Alma Final Report

Solar Powered Hybrid Scooter
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
In the last years, increasing attention has been spent towards the applications of solar energy to
vehicles. Various prototypes of solar vehicles have been built and tested, mainly for
demonstrative purposes. Despite of a significant technological effort and some spectacular
outcomes, the limitations due to low density and unpredictable availability of solar source, the
weight associated to energy storage systems, the need of minimizing weight, friction and
aerodynamic losses make these vehicles quite different from the current idea. But, while
vehicles powered only by the sun still seems unfeasible for practical uses, the concept of a
electric hybrid scooter assisted by solar cells appears more realistic. In fact, in the last decades
Hybrid Electric Vehicle have evolved to industrial maturity, after a relevant research effort.
These vehicles now represent a realistic solution to the reduction of gaseous pollution in urban
drive and to energy saving. Nevertheless, the need of mounting on board both thermal and
electrical machines and a battery of significant capacity makes these vehicles heavier than the
conventional ones, at the same power, while solar powered vehicles are characterized by very
limited power and weight.
In spite of their potential interest, solar hybrid vehicles have received relatively little attention
in literature. An innovative solar powered hybrid scooter is developed here, adopting advanced
solutions for materials, aerodynamic drag reduction and PV power maximization with peak
power tracking. Other studies and prototypes on solar hybrid scooters have been presented by
Japanese researchers.
Although these works demonstrate the general feasibility of this idea, a detailed presentation of
results and performance and a systematic approach to the design of a solar hybrid scooter seems
still missing in literature. Such a model is particularly necessary since the technological scenario
is rapidly changing, and new components and solutions are becoming available or will be
available in the next future. A specific difficulty in developing a HSV (Hybrid Solar Vehicle)
model is due to the many mutual interactions between energy flows, propulsion system
component sizing, vehicle dimension, performance, weight and costs, whose connections are
much more critical than in conventional and also in hybrid scooters.
Here, a more detailed design of a solar powered hybrid scooter based on better control strategies,
weight and costs, is presented.
AISAT Kalamassery 1 Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engg.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
[1] S. Boumediene, N. Abdelfatah, T. Hamza and C. Hicham, "Power Supply

Multisource Solar/Battery for Electric Scooter”.
The contribution to the study of a hybrid source in electric scooter aiming to solve the principle
problem of fuel and fuel-related pollution nowadays. The main source is connected to Boost
converter that controls the MPPT strategy. Finally, an energy management method is used to
satisfy load energy requirements and restore energy at saturation. That is why a buck-boost
converter is used to control the battery bank.
[2] N. H. Zaini, M. Z. Ab Kadir, M. Izadi, N. I. Ahmad, M. A. M. Radzi and N. Azis,

"The effect of temperature on a mono-crystalline solar PV panel".
There are three important parameters in solar photovoltaic (PV) panel performance, namely
maximum output power, short-circuit current, and open circuit voltage. All these parameters are
affected by temperature fluctuations. This research is focused on the behaviour of a
monocrystalline solar PV panel under different temperatures using experimental work and the
results are validated with a corresponding simulation using Matlab/Simulink software. The
experimental and simulation results show that the electrical parameters change with a variation
in temperature. When the temperature rises, the maximum output power and the open-circuit
voltage decrease while the short-circuit current increases. Typically, when the surface
temperature of the solar PV panel increases, the efficiency of the solar PV panel reduces.
[3] Zhao, F.; Chen, K.; Hao, H.; Liu, Z. Challenges, Potential and Opportunities for
Internal Combustion Engines".
With the increasing pressure on the automotive industry due to energy consumption,
environmental pollution and climate change, internal combustion engines, which occupy a
dominant position in traditional automotive powertrains, are facing considerable challenges
from battery electric powertrains. This paper presents an in-depth analysis and objective
interpretation of the challenges, potential and opportunities for internal combustion engines in
this point. internal combustion engines will continue to play an important role in the
development of the automotive industry, and they have the potential for further improvement in
plenty of areas, such as thermal efficiency, emissions and electrification. Internal combustion
engines will undergo an important evolution toward high efficiency through fixed-point
operation, system simplification and cost reduction. In addition, the electrification of
powertrains, the upgrading and diversification of fuel designs, and the development of

intelligent and connected technologies will bring unprecedented opportunities for making the
internal combustion engine more efficient, green and clean to better serve society in the near
future.
[4] C. Sinkaram, V. S. Asirvadam and N. B. Mohd Nor, "Capacity study of lithium ion
battery for hybrid electrical vehicle (HEV) a simulation approach" .
The dynamic model of Li-ion batteries was created and the model was validated with different
temperatures. The Li-ion battery characteristics were simulated as voltage profiles for two
different condition of initial State of Charge (SOC) and for two different values of temperature.
The usable operating time and the battery were found to vary with SOC initial and temperature.
It is also found that the usable run time of the battery increases with increase in SOC initial and
decrease in temperature. The Li-ion discharge battery model was simulated for the Hybrid
electrical Vehicle (HEV). The simulation results give a framework of a nonlinear dynamic
performance of the Li ion battery pack for the electrical scooter.
[5] Y. B. A. Apatya, A. Subiantoro and F. Yusivar, "Design and prototyping of 3-phase

BLDC motor".
A BLDC motor drive is a potential option for an electric vehicle since it has a high reliability,
simple design, and ability to work at high rotation per minute (RPM). The structure of an interior
rotor permanent magnet type is selected to be used in the design of Permanent Magnet BLDC
motor so that it can be applied in a drive that requires a large torque and capable of acceleration
and deceleration with good response. Selection of 12 slots and 8 poles configuration aims for
improving the motor performance. The motor is designed and simulated using a software-based
Motor Solve FEA (Finite Element Analysis). . Parameters testing as stator resistance,
inductances, and the back emf constant (Ke) were used to evaluate the result of the design and
prototype motor.
[6] Dalke, Piyush. (2016). DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF HYBRID MOPED USING
ELCTRICAL AND PETROL OPERATING ARRANGEMEN.
Rapid depletion of fossil fuels has forced the necessity of an alternate energy vehicle. Electric
vehicles serve as promising technology for the future world transportation arena Due to minor
drawbacks the electric vehicles cannot match up with the fossil fuel powered vehicle which
made the invention of hybrid technology. Concentrated efforts are mainly towards
implementing a concept called as hybrid system by which one system will be charged while the
other system provides propulsive power to the vehicle. When the s runs on the electric motor it
is almost nonpolluting. This project is deal with the development of the as the only petrol vehicle
or electrical vehicle is not as sufficient as hybrid vehicle. This hybrid technology can
compensate the disadvantages of both type of vehicle. There is various type of base on the typeof
charging as it becomes plug-in type or other.

[7] D. K. Chy and M. Khaliluzzaman, "Experimental assessment of PV arrays connected to

Buck-Boost converter using MPPT and Non-MPPT technique by implementing in real time
hardware".
A non-inverting Buck-Boost converter based on MPPT and Non-MPPT technique by

implementing modified P&O algorithm through MPPT control circuit. The modified P&O
algorithm is a simple algorithm that does not require previous knowledge of the PV
characteristics. A PV system incorporating a solar panel, Buck Boost converter and load as
battery is modeled and implemented through hardware. Entire range of the duty cycle needs to
be used for using this modified algorithm. Without adding much additional cost a desired
efficiency is obtained. A microcontroller-based PV system is used in this work.
[8] Lin Bai, "Electric drive system with BLDC motor ".
A BLDC motor is the best choice for high-efficiency motor and shows a design of control
system for BLDC motor. With the comparison of DC motor, Induction Motor and BLDC motor,
Analysis will be done to determine which type of electric motor has the best characteristics and
the motor will be modeled in MATLABTM /Simulink to determine which type of motor has
the best performances and the highest efficiency. A control system will be designed in the
electric drive system.
[9] Q. Xie, Y. Wang, Y. Kim, M. Pedram and N. Chang, "Charge Allocation in

Hybrid Electrical Energy Storage Systems."
Describe the global charge allocation problem in HEES systems, namely, distributing a
specified level of incoming power to a subset of destination EES banks so that maximum charge
allocation efficiency is achieved. The problem is formulated as a mixed integer nonlinear
program with the objective function set to the global charge allocation efficiency and the
constraints capturing key requirements and features of the system such as the energy
conservation law, power conversion losses in the chargers, the rate capacity, and self-discharge
effects in the EES elements. A rigorous algorithm is provided to obtain near-optimal charge
allocation efficiency under a daily charge allocation schedule. A photovoltaic array is used as
an example of the power source for the charge allocation process and a heuristic is provided to
predict the solar radiation level with a high accuracy.

