Online Games, Effects of
online game is. As we have seen from the previ-
MARKO SKORIC
City University of Hong Kong, China
NATHANIEL POOR
Independent scholar, US
The effects of online games form a potentially
broad topic, covering both intended and unin-
tended consequences of playing online games.
While other entries in this Encyclopedia have
addressed the intended, positive outcomes of
online educational games, as well as the negative
consequences of gameplay such as addiction and
crime, in this entry we focus on other effects,
including aggression, civic and political engage-
ment, and the effects related to health, gender,
identity, and sexuality.
Online games are today a diffused grouping in
which individual games differ widely from each
other and the list of such games and their typ-
ology have changed considerably over time. Play-
ers of online games may include a grandparent
playing Sudoku on a webpage every morning,
a child logging in to Club Penguin, a teenager
recruiting real-world friends in Facebook to play
Farmville, a college student playing one of the
Call of Duty or Halo games in multiplayer mode
with their gaming console against people they
have never met, and a married couple logging in
to their EverQuest 2 accounts to do some crafting,
decorate their guild hall, and take part in their
guild’s weekly raid with people they have never
met face to face.
As such, any discussion of the effects of these
wide-ranging games, situations, and variety of
players could be lengthy, and in a few years the
landscape may have changed so much that read-
ers will not be familiar with these examples. Still,
although technology changes rapidly, human
nature does not, and so the findings from today’s
studies will be relevant in the future, just as the
findings from past studies still apply today, if the
gaming situation is correctly contextualized.
The International Encyclopedia of Digital Communication and Society, First Edition.
Edited by Robin Mansell and Peng Hwa Ang.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118290743.wbiedcs049
We will start by discussing exactly what an
ous examples, they can vary widely. Next we will
look at the evolution of media effects research
within the last century. Finally, we will discuss
the literature on the effects of online games more
specifically.
What Are Online Games?
Although games may or may not be considered a
type of media, the internet clearly is, as it mediates
all sorts of communication between people. The
connotation behind the “online” of online gaming
is that people are playing with other people who
are geographically dispersed yet playing in real
time in a computer mediated environment. In
addition, online games frequently feature com-
puter controlled nonplayer characters (NPCs)
with which human players interact in a range of
contexts and situations.
Historically, some games such as Myst were
intended for a single player. They were immensely
popular, and at times were enjoyed by families
playing together; people shared experiences, gave
help, and even wrote fiction, all of which were
part of a shared online experience. Other games,
such as some early games from the online service
provider Prodigy (c. 1992), involved submitting
moves once a day by email, having the computer
tabulate all the moves of all the players, and then
emailing back the results. Although these games
were both multiplayer and online to a certain
extent, they are mostly forgotten today because
of technological advances. More modern games,
such as Blizzard’s Diablo III, can be played solo,
but can also be played by multiple players (like
many games). It requires an internet connection
even when playing a solo player game, and there
is an in-game auction house (similar to that of
Blizzard’s World of Warcraft) where players buy
and sell in-game items. This list, althoughbreak
diverse, is incomplete, and not every example can
be dealt with.
2 O N L I N E G A M E S, E F F E C T S
A Brief History of Media Effects
Media effects research has gone through several
distinct phases. Typically, its history is presented
in three phases, but more nuanced perspectives
have emerged from reviews of the field.
Initially, media messages were thought to have
strong direct effects. This approach was often
described as the “hypodermic needle” or the
“magic bullet.” Eventually this framework was
questioned, and the major paradigm became
that media messages had a weak effect, quite the
opposite. Eventually the vast ecology of media
messages in which most of us exist was brought
into the picture, and shown to have some effects,
but the strength of the effect can vary widely
depending on several factors. A classic definition
of this effects paradigm is instructive: Who said
what in which channels to whom with what
effect? (We would add “if any” to make the model
clearer.) Primarily, the realm of intended effects
has been advertising and politics, that is, persua-
sion and influence. In the domain of unintended
effects, media violence, gender and racial stereo-
typing, and body image issues have received a lot
of attention from the scholarly community.
