysanos = fringe; pteron = wing)

Common Name: thrips
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Thrips are small or minute, pale or yellow, yellowish-brown or black insects. The
distinguishing characteristic of thrips is the possession of two pairs of fringed wings.
Metamorphosis simple and accompanied by two or three pupa-like instars.
ORDER MEGALOPTERA (Greek, megalo = large; pteron = wing)
Common Name: alderflies, dobsonflies, snakeflies
Distribution: best represented in temperate regions

Megalopterans are soft-bodied insect with two pairs of delicate, large, finely veined wings.
Often the wings are so large that they extend well beyond the abdomen. They can be distinguished
from the Neuroptera by the absence of end-branching of wing veins, and from Mecoptera by their
short, unmodified mouthparts and different terminal portions of the abdomen in both sexes.
Metamorphosis is complete.
 ORDER NEUROPTERA (Greek, neuro = nerve; pteron = wing)
Common Name: lacewings, antlions
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Adult lacewings vary from minute to large species which are often highly colored and
attractively patterned. Many have dense, long hairs on the body and a few are moth like in
appearance. Lacewings are characterized by extremely delicate adult stage, with resemble the
sides of a house roof.

ORDER COLEOPTERA (Greek, koleos = sheath; pteron = wing)

Common Name: beetles, weevils, ladybirds
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

 What is an Insect Pest?

⎯ Insect pest is an insect which interferes with the production of crop and animals
either directly or indirectly.

 Economic Injury Level and Economic Threshold Levels

⎯ One major component of a pest management program is determining when
controls must be applied to prevent economic loss. Economic loss results when
pest numbers increase to a point where they cause crop losses which are greater
than or equal to the cost of controlling the pest. An economic injury level (EIL)
is defined to be that level of pests which will cause economic damage. An EIL
recognizes that treatment is justified for some pest population levels while others
are not of economic importance.
⎯ An economic threshold level (ETL) is the level or number of pests at which
controls must be applied to prevent an increasing pest population from causing
economic losses. Usually, the ETL is lower than the EIL. Insect population must be
increasing before treatment is applied. Decreasing populations have already
caused their damage and treatment would cost more than the return.

Classification of insect based on feeding habits

 Chewing – insects with generalized mandibulate mouthparts
• Leaf skeletonizes
• Leaf miners
• Leaf tiers, leaf rollers, leaf folders
• Borers
 Sucking – insects with haustellate mouthparts
• Most insects cannot digest cellulose. This feeding strategy allows direct
feeding on plant nutrients in the juices or sap without cellulose ingestion.

Feeding Habits
 CHEWING DAMAGE OR RASPING DAMAGE:
 Entire Leaf Blade – consumed by various caterpillars, canker worms, and
webworms. Only tougher midvein remains.
 Distinct Portions of Leaf Missing – distinct notches cut from leaf margin (black
vine weevil adult), circular hole cut from margin of leaf (leaf cutter bees), small
randomly scattered holes in leaf (beetles, chafers, weevils, grasshoppers).
 Leaf Surfaces Damaged – “Sclerotization” of leaf surface. Slugs, beetle larvae,
pear slug (pear sawfly larvae), elm leaf beetle, and thrips.
  Leaves “rolled” – leaves that are tied together with silken threads or rolled into
a tube often harbor leafrollers, i.e. omnivorous leaftler.
 Leaf Miners Feed Between the Upper and Lower Leaf Surfaces – If the leaf is
held up to the light, one can see either the insect or frass in the damage area
(discolored or swollen leaf tissue area), i.e boxwood, holly, birch, elm leaf miners.
 Petiole and Leaf Stalk Borers burrow into the petiole near the blade or near the
base of the leaf. Tissues are weakened and the leaf falls in early summer sectioning
petiole reveals insect larva of small moth or sawfly larva, i.e. maple petiole borer.
 Twig Gridlers and Pruners, i.e. vine weevil and twig girdling beetle.
 Borers Feed under the Bark in the cambium tissue or I the solid wood or xylem
tissue, i.e. mountain pine beetle and smaller European elm bark beetle galleries.
Damage is often recognized by a general decline of the plant or a specific branch.
Close examination will often reveal the presence of holes in the bark,
accumulation of frass or sawdust-like material or pitch, i.e. raspberry crown,
borer, sequoia pitch moth.
 Root Feeders – larval stages of weevils, beetles and moths cause general decline
of plant, chewed area of roots i.e. sod webworm, Japanese beetle, root weevil.

 SUCKING DAMAGE:
 In addition to the direct mechanical damage from feeding, some phloem-feeding
insects cause damage by injecting toxic substances when feeding. This can cause
symptoms which range from simple stippling of the leaves to extensive disruption
of the entire plant. Insect species which secrete phytotoxic substances are called
toxicogenic (toxin producing) insects. The resulting plant damage is called
“phytotoxemia” or toxemia” (Chapman, R.K 1985. Insects that poison plants.
American Grower 33-10:31-38, October 1985).
 Spotting or Stippling – result from little diffusion of the toxin and localized
destruction of the chlorophyll by the injected enzymes at the feeding site. Aphids,
leafhoppers, and lygus bugs are commonly associated with this type of injury.
 Leaf curling or Puckering – more severe toxemias such as tissue malformations
develop when toxic saliva causes the leaf to curl and pucker around the insect.
Severe aphid infestations may cause this type of damage.
 Systemic Systemic – in some cases the toxic effects from toxigenic insect feeding
spread throughout the plant resulting in reduced growth and chlorosis. Psyllid
yellows of potatoes and tomatoes and scale and mealy bug infestations may cause
systemic toxemia.
• General (uniform) “stipple” or Flecking or Chlorotic Pattern on leaf
i.e. adelgid damage on spruce needles and bronzing by lace bugs.
• Random Stipple Pattern on leaf, i.e. leafhoppers, mites.
• Leaf and Stem “distortion” associated with off-color foliage = aphids
cherry aphid, leaf curl plum aphid.
• Galla, Swellings on leaf and stem tissue may be caused by an assortment
of insects, i.e. aphids, wasps, midge, mossy rose gall wasp, poplar petiole
gall midge, azalea leaf gall.
• Damaged Twigs=Split: damage resembling split by some sharp
instrument is due to egg laying (oviposition) by sucking insects such as
tree hoppers and cicadas. Splitting of the branch is often enough to kill the
end of the branch, i.e, cicada.
 Root, Stem, Branch Feeders-General Decline of Entire Plant or Section of a
Plant as indicated by poor color, reduced growth, dieback Scales, mealybugs, pine
needle scale.
 Knowledge Check!

Explanation: Compare and contrast the following.

1. Invertebrate vs Vertebrate
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2. Lepidopterous vs Hemipterous
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3. Mandibulate mouthparts vs Haustellate mouthparts

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