[10] C. Duan et al., "A Solar Power-Assisted Battery Balancing System for EVs."
There are three operation modes of the system: solar-balancing, storage-balancing, and charge
balancing. The solar-balancing mode charges the battery module with the lowest state of charge
(SOC) using the solar power during vehicle driving; the charge-balancing mode is operated
when the vehicle is parked and being charged by the conventional charger. Under this mode,
the balancing circuit discharges the battery module with the highest SOC by transferring the
energy to an additional storage cell while the solar panel also charges the storage cell
independently at the same time if solar power is available. When the solar power is low, the
storage balancing mode will be selected to charge the battery module with the lowest SOC using
energy stored in the storage cell. This system eliminates the energy loss that would otherwise
happen in conventional active and passive balancing schemes by equalizing the battery using
solar/stored energy in the storage cell.
Several papers and journals were referred and studied for doing the project, by studying each
paper several knowledge on specific control systems and methods of control were obtained and
using this gained knowledge the project design and works were done.
Various ideas and knowledge obtained where on:
• Selection of components like motor, solar cell, battery, controllers, relays etc.
• Charging methods for the battery, charging control, voltage control methods.
• Several control techniques employed to control the motor.
• Algorithms and programs related to control systems like MPPT charge controller.
• Solar cell positioning.

CHAPTER 3
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE VEHICLE (ICEV)
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) is a vehicle that is powered by a regular internal
combustion engine (ICE). ICEV uses fuel which combusts inside a combustion chamber with
the help of an oxidizer (typically oxygen from the air). This means that to get power, ICEVs
literally burn fuel. ICEs most commonly use fuels derived from fossil fuels. These include
petrol, diesel, jet fuel, and compressed natural gas. In addition to internal combustion engines
that use fossil fuels, there are also ICEs that are powered by biofuels (e.g., ethanol and biodiesel)
or hydrogen.
ICE is the most common engine used in cars, planes, boats and other vehicles. But fossil fuel is
not a renewable source of energy and due to incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, these engines
pollute the air around us. Because of these environmental challenges, car manufacturers are now
manufacturing more and more alternatives that do not use or use less fossil fuel. These include
electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
(PHEVs) and fuel cell vehicles (FCVs).
Fig 3.1 ICE Motor

3.2 ADVANTAGES
• Size of engine is very less compared to external combustion engines.

• Power to weight ratio is high.
• Very suitable for small power requirement applications.
• Usually more portable than their counterpart external combustion engines.
• Safer to operate.
• Starting time is very less.
3.3 DISADVANTAGES
• Most of the fuel used in these engines are very costly.
• In comparison with an external combustion engine, the emission is generally high.
• It cannot be used for large scale power generation.
• Due to the detonation of fuel, a lot of noise is generated.

CHAPTER 4
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
4.1 INTRODUCTION
An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle that uses one or more electric motors for propulsion. It can
be powered by a collector system, with electricity from extravehicular sources, or it can be
powered autonomously by a battery (sometimes charged by solar panels, or by converting fuel
to electricity using fuel cells or a generator). EVs include, but are not limited to, road and rail
vehicles, surface and underwater vessels, electric aircraft and electric spacecraft.
Electric vehicles have low running costs as they have fewer moving parts for maintaining and
also very environmentally friendly as they use little or no fossil fuels (petrol or diesel). While
some EVs used lead acid or nickel metal hydride batteries, the standard for modern battery
electric vehicles is now considered to be lithium-ion batteries as they have a greater longevity
and are excellent at retaining energy, with a self-discharge rate of just 5% per month. Despite
this improved efficiency, there are still challenges with these batteries as they can experience
thermal runaway, which have, for example, caused fires or explosions in the Tesla model S,
although efforts have been made to improve the safety of these batteries.
4.2 TYPES OF EVs
There are two main types of electric vehicles (EV); fully electric and plug-in hybrids:
4.2.1 BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES (BEV)
Compared to an internal combustion engine, battery powered electric vehicles have approximately
99% fewer moving parts that need maintenance.
Advantages of a BEV:
• Creates very little noise

• No exhaust, spark plugs, clutch or gears
• Doesn't burn fossil fuels, instead uses rechargeable batteries
BEVs can be charged at home overnight, providing enough range for average journeys.
However, longer journeys or those that require a lot of hill climbs may mean that the fuel cells
require charging before you reach your destination, although regenerative braking or driving
downhill can help mitigate against this by charging the battery packs.
The typical charging time for an electric car can range from 30 minutes and up to more than 12 hours.
This all depends on the speed of the charging station and the size of the battery.
In the real world, range is one of the biggest concerns for electric vehicles, but is something that is
being addressed by industry.

4.2.2 PLUG-IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES (PEV)
A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV), also known as new energy vehicle (NEV) in China, is any
road vehicle that can utilize an external source of electricity (such as a wall socket that connects
to the power grid) to store electrical power within its onboard rechargeable battery packs, which
then powers the electric motor and contributes to propelling the wheels. PEV is a subset of
electric vehicles, and includes all-electric/battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid
vehicles (PHEVs)
Plug-in electric vehicles have several benefits compared to conventional internal combustion
engine vehicles. All-electric vehicles have lower operating and maintenance costs, and produce
little or no local air pollution, thus (depending on the electricity source) reducing societal
dependence on fossil fuels and significantly decreasing greenhouse gas emissions, but take time
to recharge and are heavily reliant on sufficient charging infrastructures to remain operationally
practical. Plug-in hybrids provide most of electric vehicles benefits when they are operating in
all-electric mode, though typically having shorter all-electric ranges, but have the auxiliary
option of driving as a conventional hybrid vehicle when the battery is low, using its internal
combustion engine (usually a gasoline engine) to alleviate the range anxiety that accompanies
current electric vehicles.
4.3 ADVANTAGES
• A Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) has fewer moving parts.

• High performance and low maintenance.
• Less pollution.
• Renewable energy used.
• Reduced harmful exhaust emissions.
4.4 DISADVANTAGES
• Can travel less distance.

• Take longer time to refuel.
• More expensive.