In general, research has focused on two types of
effects, positive and negative, although there are
effects that fall outside this simplistic framework.
Given the vast differences between different
online games, the effects that they produce are
also likely to be quite different. In this entry, we
focus on the unintended effects of online gaming,
that is, those not typically envisioned by the game
designers. Although historically the research on
media effects has mainly focused on negative
unintended effects on attitudes, thoughts, emo-
tions, and behaviors, we review research evidence
examining both positive and negative effects of
online gameplay.
Health Effects
Although the rare death of a gamer from sitting in
front of a computer for over a day with no breaks
makes a splashy headline, as do divorces “caused”
by gaming and “game widows,” gaming is only
one part of the picture in these cases and, on
occasion, weddings have been attributed to gam-
ing. Health related concerns about gaming have
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been a part of the popular discourse for years,
and since most games involve sitting, which has
been well documented to have negative health
effects over the long term, people and the media
have assumed that gamers must suffer negative
consequences as well. Still, studies attempting to
address these stereotypes by looking at gamers’
weight found that, on average, gamers were not
overweight, although studies of MMO (massively
multiplayer online) gamers found that they expe-
rienced overall poorer health and sleep quality
(Sublette & Mullan, 2012). It should be noted
that there are games with an online component
that do not involve sitting at all, such as the many
games on the Nintendo Wii console that involve
standing, dancing, moving about, and waving
your arms around. Indeed, with game interfaces
moving in a direction away from the typical
controller/mouse/keyboard paradigm, the range
of potential effects has expanded to include the
positive effects of physical activity and exercise.
Aggression and Violence
The greatest point of contention in the video game
effects realm is the specter of video game driven
crime and violence, a favorite topic of the media
and politicians. The connection between video
games and violence is the latest in the long history
of media panics (Ferguson, 2008) over the effects
of new forms of technology or media, which often
focus on the effects for youth, as is the case here.
This has been true for several subjects, such as
comics, violence on television, movies, and even
the novel. Tabletop games, such as Dungeons
& Dragons, have also generated media driven
fears concerning youth who play such games. It
has been argued that, when it comes to children
and media effects, the same worrisome negative
effects are presented again and again with each
new technology (Wartella & Reeves, 1985).
Gaming and violence involve a slew of inter-
twined issues that are often difficult to define. One
is determining which games are at issue, and what
effects they are supposed to have. Currently, there
is no apparent consensus about the impact of
violent video games on aggressive thoughts and
behaviors. While some meta-analyses suggest a
significant causal link between violent gameplay
and aggressive cognitions, affect, and behaviors
 O N L I N E G A M E S, E F F E C T S
(Anderson et al., 2010), others found little evi-
dence of such a relationship, particularly in the
case of actual violent acts in the real world (Fer-
guson & Kilburn, 2009). A few studies focusing
on online games in particular have found even
less support for the link between online gameplay
and aggressive behavior (Williams & Skoric,
2005). Experimental research shows no support
for the claim that playing a violent MMO causes
people to have more aggressive thoughts or to
be more aggressive in social interactions. Other
correlational studies found a positive correlation
between gaming addiction and aggression, as
well as between violent online game exposure
and aggressive attitudes, but not behavior. Given
that many online games are large and complex
ecosystems, it is unlikely that typical laboratory
based studies or surveys involving self-reported
measures of frequency of gameplay will be able
to provide sufficiently nuanced measures of
exposure and engagement with violent content
within a game. Therefore, reaching unequivocal
conclusions about the effects of online games on
aggression in general is not a feasible task for
most researchers.
Moreover, cultural context is usually left out
of the public equation, as many nations with
wealthy economies, such as the United States,
Japan, South Korea, and Western European
nations, have robust video game markets, but of
those only the United States has a huge problem
with violent crime, specifically gun related homi-
cides, which is the context where video game
violence is repeatedly mentioned. Interestingly,
from 1996 to 2007, the market for video games
in the United States generally increased, while
violent youth crime generally decreased. This
is also true for recent statistics for Australia,
Canada, the United Kingdom, and the European
Union (Ferguson, 2008).