CHAPTER 5
HYBRID SCOOTER
5.1 INTRODUCTION
According to recent studies, the fossil fuels are depleting at a fast rate; and the whole fossil fuel
in the world must be completely depleted in and around 50 years. Therefore, it is the need of
the time to make a new exploration of natural resources of energy and power among the natural
resources available—sunlight is the most promising one. Sunlight is considered to be a source
of energy which is implemented in various day-to-day applications. The Solar/Electric Powered
Hybrid Vehicle [1] (SEPHV) contains the solar panel, brushless DC (BLDC) motor,
chargecontroller, batteries. Plug-in unit is used to charge the batteries in normal AC supply
during sunless conditions. A zero-emission solar/electric vehicle is powered by photovoltaic
(PV)/electric supply energy by means of solar panels and AC supply with storage of electric
energy in batteries. The PV array has a particular operating point that can supply the maximum
power to the load which is generally called maximum power point (MPP), which is used to
boost the efficiency of the PV system. Solar energy is being used to produce electricity with the
help of these technologies. So, the aim is to make solar energy powered hybrid vehicle.
Fig 5.1 Hybrid scooter

5.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM
Fig 5.2 Block Diagram of Hybrid Scooter
The fig 5.2 shows the hybrid scooter system. The above shown is the block diagram of hybrid
scooter system. This system has two sources of power, one is fuel source and other is the
electrical source. The battery charging can be done using solar PV charging and using plug in
supply. In the PV system there is a solar panel with a charge controller that regulates the power
received by the solar panel and it is connected to the bidirectional converter, the plug in is an
AC supply, this ac power is then further converted to DC by AC-DC converter. The
bidirectional converter is capable of working in both direction that is, to charge the battery and
to carry power from battery to drive the motor. The electric motor is coupled to a mechanical
system that helps in the rotation of the rear wheel of the scooter. This hybrid system is also
power by a fuel system which is the secondary source of the scooter.

CHAPTER 6
COMPONENTS REQUIRED
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The components that are mainly used in this solar powered hybrid scooter are Scooter, Solar
panel, Charge Controller, Inverter, Battery, BLCD Motor, Motor controller.
6.2 SOLAR PANEL
A solar cell panel, solar electric panel, photo-voltaic (PV) module or solar panel is an assembly
of photo-voltaic cells mounted in a framework for installation. Solar panels use sunlight as a
source of energy to generate direct current electricity. A collection of PV modules is called a
PV panel, and a system of PV panels is called an array. Arrays of a photovoltaic system supply
solar electricity to electrical equipment.
A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most installations contain
multiple modules adding voltages or current to the wiring and PV system [18]. A photovoltaic
system typically includes an array of photovoltaic modules, an inverter, a battery pack for
energy storage, charge controller, interconnection wiring, circuit breakers, fuses, disconnect
switches, voltage meters, and optionally a solar tracking mechanism. Equipment is carefully
selected to optimize output, energy storage, reduce power loss during power transmission, and
conversion from direct current to alternating current.
The solar cell is a semiconductor device [4]that converts solar energy into electricity. Basically,
asolar cell is a p-n junction in a thin wafer of semiconductor. When a solar cell is exposed to
sunlight, the photons with energy greater than the band-gap energy of the semiconductor are
absorbed and create a number of electron-hole pairs proportional to the incident irradiation.
These carriers are swept apart and create a photocurrent, under the influence of the internal
electric fields of the p-n junction which are directly proportional to solar insolation. Crystalline
silicon solar cell was one of the first to be developed and continues to be the dominant material
for solar PV production in the world. In addition, silicon is at present the most abundant material
found in the earth’s crust and is well understood in the integrated circuit industry. Crystalline
silicon PV can be subdivided into cells made of poly-crystalline or monocrystalline. The cell
efficiencies for mono-crystalline silicon are found to be significantly higher than for poly-
crystalline silicon.
The efficiency of a solar cell is given by fraction of incident sunlight converted into electricity.
Mathematically, efficiency of a solar cell can be given by:
N = (V×I×FF) / Pin where,
V : Open circuit volt

I :Short circuit current

FF : Fill Factor
N : Efficiency
Pin:Input power
Solar cells utilize photovoltaic effect which is a phenomenon to generate an emf due to
absorption of ionizing radiation. As solar cells are prone to mechanical damage, several solar
cells are highly interconnected and encapsulated into single stable unit called solar module
which increases their lifetime to 20 years. Solar panel are mounted where solar radiation is
maximum available to increase its efficiency.
Fig 6.1 Cross-section of solar cell

6.2.1 TYPES OF SOLAR PANELS
The solar panels differ based on the type of solar cells used [18]. There are 3 basic types of solar
panels:
• Monocrystalline solar panels

• Polycrystalline solar panels
• Thin-crystal solar panels
6.2.1.1 Monocrystalline Panels
They are the most efficient at converting sunlight into electricity [12]. They are usually dark
black in color. The solar cells are made of single crystal silicon and uniform lattice structure.
This homogeneous structure enables electrons to move easily and hence are more efficient
comparedto polycrystalline panels. Since they are highly efficient, the solar panel size is less and
occupiesless roof space and are less expensive.
Advantages
• Highest efficiency solar panels made of a high-grade silicon.

• Space efficient.
• Long lifespan.
• More efficient in warm weather compared to others.
Disadvantages
• Highly expensive.
6.2.1.2 Polycrystalline Panels
They are dark blue in colour. The manufacturing process is very difficult. It can be done using
the expensive Czochralski process which produces efficient silicon wafers or the less costly
Bridgman process producing less efficient silicon wafers.
And because of its nonhomogeneous structure with many crystal fusion, there is less space for
electrons to move and are less efficient. They occupy more roof space and hence less efficient.
Advantages
• Costs less.
• Lower heat resistance compared to Monocrystalline panels.

Disadvantages
• Less efficient than Monocrystalline.

• Less space efficiency.
6.2.1.3 Thin-Film Panels
These panels are often not made with silicon wafers, but made by depositing semiconductor
material on a ceramic substrate. This is a very thin layer of a special ‘paint’ of very fine particles
of specific metals that is applied on the substrate. Although the cost is low for these solar panels,
more roof space area is required in this case.
Thin film modules are made by the depositing semiconductor material on a ceramic substrate.
Advantages
• Mass production – simple.

• Very Appealing.
• High temperature and shading have less impact.
Disadvantages
• Takes up a lot of space.

• Degrades faster compared to others.
6.2.2 IMPORTANT FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR SELECTION OF A

SOLAR PANEL
6.2.2.1 Installation and Venue Conditions
• The direction where the solar panels are installed – India located in the northern
hemisphere makes true south the optimum direction to get the most out of the solar
panels.
• The tilt of the solar panels – The tilt of the solar panel is adjusted to make sure the sunlight
strikes at 90 degrees with the panel. This angle of incidence varies with seasonal
variations. The Solar output depends on orientation, tilt and tracking.
• Shading – The solar equipment(crystalline) produces the maximum output when working
without shades. Consider the different types of shading when installing the solar PV
systems. Ensure there are no obstructions creating shades on the equipment.

• Temperature – The ambient temperature plays an important role. It affects the solar panel
temperature in determining the output of the solar panels.
6.2.2.2 Economical Perspective
Consider your budget. Choose a solar panel that suits your budget when taken other factors into
consideration.
6.2.2.3 Cost Efficiency of Solar Panels
The efficiency of solar panels is the amount of electrical output it can provide for the amount of
solar radiation falling on it per meter square[12].
For example: consider a solar panel with efficiency 14% and area 1.5 m2. If the amount of solar
radiation falling on this panel is 1000W/m2, then this panel is capable of producing.
1000 * 14% * 1.5 = 210W
If this energy falls for 5 hours, then this panel will produce 210*5= 1050 Wh or 1.05kWh in a
day. Higher the efficiency, higher will be the amount of energy generated per unit area. So
efficiency matters if you have limited space for solar panel installation and in such a case it is
better to go for higher efficiency solar panel.
Although efficiency is important what matters at the end of the day is cost efficiency, i.e. how many
money you are paying for each Watt of power?
6.2.2.4 Solar Panel Temperature
Solar Panel Temperature [12] plays a major influence in the output of the Solar
panels.Solar Panel temperature depends on the:
• Ambient temperature and Temperature coefficient of the Solar panels.
• Solar Panel Installation.
6.2.2.5 Ambient Temperature and Temperature Coefficient of the Solar Panels
If the weather is very hot it leads to increase in the solar panel temperature – the result is reduced
output. Contrarily in cold sunny temperature, the solar panels can work more efficiently.
Information on the temperature’s effects on solar panels is provided by the manufacturers in terms
of the temperature coefficient of power rating.

6.2.2.6 Temperature Coefficient
Temperature coefficient tells the rate at which the power decreases for every degree rise in
temperature.
Temperature coefficient of the solar panels come in between 0 and 0.5%. Closer the value is to 0
higher the power output. Also, the installation of the Solar PV affects the Panel temperature.
All the solar panels come with 25o Celsius rating. But the temperature outside can grow much higher
than this.
For example:
Let’s say a 500W mono-crystalline solar panel installed on a roof is at 50oC.

The solar panel’s power loss can be calculated as follows:
50oC – 25oC = 25oC
25oC x -0.5% = 12.5%
Therefore, panel power loss = 12.5% x 500W = 62.5W
Therefore, panel power = 437.5W
Solar Panel installation – Where the Solar panel is installed can influence the panel temperature.
If it is installed on a rooftop the solar panels experience far greater temperature than the ambient
temperature leading to decreased output.
6.2.2.7 Panel Quality and Warranty
Weather and temperature fluctuations can cause panels to degrade over time and produce less energy.
Most solar panels lose about 1 percent of their power generating capacity per year.
A solar company’s product warranty is an indicator of how much a company is willing to stand
behind its products. SunPower offers an industry-leading 25-year combined power and product
warranty. In the unlikely event that a SunPower panel is underperforming, we will repair or
replace the panel and reinstall it on your home.
There are many important factors when going solar – performance, quality and warranty are at
the top of the list. You also want to make sure you purchase the panels from a reputable company
that will be around to back up its warranty.
6.2.2.8 Tolerance of Solar Panels.
A solar panel rated at say 100 Watts should give at least 100 Watts under standard test
conditions. However, if the manufacturers say that their panels have a tolerance of +/- 5%, it
means the same panel can give either 105 Watts (acceptable) or even 95 Watts (not acceptable).
Ensure that your solar panel will always have ‘positive tolerance’ mentioned on the datasheet.

Here we are using a mono-crystalline solar panel shown in fig 5.2, and its specificationsgiven in
table 5.1.
TABLE 6.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF A 33W MONO-CRYSTALLINE SOLAR PANEL
Parameters Specification
Watts 33W
OC Voltage 66V
SC Current 2A
Nominal Voltage 18V
Fig 6.2 Solar Panel (mono-crystalline)
6.3 CHARGE CONTROLLER
Solar Charge Controller is an electronic device that manages the power going into the battery
bank from the solar array. It ensures that the deep cycle batteries are not overcharged during the
day and that the power doesn’t run back to the solar panels overnight and drain the batteries.
Some charge controllers are available with additional capabilities, like lighting and load
control, but managing the power is its primary job.

6.3.1 TYPES CHARGE CONTROLLERS
A solar charge controller is available in two different technologies, PWM and MPPT. An MPPT
charge controller is more expensive and highly efficient than a PWM charge controller, and it
is often worth it to pay the extra money.
6.3.1.1 PWM Charge Controller
This type of controller restricts the output voltage of the panel to near that of battery. It is a
sophisticated voltage regulator that takes incoming voltage from your panel and changes it to
what your battery need. It is a small and inexpensive controller and is ideally suited for small
PV systems with one or two panels but it is a 30 Amp controller and thus has limited power
handling capability. Therefore, if panels are connected in series, we need to move to MPPT
charge controller as voltage increases when panels are connected in series.
6.3.1.2 MPPT Charge Controller
A maximum power point tracker, or MPPT, is basically an efficient DC to DC converter used

to maximize the power output of a solar system. The first MPPT was invented by a small
Australian company called AERL way back in 1985, and this technology is now used in
virtually all grid-connect solar inverters and all MPPT solar charge controllers.
The functioning principle of an MPPT solar charge controller is rather simple - due to the
varying amount of sunlight (irradiance) landing on a solar panel throughout the day, the panel
voltage and current continuously changes. In order to generate the most power, an MPPT
sweeps through the panel voltage to find the ‘sweet spot’ or the best combination of voltage and
current to produce the maximum power. The MPPT continually tracks and adjusts the PV
voltage to generate the most power, no matter what time of day or weather conditions. Using
this clever technology, the operating efficiency increases and the energy generated can be up to
30% more compared to a PWM solar charge controller.
The selection between the two controllers should be based on the system requirements and should be
carefully selected as cost increase exponentially from PWM to MPPT controller.
For this project we are selecting a MPPT based charge controller for more efficient and maximum
power point tracking.

6.3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MPPT CHARGE CONTROLLER
Fig 6.3 Block diagram of MPPT charge controller
The MPPT microprocessor tracks and sets the solar module output at the maximum power point.
The DC-DC converter consists of the DC to AC converter, the transformer, and the AC to DC
converter.
The purpose of these blocks is to convert the VMPP to AC voltage and transformer-couple the AC
voltage to the AC to DC converter, where the AC is converted back to a DC voltage.
As you know, a transformer is an electromagnetic device that works only with AC and isolates
its input electrically from its output. The reason for the isolation is to allow the output DC
voltage to be controlled independently of the voltage from the solar module.
The transformer can also step the AC voltage up or down, depending on what is required by the
system. The MPPT tracks the voltage and current from the solar module to determine when the
maximum power occurs in order to extract the maximum power. The MPPT then adjusts the
voltage to the battery to optimize the charging. This results in a maximum power transfer from
the solar module to the battery.
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) operates using an algorithm, which is basically a series
of steps or procedures that is used to accomplish a desired result. Various algorithms are used
in MPPT, but we will focus on just one called the Perturb and Observe Algorithm.
The Perturb and Observe (P&O) algorithm is a procedure in which a variable is changed
(perturbed) and the effect of the change on another variable is monitored (observed). (P&O is
also known as the hill-climbing method).

6.3.3 ALGORITHM OF MPPT CHARGE CONTROLLER
Fig 6.4 Algorithm of MPPT charge controller
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is an algorithm implemented in photovoltaic (PV)

inverters to continuously adjust the impedance seen by the solar array to keep the PV system
operating at, or close to, the peak power point of the PV panel under varying conditions, like
changing solar irradiance, temperature, and load.
MPPT algorithms are typically used in the controller designs for PV systems. The algorithms
account for factors such as variable irradiance (sunlight) and temperature to ensure that the PV
system generates maximum power at all times.

Perturbation and observation (P&O): This algorithm perturb the operating voltage to ensure
maximum power. While there are several advanced and more optimized variants of this
algorithm, a basic P&O MPPT algorithm is shown above.
6.3.3.1 Perturb and observe algorithm (P&O)
Typically, P&O method is used for tracking the MPP. In this technique, a minor perturbation is
introduced to, cause the power variation of the PV module. The PV output power is periodically
measured and compared with the previous power. If the output power increases, the same
process is continued otherwise perturbation is reversed. In this algorithm perturbation is
provided to the PV module or the array voltage. The PV module voltage is increased or
decreased to check whether the power is increased or decreased. When an increase in voltage
leads to an increase in power, this means the operating point of the PV module is on the left of
the MPP. Hence further perturbation is required towards the right to reach MPP. Conversely, if
an increase in voltage leads to a decrease in power, this means the operating point of the PV
module is on the right of the MPP and hence further perturbation towards the left is required to
reach MPP. The flow chart of the adopted P&O algorithm for the charge controller is given fig
6.4.
When the MPPT charge controller [16] is connected between the PV module and battery, it
measures the PV and battery voltages. After measuring the battery voltage, it determines
whether the battery is fully charged or not. If the battery is fully charged it stops charging to
prevent battery over charging. If the battery is not fully charged, it starts charging by activating
the DC/DC converter. The microcontroller will then calculate the existing power Pnew at the
output by measuring the voltage and current, and compare this calculated power to the previous
measured power Pold. If Pnew is greater than Pold, the PWM duty cycle is increased to extract
maximum power from the PV panel. If Pnew is less than Pold, the duty cycle is reduced to ensure
the system to move back to the previous maximum power. This MPPT algorithm is simple, easy
to implement, and low cost with high accuracy.
6.3.3.2 Advantages of perturb and observe the MPPT technique are:
• Easy to implement.
• Upright, accurate, and good performance under uniform radiation.
• Online and does not depend on PV array.
6.3.3.3 Disadvantages of perturb and observe the MPPT technique are:
• Oscillations around steady-state occur during fast-varying environmental conditions.