Civic and Political Engagement
Researchers suggest that if games, especially
online games with a multiplayer component that
fosters interaction and community negotiation,
have the right structures then players can indeed
learn skills that are important for the function-
ing of democracies and that may transfer to
the real world. Multiplayer games, for example,
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can encourage cooperation and have prosocial,
community reinforcing effects, although even the
now mostly defunct video arcade had prosocial
elements. One clear example from MMOs is
guilds, as guild leaders may have to deal with
“governance, team building, leadership, and orga-
nizational processes” (Bers, 2010, p. 151), but this
can apply to online games that are not MMOs yet
are still multiplayer.
Work by the Pew Research Center indicates
that many children have played games where
they engage with civic issues and, in turn,
are more engaged with civic issues in the real
world (Lenhart et al., 2008). Engagement is
often construed as civic understanding, and
researchers typically mention city or civilization
building game series such as SimCity or Civiliza-
tion. Although these are complex, multifactor
games, they are gamified abstractions more
akin to benevolent dictatorships than they are
simulations of democracies.
Games can also foster discussion of societal
issues, such as racism, gender roles, and homo-
phobia. This type of effect, that is, promoting the
discussion of issues (see below for examples), is
often overlooked.
Identity, Presentation, and Avatars
Identity issues in games and online games present
a few different approaches. There are issues of
presentation, such as gender and ethnicity. There
are nonplayer characters, player characters that
are made by the game company, and player
characters that are made by players. There are
the visual aspects of identity in terms of games
with avatars, and there are also potential behav-
ioral aspects, including both voice and textual
communication. There is the actual identity of
the player, perhaps quite separate from their
online presence. Researchers have focused on all
of these issues (e.g., Martey & Consalvo, 2011;
Nakamura, 2009). Online presences can allow
people to explore their identity (Turkle, 1995).
Researchers have also looked at misrepresenta-
tion and deception in online identities, which
can be difficult to detect but, as several cases have
shown, can be quite shocking to the communities
in question.
4 O N L I N E G A M E S, E F F E C T S
Researchers have also identified a “Proteus
effect” in MMOs, demonstrating that players’
behavior is significantly affected by the attractive-
ness and height of their in-game avatars. More
specifically, they found that players who created
tall characters negotiated more aggressively, while
players who had more attractive avatars were
ready to reveal more personal information about
themselves to strangers (Yee & Bailenson, 2007).
Still, it is important to note that players of
MMOs and other online games often have more
than one character and, while a player can make
all the characters look alike, this is rarely the
case. Too frequently, research assumes that a
player will only ever have one avatar, either at a
time or over time, even though there is no direct
evidence to support this assumption. As such, the
assumptions about player identity and avatars,
especially in terms of essentialism, currently bear
more research.
Gender and Sexuality
Gender can relate to gender roles within a game
or games generally, as well as to the gender of
players and how gender relates to game playing
(Cassell & Jenkins, 2000). For example, the pro-
tagonist of the Tomb Raider game series, Lara
Croft, is stereotypically hypersexualized but not
stereotypically helpless. Unlike in Tomb Raider,
in the Mass Effect series players can choose
between a male or female main character, Com-
mander Shepard. The female version, referred to
as “femshep,” although not utilized as often as
the male version, had fans who were passionate
about the character and there was much online
discussion about the two versions in contrast to
each other and even about the validity of a female
version. Research shows that, in the context of
MMOs, male players choosing a particular role
(i.e., healers) were more likely to gender-bend
and play female characters in line with their
perceived advantages.
The topic of gender roles in online games has
been frequently discussed by both scholarly
and gaming communities. In Borderlands 3 one
developer’s comment about “girlfriend mode,”
referring to some game features for less experi-
enced players, led to an explosive online reaction.
These three examples and others have brought
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gender and gaming into the public spotlight,
although it is still an issue that needs addressing.
Some recent high-profile games, especially those
from Bioware such as the Dragon Age series and
the Mass Effect series, include potential romantic
plotlines. Bioware could have coded the games to
only allow heteronormative relationships, but did
not. Some players were too immature to handle
the same-sex possibilities in Dragon Age, even
though no potential player is obligated to play
this game. This resulted in a high-profile forum
post from the developers who defended non-
privileged identities and players, which garnered
widespread attention to and discussion of the
issues within the gaming community.
Conclusion
Overall, the effects of online gaming vary widely.
Some effects can be seen as positive (engagement)
while others are often viewed as negative (aggres-
sion); yet others can be either while some fall
outside this simplistic framework. Some effects,
involving media panics and discussion of sexist
attitudes, have long histories. Other effects, such
as health problems resulting from sitting for too
long, are directly tied to gaming but are found
in other areas. Typically, “online” denotes that
other people are involved in the gaming in some
manner, and the communities that can result
from online gaming can be a positive reflection
of our drive to connect with each other.
SEE ALSO: Online Games; Online Games,
Community Aspects of; Online Games, Coop-
eration and Competition in; Online Games and
Crime; Online Games, Gender and Feminism
in; Online Games Player Characteristics; Online
Games, Player Experiences in; Online Games and
Racism, Sexism, and Homophobia
References
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Bushman, B. J., Sakamoto, A., Rothstein, H. R., &
Saleem, M. (2010). Violent video game effects on
aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in East-
ern and Western countries. Psychological Bulletin,
136, 151–173.
 O N L I N E G A M E S, E F F E C T S
Bers, M. (2010). Let the games begin: Civic playing
on high-tech consoles. Review of General Psychology,
14(2), 147–153.
Cassell, J., & Jenkins, H. (2000). From Barbie to Mor-
tal Kombat: Gender and computer games. Cambridge,
MA: MIT University Press.
Ferguson, C. J. (2008). The school shooting/violent
video game link: Causal link or moral panic? Journal
of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 5,
25–37.
Ferguson. C. J., & Kilburn, J. (2009). The public health
risks of media violence: A meta-analytic review. Jour-
nal of Pediatrics, 154(5), 759–763.
Lenhart, A., Kahne, J., Middaugh, E., MacGill, A.,
Evans, C., & Vitak, J. (2008). Teens, video games, and
civics. Washington, DC: Pew.
Martey, R. M., & Consalvo, M. (2011). Performing
the looking-glass self: Avatar appearance and group
identity in Second Life. Popular Communication, 9(3),
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Nakamura, L. (2009). Don’t hate the player, hate the
game: The racialization of labor in World of War-
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128–144. doi:10.1080/15295030902860252
Sublette, V. A., & Mullan, B. (2012). Consequences of
play: A systematic review of the effects of online
gaming. International Journal of Mental Health and
Addiction, 10(1), 3–23.
Turkle, S. (1995). Life on the screen: Identity in the age of
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Yee, N., & Bailenson, J. N. (2007). The Proteus
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Further Reading
Kahne, J., Middaugh, E., & Evans, C. (2009). The civic
potential of video games. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press. Retrieved from https://mitpress.mit.edu/
sites/default/files/titles/free_download/978026251
3609_Civic_Potential_of_Games.pdf
Poor, N. (2012). Digital elves as a racial other
in video games: Acknowledgment and avoid-
ance. Games and Culture, 7(5), 375–396.
doi:10.1177/1555412012454224
Marko M. Skoric is Associate Professor at the
Department of Media and Communication, City
University of Hong Kong. He holds a PhD in
Communication from the University of Michi-
gan, and a BSc in Psychology from University
College London, UK. His teaching and research
interests are focused on new media and social
change, with particular emphasis on the civic
and political implications of new communication
technologies.
Nathaniel Poor is an independent scholar who
lives in New York. Recently his focus has been on
gaming communities, with an eye to sociology,
history, law, and sociotechnical systems.