• Difficulty of the step size control.

6.4 INVERTER
An inverter is a device used to convert DC power into AC power. The inverter is not a power
generator, because it not produces electrical energy. The inverters converts one form ofelectrical
energy into another form of electrical energy. Therefore, it is a power converter, not a power
generator.
In a three-phase voltage source inverter, insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) was used to
control voltage in normal operation, and a parallel diode was connected to make the inverter
bidirectional in nature. AC voltage was obtained by switching the IGBT switches in a specific
pattern to obtain bipolar square two-level waveform. The bipolar square wave results in high
harmonic content in the output. Use of filter makes the model costly and prohibits it from
becoming bidirectional as concluded from simulation outputs.
Fig 6.5 Three phase Inverter Circuit Diagram
6.5 BATTERY
EV motors react swiftly with high torque and are more efficient against ICE vehicles. We see
various commercially successful EV models Today, be it a sports model or an economical
model. The design of the battery pack is closely related to the performance of an EV.
So, we all know how batteries are used in almost all the appliances we use in our daily lives and
our vehicles as well. Energy is converted to electricity with the chemical energy stored in a
battery.

6.5.1 HOW BATTERIES WORK
The battery [2] consists of a cell called the negative electrode, which has a surplus of electrons
thatare negatively charged subatomic particles. Electrons flow from the negative to the positive
when the two are connected by an electrical cable.
Companies today have come up with a way to use the energy created by these moving electrons
to run a motor. Since the vehicle’s engine is powered by it, it must deliver enough current to the
motor over some time.
Well, does this battery expire? Unfortunately, the battery has an expiry date after a few years. Until
then, you can use the battery without a hitch.
The battery dies when there is no electric flow between the electrodes. Usually, when the
number of electrons on the positive & negative side is in the same number, there is no current
flow. At this particular period, the battery expires, and one has to replace it with another battery.
Secondary battery like lithium-ion, Nickel cadmium Nickel metal Hydride and Lead acid are
the most common energy device for the electronics device and HEV. The performance of a
battery when it is attached to a load or HEV is based on the reactions (chemical based) inside
the battery. The chemical reaction will degrade with time and the load consumption that reflect
the gradual decrease in the energy capacity of the battery. The battery performance depreciation
has to be reduced by controlling its discharging profile in the best was possible, even with
various load conditions.
6.5.2 COMMON TYPES OF BATTERIES USED IN HYBRID SCOOTER
6.5.2.1 Nickel-cadmium battery
If you used rechargeable batteries in the 90s, then you’re already familiar with nickel-cadmium
technology. [6] “Ni-Cd” accumulators had plenty of advantages, with significant storage density
and a lifespan of around of 500 to 1,000 charging cycles.
However, they did suffer from memory effect, a physical phenomenon that sees the battery’s
performance decline if it is subject to partial “charge-drain” cycles. Used for the production of
electric vehicles in the 90s, Ni-Cd batteries are now prohibited due to the toxicity of cadmium.
6.5.2.2 Nickel-metal hydride batteries
Nickel-metal hydride batteries, used routinely in computer and medical equipment, offer
reasonable specific energy and specific power capabilities.[6 ] Nickel-metal hydride batteries
havea much longer life cycle than lead-acid batteries and are safe and abuse tolerant. These
batteries have been widely used in HEVs. The main challenges with nickel-metal hydride
batteries are their high cost, high self-discharge and heat generation at high temperatures, and
the need to control hydrogen loss.

6.5.2.3 Lead-acid Battery
The lead–acid battery is the first type of rechargeable battery ever created. Compared to modern
rechargeable batteries, lead–acid batteries have relatively low energy density [6]. Despite this,
theirability to supply high surge currents means that the cells have a relatively large power-to-
weight ratio. These features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in motor
vehicles to provide the high current required by starter motors.
The disadvantages that come with lead acid batteries is its weight and size, they are very heavy
and bulky, not suitable for fast charging, overheating during charging is common and its typical
cycle life ranges from 300 to 500 cycles. For high power applications such as dealing with
intermittent loads, the lead acid battery is classified as being too large and heavy.
6.5.2.4 Lithium-ion battery
Among the secondary battery, lithium-ion battery is most common types of rechargeable
batteries used for the electronics devices and HEV [6]. Some corporation introduced to the
lithium-ion batteries with high energy density, high operating voltage levels and long cycle life,
to fulfil the needs of portable electronic market and is in extensive use till date. Lithium-ion
battery has no memory effect and less storage losses. The storage system inside the electric
scooter is a Li-ion battery because of its high energy density at a low weight of up to 250 Wh/kg.
A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery composed of cells in

which lithium ions move from the negative electrode through an electrolyte to the positive
electrode during discharge and back when charging [14]. Li-ion cells use an intercalated lithium
compound as the material at the positive electrode and typically graphite at the negative
electrode. Li-ion batteries also have a low self-discharge which makes it useful for variety of
applications. Cells can be manufactured to prioritize either energy or power density. They can
however be a safety hazard since they contain flammable electrolytes and if damaged or
incorrectly charged can lead to explosions and fires.
6.5.2.5 Lithium iron phosphate battery
The lithium iron phosphate battery (LiFePO4 battery) or LFP battery (lithium ferrophosphate) is
a type of lithium-ion battery using lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) as the cathode material,and
a graphitic carbon electrode with a metallic backing as the anode [6]. The energy density of an
LFP battery is lower than that of other common lithium ion battery types such as Nickel
Manganese Cobalt (NMC) and Nickel Cobalt Aluminium (NCA), and also has a lower operating
voltage;CATL's LFP batteries are currently at 125 watt hours (Wh) per kg, up to possibly 160
Wh/kg with improved packing technology, while BYD's LFP batteries are at 150 Wh/kg,
compared to over 300 Wh/kg for the highest NMC batteries.
Because of its lower cost, high safety, low toxicity, long cycle life and other factors, LFP
batteries are finding a number of roles in vehicle use, utility scale stationary applications, and
backup power. LFP batteries are cobalt-free.

TABLE 6.2 COMPARISION OF BATTERIES
Battery Type Specific Energy Specific Power Charge-discharge Life Cycle

(kWh/tonne) (kWh/tonne) Efficiency
Lead Acid 35 40 90% 1000

Lithium-ion 110-190 1150 95% 2000
Nickel-metal hydride <80 200 91% 3000
Li-ion phosphate 95-155 1060 95% 1000-5000
From table 5.2, Li-phosphate is the better option compared to other batteries because of its good charge-
discharge efficiency and long-life cycle.
Here we are using a lithium iron phosphate battery shown in fig 6.6, with specifications given below
in the table 6.2.
TABLE 6.3 BATTERY SPECIFICATION
Parameter Specification
Nominal capacity 24Ah
Nominal voltage 51.2V
Fig 6.6 Lithium iron phosphate battery

6.6 SCOOTER MOTORS

The DC electric motor is the “powerplant” of your electric scooter. It determines top speed,
acceleration, hill climbing ability, power consumption, and performance. All electric scooters
have at least one motor, while high performance scooters will have two
6.6.1 BASIC PARAMETERS CONSIDERED FOR SELECTING A GOOD MOTOR
6.6.1.1 Motor Power

Nearly all electric scooters have a motor power rating that is given in units of watts. A watt is a
measure of power equivalent to joules per second or energy per second.
The motor watts or wattage indicates how much power the motor is capable of consuming. Notice
that we use the word consume and not produce (more on this later). A motor with high wattage
will be able to consume a lot of energy in a short amount of time. The more energy a motor
consumes, the more mechanical power it will produce. A higher motor watt rating, in general,
means the motor will accelerate more quickly, carry more rider weight, and climb steephills.
Not all motors are created equal and motor power (measured in watts, W) doesn’t exactly tell
the whole story. For example, two motors could be rated for 250 W. This means they can both
consume 250 W of electrical power, but it doesn’t mean they are equally efficient and produce
the same mechanical power. This is because motor power doesn’t capture how the motor’s
efficiency, and no manufacturer currently reports that figure.
Though motor power is usually provided, you can also calculate it by multiplying motor voltage
(volts, V) by current (amps, A). For example, to find the motor power (watts, W), consider a
motor running at 36 V and 7 A; it has a power output of 36 V x 7 A = 252 W.
6.6.1.2 Motor Torque
Torque is the twisting force produced by the motor and given in units of Newton-meters (Nm,
or pound-foot for countries using imperial). Torque is the force that rotates your electric
scooter’s wheel and propels you forward.
Most manufacturers don’t provide torque output specifications for their motors, but you can
estimate it using the relationship that power is equal to torque multiplied by revolutions per
second (RPS) or Power (W) = Torque (Nm) x RPS.
By dividing the motor power by max revolutions per second, you can estimate torque. DC
electric motors produce their maximum torque at zero revolutions per second (also called “stall
torque”) and zero torque at their maximum, unloaded revolutions per second. Peak power output
is found at half the max revolutions per second and half the max torque.

6.6.1.3 Motor Performance
In general, motor power is a coarse way to compare the performance of different electric
scooters. The scooter with the more powerful motor should accelerate faster and carry heavier
loads. However, as we mentioned before, this measure doesn’t tell you about the motor
efficiency. Additionally, different manufacturers seem to measure motor wattage differently (or
optimistically). As such, we recommend that you consider it a useful measure to coarsely
compare scooter performance, but not a be-all end-all decider of a scooter’s performance.
When discussing motor power, there is a difference between what is called peak power vs.
sustained power. Peak power refers to the maximum amount of power the motor can consume
for a short period of time. It is also not the most useful measure for comparing electric scooters
because how it is measured also doesn’t seem to be universal. Additionally, peak power is often
2 to 5X greater than continuous power.
Some manufacturers quote the peak power of their electric scooter as a way to boost their stats.
Sustained or continuous power is the maximum amount of power the motor can consume
indefinitely.Continuous power is what we (and most others) are referring to when we quote
specs for motor power or motor watts. This is the most useful measure for comparing motor
performance among electric scooters.
6.6.2 MOTOR TYPES
There are two types of motors used in electric scooters: brushless direct current (DC) electric motors
and brushed DC motors.
6.6.2.1 Brushed DC Motors
Brushed motors are an older form of motor technology dating back to the 1800s. In brushed DC
motors, mechanical brushes drag along the inside of the motor to alternatively power different
coil phases. Over time, the brushes wear down from friction and that can cause voltage to act
irregularly and be hazardous. In a BLDC motor, this mechanical component is replaced by
digital switching circuitry that alternatively powers different coils in the motor.
6.6.2.2 Brushless Dc Motor or BLDC Motor
Brushless DC motors also known as a BLDC motor are based on newer technology that
performs better than brushed DC motors. Emerging in the 1970s, BLDC motors are more
efficient, have better power-to-weight ratios, and are more durable. They also tend to run
quieter, and are less prone to overheating. Most quality electric scooters will have a BLDC
motor
The Brushless DC (BLDC) motor [15] is also referred to as an electronically commutated motor.
There are no brushes on the rotor and commutation is performed electronically at certain rotor
positions. A BLDC motor is a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor with unique back EMF
waveform that allows them to behave similarly to a brushed DC motor.

BLDC motor does not directly operate off a DC voltage source. However, the basic principle of
operation is similar toa DC motor.
A Brushless DC Motor has a rotor with permanent magnets and a stator with windings, a BLDC
motor is essentially a DC motor turned inside out. Brushes and commutator have beeneliminated
and the windings are connected to the control electronics. Control electronics replacethe function
of the commutator and energize the proper winding, Windings are energized in a pattern which
rotates around the stator, the energized stator winding leads the rotor magnet andswitches just
as the rotor aligns with the stator.
Fig 6.7 Cross section of PM DC Motor
The Brushless DC motor is the ideal choice for applications that require high reliability, high
efficiency, and high power-to-volume ratio. Generally speaking, a BLDC motor [17]is
considered to be a high-performance motor that is capable of providing large amounts of torque
over a vastspeed range. Most electric scooters come with BLDC motors. If we are looking for a
good scooter, it is useful to use motor power (or motor wattage) to approximately compare
performance of different scooters. More power should give you better acceleration, faster top
speed, and better hill climbing ability. More details on BLDC motors will be discussed in detail
in the motor controller’s section.
Here we are using a BLDC motor shown in fig 6.7, with specification shown in the table6.3.

Fig 6.8 BLDC Motor
TABLE 6.4 SPECIFICATIONS OF BLDC MOTOR
Type Permanent magnet BLDC

motor
Voltage(V) 48
No load current (A) 2.3

Rated current (A) 38
Peak current (A) 46
Rated speed (RPM) 500

Max.Output Torque 62
(Nm)
Rated Power (W) 1600
Max.Power Output(W) 2080
Efficiency >88%
Insulation Class 8
Protection Class IP 64
Rated Torque (Nm) 42

6.6 MOTOR CONTROLLER
6.6.1 CHOOSING A MOTOR CONTROLLER
Motor controllers can only be chosen after you have selected your motors/actuators. Also, the
current a motor draws are related to the torque it can provide: a small DC motor will not consume
much current, but cannot provide much torque, whereas a large motor can provide higher torque
but will require a higher current to do so.
The first consideration is the motor's nominal voltage. DC motor controllers tend to offer a
voltage range. For example, if your motor operates at 3V nominal, you should not select a motor
controller that can only control a motor between 6V and 9V. This will help you cross off some
motor controllers from the list.
Once you have found a range of controllers that can power the motor with the appropriate
voltage, the next consideration is the continuous current the controller will need to supply. You
need to find a motor controller that will provide current equal to or above the motor's continuous
current consumption under load. Should you choose a 5A motor controller for a 3A motor, the
motors will only take as much current as they require. On the other hand, a 5A motors is likely
to burn a 3A motor controller. Many motor manufacturers provide a DC motor's stall current,
which does not give you a clear idea of the motor controller you will need. If you cannot find
the motor's continuous operating current, a simple rule of thumb is to estimate the motor's
continuous current at about 20% to 25% of the stall current. All DC motor controllers provide
a maximum current rating - be certain this rating is about double that of the motor's continuous
operating current. Note that when a motor needs to produce more torque (for example going up
an incline), it requires more current. Choosing a motor controller with built-in over current and
thermal protection is a very good choice.
The Control method is another important consideration. Control methods include analogue
voltage, I2C, PWM, R/C, UART (a.k.a. serial). If you are using a microcontroller, check to see
which pin types you have available and which motors are viable for you to choose. If your
microcontroller has serial communication pins, you can choose a serial motor controller; for
PWM, you will likely need one PWM channel per motor. Control Methods
The final consideration is a practical one: Single vs. dual (double) motor controller. A dual DC
motor controller can control the speed and direction of two DC motors independently and often
saves you money (and time). The motors do not need to be identical, though for a mobile robot,
the drive motors should be identical in most cases. You need to choose the dual motor controller
based on the more powerful DC motor. Note that dual motor controllers tend to have only one
power input, so if you want to control one motor at 6V and the other at 12V, it will not be
possible. Note that the current rating provided is almost always per channel.

6.6.2 DC MOTOR CONTROLLER
A DC motor controller manipulates the position, speed, or torque of a DC-powered motor and
easily reverses, so the DC current runs in the opposite direction. Enjoy higher starting torque,
quick starting and stopping, reversing, variable speeds with voltage input and more. Select
technology type, input voltage, output voltage, continuous current, enclosure, braking type,
reversing type, and isolation.
DC motor speed control is perhaps the most common manipulation used in DC controllers. This
speed can be controlled in four different ways: flux variation, armature voltage variation, a
change in the supply voltage, and pulse width modulation (PWM). PWM is the technique
commonly used for achieving speed control in a DC motor. It delivers energy through a series
of pulses rather than a continuous signal. By altering the pulse width, the DC motor controller
is able to regulate the energy flow to keep it consistent.
While less popular, DC motor torque control is achieved by a DC drive regulating the armature
current. Since the armature current isn’t regulated, the motor can operate at whatever speed
necessary to achieve the desired torque level. The torque level can remain constant achieving a
“taper tension effect” for a fixed input reference and torque mode centre winders. However, the
machine operator can in some circumstances increase the torque set-point as diameter increases.
6.7.3 TYPES OF DC MOTOR CONTROLLERS
Since there are several types of actuators, there are several types of motor controllers:
• Brushed DC motor controllers: used with brushed DC, DC gear motors [17], and many
linearactuators.
• Brushless DC (BLDC) motor controllers: used with brushless DC motors.
Since we are using a BLDC motor, so we have selected a BLDC motor controller.
6.7.3.1 Brushless DC (BLDC) Motor Controllers
BLDC motors [15] have found wide application in various industries - from computer hard
drives toelectric transport and industrial robots. In some fields, they have almost squeezed out
brushed DC (BDC) motors. High performance and durability are among the major advantages
of a brushless DC motor. Nevertheless, it will hardly edge out BDC motors completely as it is
still a costly solution with a complex construction and control system.
A BLDC motor controller can perform the same functions and apply similar methods as a
brushed DC motor controller. However, there are some conceptual differences in their
arrangement and implementation. This article will shed light on the characteristics of a brushless
DC motor controller, that is how it works, how it is built, and what it works best for.

6.7.3.2 Working Principles of BLDC Motors and Controllers
A BLDC motor controller regulates the speed and torque of the motor; it can also start, stop,
and reverse its rotation. To understand the working principles of the controller, let us start first
with the construction of a brushless motor. Its major components comprise:
an armature or rotor made of permanent and in many cases neodymium magnets; and a stator
with windings that create a magnetic field when energized. The rotor’s magnets and stator’s
windings provide the rotation of the motor. They attract each other with opposite poles and repel
each other with the same poles. A similar process takes place in a brushed DC motor. The
essential difference is in the method of switching the current applied to the wire windings.
In a BLDC motor, this is a mechanical process triggered by a commutator with brushes. In a BLDC
motor, it happens electronically with the help of transistor switches.
Fig 6.9 BLDC motor working principle
A BLDC motor controller detects the position of the rotor either by using sensors (for example,
a Hall-effect sensor) or sensor-less. The sensors measure the rotor’s position and send out this
data. The controller receives the information and enables the transistors to switch the current and
energize the required winding of the stator at the right time.

6.7.4 TYPES OF BLDC MOTORS
Depending on the rotor’s placement, BLDC motors can be of two types:
• In runner motor (the rotor is internal, and the stator is on the outside of the motor);
• Outrunner motor (the rotor is external, so the permanent magnets spin around the stator
together with the motor’s case).
In runners motors have a more lightweight construction and a better rotational speed because
of their smaller rotating diameter. In their turn, outrunner motors have a higher torque because
of the longer arm and greater electromotive force applied to the rotor.
Three-phase brushless DC motors can have two different types of winding connections:
• wye (Y) or star connection (windings meet at the center forming a wye);
• delta (Δ) connection (windings are connected in series forming a triangle).
The wye configuration has a neutral wire connected to ground. This can protect the motor from
overvoltage and overload. The delta connection has no neutrals, so it works better for motors
with a balanced load. However, each of these types can show efficient performance depending
on your requirements.
Fig 6.10 BLDC motor classifications

6.7.5 BLDC Motor Controller
BLDC motor controller types BLDC motor controllers differ according to the method they
use to detect the rotor’s position. You can make the measurements with the help of position
sensors or using a sensor less technique.
There are plenty of options among sensors, including:
• Hall-effect sensors;
• rotary encoders;
• variable reluctance sensors;
• resolvers;
• optical sensors.
The sensor-less BLDC motor controller works without a sensor; it detects the rotor’s position by
estimating back electromotive force (back EMF). This is the voltage created in the stator’s
windings by the rotating armature. By measuring the back EMF, you can determine the position
of the rotor: the closer the rotor’s magnet, the higher the back EMF.
Fig 6.11 BLDC motor controller types
Here an out runner BLDC motor is used and the motor controller used is a sensor-less BLDC
motor controller show in fig 6.11, the specifications of the controller is givenin table 6.4.

TABLE 6.5 SPECIFICATIONS OF MOTOR CONTROLLER
Type Specifications
Rated Voltage 48 V
Peak Protection Current 49A
Rated Power 2300 W
Under Voltage Protection 41.5V
Throttle Voltage 1.1V to 3.6V
Phase commutation angle 120 degrees
Heat Dissipation Natural cooling
Breaker Type Regenerative
Output Waveform Sine wave
Ambient Temperature 20 degrees to 60 degrees
Protection Class IP 64
Fig 6.12 Motor Controller

CHAPTER 7
SIMULATION ANALYSIS
The simulation was done using Simulink. In this simulation goto-from tags has been used. The
goto block passes its input to its corresponding blocks. The input can be real or complex valued
signal or vector of any data, the from block accepts a signal from a corresponding goto block.
The passes it as output, that is, signals are passed from the block to block without actually
connecting the by using the goto block.
Here the battery is being charged using both the solar energy from the PV system, and the ac
main supply. Here a MPPT is used for tracking maximum power the PV system, the MPPT
works based on an algorithm known as P & O algorithm (Perturbation & observation), also the
MPPT used a PI controller to help in aid of battery charging. Both the PV supply and the ac
supply are connected to a bidirectional converter. There are 4 switches used that works on the
basis of where the battery is charging from solar of ac supply and during discharging.
Fig 7.1 Simulation block diagram

7.1 BATTERY DISCHARGE
The charging and discharging states are decided by extended mode block as shown in Fig 7.2.1 &
Fig 7.2.2.
Mode
0 i/p select
1
Fig 7.2 Fig 7.3
(1- battery charge) (0- battery discharge)
Also, another external block i/p select the source which charges the battery, with the coil of the goto
from tags the whole charging of the battery is done in this whole system.
The bidirectional converter is basically a half-bridge DC-DC converter, both buck and boost
converter are connected in antiparallel across each other resulting in basic buck boost structure
but with combined feature of bidirectional power flow.
Here the maximum speed can be set using the set speed block. After there is a speed regulator
that helps in the regulation of the speed, also there is a current limiter, both are in the control of
the motor.
The process from the battery drives the motor through the motor drives. Various scope outputs were
observed during the simulation.
Fig 7.4 Battery charging output

Fig 7.5 Battery Discharging Output
Fig 7.6 Stator current output
Fig 7.7 Torque speed output

CHAPTER 8
THE SCOOTER SYSTEM
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Here, an old 2008 model Honda Activa scooter[20] is converted to hybrid by fixing a hubmotor
to the rear wheel of the scooter as shown in fig 8.1. The motor is controlled by using a motor
controller that is fixed at the right side of the vehicle shown in fig 8.6, that is covered bythe
scooter body. A push button switch shown in fig 8.4, is used to active the electrical motor system
in the scooter, there is a relay system with a DC-DC converter as shown in fig 8.7, thathelps in
switching of the vehicle control from mechanical to electrical. A hybrid throttle controller
shown in fig 8.5, is set up in this scooter so that the scooter runs mechanically and electrically
as we control the throttle of the scooter. A solar panel is mounted above the scooteras shown in
fig 8.3, that helps in charging the battery which is placed under the scooter seat. The solar panel
is supported over the scooter on a stand which is fixed on the lower portion of the scooter. The
solar panel is mounted on a frame, this frame provides a mechanical support aswell as it protects
the solar panel from the high velocity air flowing that may exert force on the panel and can
damage the panel when the vehicle is running.
Fig 8.1 2008 model Honda Activa scooter

Fig 8.2 Framework of the scooter
Fig 8.3 Solar panel fixed on the scooter Fig 8.4 12V Push button switch
Fig 8.5 Hybrid throttle controller Fig 8.6 Motor controller

Fig 8.7 Front portion of the scooter with
(1) DC-DC converter (2) Relay (3) 12V Battery
8.2 SOLAR PANEL TO BATTERY CONNECTIONS
To connect a battery bank to a solar panel is relatively easy and we need to connect the positive
end of the battery bank to the positive terminal of the solar panel and negative end of the battery
bank to negative terminal of solar panel. We cannot connect the battery bank directly to the
solar panel as during night electricity can leak back into the panel which will slowly discharge
the battery. This potential problem can be solved by incorporating a charge controller in the
line.
Fig 8.8 Solar panel to battery connection wire

8.3 THE RELAY CIRCUIT
Fig 8.9 Relay Circuit
The fig 8.9 shows the relay circuit connection in the front portion of the scooter that activates
the motor controller to drive the BLDC motor. When ignition key switch is switched on, then
the push button led switch is switched on which activates the 12V relay, then power flows
through the 3 wires which activates the motor controller that controls the motor. There is a fuse
that that prevents overload, the 12V battery is connected to a DC-DC converter that is connected
to the fuse, the DC-DC converter sends a voltage control to the motor controller. Using the
accelerator, we can regulate the voltage signal that is provided to the motor controller which in
turn maintains or controls the BLDC motor speed. The accelerator is a basic potentiometer that
is used to supply controlled or changing voltage to control the speed and torque of the BLDC
motor.

CHAPTER 9
ADVANTAGES AND FUTURE SCOPE
9.1 ADVANTAGES
• Eco-friendly and Quiet: Solar-powered vehicles have zero emission level, as they don’t utilize
non-renewable resources and burn fuel. The electric motors generate electricity that doesn't
emit any greenhouse gases or any other pollutants. These cars are quieter than the vehicles
powered by conventional fuels, which don't cause noise pollution as well.
• Energy Availability: Solar cars derive their power from the sun, indirectly, that always shines
and provides endless energy. The efficient solar panels can produce and store more
horsepower for the vehicle.
• No Fuel Costs: Unlike the conventionally fueled vehicles, solar vehicles have no fuel costs
and a low cost of maintenance.
9.2 FUTURE SCOPE
• GPS & Bluetooth connectivity in the scooter.
• Foldable solar roofing panel.
• Implementing brake failure indicators in the scooter.
• Different modes of driving.
• Automatic stop when stopped for longer time to improve fuel efficiency.
• Touchscreen meter display.
• Automatic braking on object detection in front of the scooter.

CHAPTER 10
CONCLUSION
The Hybrid vehicle reduces the environmental problems and is the best solution for reducing
our dependence on fossil fuel. Even though these vehicles do have some disadvantages like
small speed range, and initial cost is high. Also, the rate of conversion of energy is not
satisfactory (only 17%). But these disadvantages can be easily overcome by conducting further
research in this area; like the problem of solar cells can be solved by using the ultra-efficient
solar cells that give about 30–35% efficiency. The problems will get solved by exploring this
field of automobiles. The solar automobiles have a huge prospective market and we should start
using them in our day-to-day life. The vehicle developed is successfully working in solar power
along with ICE.

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Solar Powered Hybrid Scooter

AISAT Kalamassery 1 Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engg.

[1] S. Boumediene, N. Abdelfatah, T. Hamza and C. Hicham, "Power Supply

[2] N. H. Zaini, M. Z. Ab Kadir, M. Izadi, N. I. Ahmad, M. A. M. Radzi and N. Azis,

AISAT Kalamassery 2 Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engg.

[5] Y. B. A. Apatya, A. Subiantoro and F. Yusivar, "Design and prototyping of 3-phase

AISAT Kalamassery 3 Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engg.

[7] D. K. Chy and M. Khaliluzzaman, "Experimental assessment of PV arrays connected to

A non-inverting Buck-Boost converter based on MPPT and Non-MPPT technique by

[9] Q. Xie, Y. Wang, Y. Kim, M. Pedram and N. Chang, "Charge Allocation in

AISAT Kalamassery 4 Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engg.

Various ideas and knowledge obtained where on:

• Several control techniques employed to control the motor.

• Solar cell positioning.

AISAT Kalamassery 5 Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engg.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE VEHICLE (ICEV)

Fig 3.1 ICE Motor

AISAT Kalamassery 6 Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engg.

• Size of engine is very less compared to external combustion engines.

• Most of the fuel used in these engines are very costly.

• In comparison with an external combustion engine, the emission is generally high.

• It cannot be used for large scale power generation.

• Due to the detonation of fuel, a lot of noise is generated.

AISAT Kalamassery 7 Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engg.

4.2 TYPES OF EVs

4.2.1 BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES (BEV)

• Creates very little noise

AISAT Kalamassery 8 Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engg.

4.2.2 PLUG-IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES (PEV)

• A Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) has fewer moving parts.

• Can travel less distance.

AISAT Kalamassery 9 Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engg.

Fig 5.1 Hybrid scooter

AISAT Kalamassery 10 Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engg.

5.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig 5.2 Block Diagram of Hybrid Scooter

AISAT Kalamassery 11 Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engg.

6.2 SOLAR PANEL

N = (V×I×FF) / Pin where,

V : Open circuit volt

AISAT Kalamassery 12 Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engg.

I :Short circuit current

Fig 6.1 Cross-section of solar cell

AISAT Kalamassery 13 Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engg.

6.2.1 TYPES OF SOLAR PANELS

• Monocrystalline solar panels

6.2.1.1 Monocrystalline Panels

• Highest efficiency solar panels made of a high-grade silicon.

6.2.1.2 Polycrystalline Panels

AISAT Kalamassery 14 Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engg.

• Less efficient than Monocrystalline.

6.2.1.3 Thin-Film Panels

• Mass production – simple.

• Takes up a lot of space.

6.2.2 IMPORTANT FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR SELECTION OF A

6.2.2.1 Installation and Venue Conditions

AISAT Kalamassery 15 Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engg.

6.2.2.2 Economical Perspective