General Biology 1
BIOMOLECULES
Week 2 / August 23-27, 2021 / Lecture Notes
Introduction
Element – simplest and purest form, cannot be
broken down to other substances by chemical
reaction
Compound – consists of two or more elements
Valence Electrons – the outermost part of the shell,
interacts with other atoms to form chemical bonds
Ionic Bond – transfer of electrons between a metal
and non-metal, attraction between an anion and
cation
Covalent Bond – sharing of electrons between a
non-metal and non-metal or metalloid
Non-polar Covalent Bond – shares electrons equally
Polar Covalent Bond – do not share electron
equally, one is more electronegative
Cation – positively charged ion
Anion – negatively charged ion
Biomolecules – compounds found in living
organisms, organic and inorganic
Macromolecules – large carbohydrates, proteins,
and nucleic acids
Polymers (Greek polys ‘many’ & meros ‘part’) –
long molecule consisting of many similar building
blocks (monomers) linked by covalent bonds
Monomers (Greek monos ‘single’) – smaller
molecules, the repeating units that serve as the
building blocks of polymers
Carbon – all biomolecules contain Carbon, 4
valence electron, bonding capacity is great, very
stable once bound to other elements or Carbon
Polymerization – the chemical mechanisms by
which cells make polymers
Enzymes – specialized macromolecules (proteins)
that speed up chemical reactions
Condensation Reaction – a reaction that connects a
monomer to another monomer or polymer by
covalent bond
Dehydration Reaction – monomers to polymers, a
chemical reaction that covalently bonds two
molecules to each other with the removal of a water
molecule (adds OH and H bond)
Hydrolysis (Greek hydro ‘water’ & lysis ‘break’) –
polymers to monomers, reverse of dehydration
reaction, the bond between monomers is broken by
the addition of a water molecule (breaks OH and H)
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates (building block: simple
sugar/monosaccharide) – CnH2nOn, include sugars
and polymers of sugars, commonly form rings
Monosaccharides (Greek monos ‘single’ & sacchar
‘sugar’) (simple sugars) – C6H12O6, only 1 3-C, 5-C,
or 6-C chain, has 3-7 carbon skeleton, has a
carbonyl and hydroxyl group [glyceraldehyde,
ribose, glucose, fructose, galactose]
Triose – sugar with 3 carbons [glyceraldehyde,
dihydroxyacetone]
Pentose – sugar with 5 carbons [ribose, ribulose]
Hexose – sugar with 6 carbons [glucose, fructose,
galactose]
Aldose (Aldehyde Sugars) – carbonyl group at end
of carbon skeleton [glyceraldehyde, ribose, glucose,
galactose]
Ketose (Ketone Sugars) – carbonyl group within or
at the center of carbon skeleton [dihydroxyacetone,
ribulose, fructose]
Glucose – major nutrient for cells, component in
cell respiration
Fructose – converted into glucose by the liver
Galactose – transformed in the liver to be used as
energy
Jan Pauline B. Babina, 11 – STEM 01
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General Biology 1
BIOMOLECULES
Week 2 / August 23-27, 2021 / Lecture Notes
Disaccharides (double sugars) – C12H22O11, formed
by dehydration reaction, has 2 6-C chains or rings
bonded together [sucrose, lactose, maltose]
Glycosidic Linkage (glycol ‘carbohydrate’) –
covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate to another
group or carbohydrate
Sucrose – glucose + fructose, table sugar, plants use
to transport carbohydrates from leaves to roots and
other nonphotosynthetic organs
Lactose – glucose + galactose, sugar in milk
Maltose – glucose + glucose, malt sugar for
brewing beer
Oligosaccharides – consists of 3 to 10 sugar
molecules
Polysaccharides (complex sugars) – for storage and
structural roles [starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin]
Amylose – unbranched
Amylopectin – somewhat branched
Starch (alpha configuration) – largely helical,
polymer of glucose, stored energy in plants
Cellulose (beta configuration) – polymer of glucose,
straight and unbranched, main substance in plant
cell wall
Glycogen – polymer of glucose, stored energy in
animals
Chitin – exoskeleton of arthropods, cellulose in
fungi
Alpha Glucose Monomer/Configuration (1-4) –
downwards linkage, can be digested, raises sugar
levels in body
Beta Glucose Monomer/Configuration (1-4) –
upward downward pattern linkage, cannot be
digested
*enzymes that digest starch (a link) cannot
hydrolyze cellulose (b link); except for other
microorganisms that can digest cellulose [cow]*
Insoluble Fiber – cellulose in human food that
passes through the digestive tract, cannot be
digested
Pasta Loading – eating a lot of carbohydrates to
store energy (mostly by athletes before and after
games)
Carbs in sweets (starch) – alpha linkage, easily
broken down by enzymes, converted to ATP, too
much consumption raises sugar levels in body easily
Carbs in vegetables (cellulose) – beta linkage, not
easy to be broken down, does not add up to body’s
sugar molecules as you consume carbohydrates
Carbohydrates: Functions
 Provide quick energy to the body
 Dietary fiber can help lower blood
cholesterol
 Spares protein from being burned so it can
be used to build and repair
 Stores energy
Lipids
Lipids (building block: fatty acid) – hydrophobic,
present in all living organisms, constituent of cell
membrane, no true polymers, not big enough as
other macromolecules [fats, oil, cholesterol,
lecithin]
Saturated Fats – single bond, raises less dense
lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels in the blood,
solid in room temperature, bad for you [animal fat,
dairy, coconut oil, cocoa butter]
Unsaturated Fats – at least 1 double bond that
results to a kink or distortion of the structural
appearance, liquid in room temperature, good for
you
Jan Pauline B. Babina, 11 – STEM 01
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General Biology 1
BIOMOLECULES
Week 2 / August 23-27, 2021 / Lecture Notes
Monounsaturated Fats – leave LDL and
HDL levels unchanged, 1 double bond in
fatty acid [olive oil, canola, peanut oil,
avocado]
Polyunsaturated Fats – leave LDL
cholesterol unchanged, lower HDL
cholesterol, multiple double bonds in fatty
acid [safflower, corn oil]
Fatty Acid – one of three dehydration reactions in
the synthesis of fat, joined to a glycerol, forms
triglyceride/fat molecule when joined together in
groups of 3, 16-18 carbon atoms
Fat Molecule (Triglycerides) – 3 fatty acid
molecules connected to a glycerol molecule with an
ester linkage (hydroxyl + carboxyl), not polymers
Phospholipid – 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group
attached to a glycerol, amphipathic
Phospholipid Bilayer – hydrophilic head,
hydrophobic tail, found in cell membrane
Steroids – a carbon skeleton consisting 4 fused rings
[cholesterol, cortisol, progesterone, testosterone]
Cis Fat – hydrogen is at the same direction, good
Trans Fat – hydrogen is at opposite directions, bad
LDL “bad” – carries dietary fats into your cells
HDL “good” – carries impurities out of your cells
Keto Diet –low in carbohydrates, more on
protein/fat
Lipids: Functions
 Energy source
 Protecting and structuring organs
 Help in insulating the body
 Generate heat
 Gives cell membrane’s structure
Proteins
Protein (Greek proteios ‘first/primary’) (building
block: amino acid) – basis for major structural
components of animal and human tissue, consists of
1 or more polypeptides (long chains of amino acids)
Amino Acids – organic molecules with amino and
carboxyl groups, differs in R-groups (side chain)
Peptide Bonds – covalent bonds that links amino
acids together to form polypeptide
Peptide – 2 or more amino acids joined by bonds
Polypeptides – chain of many amino acids, polymer
of amino acids, unbranched polymers, has carboxyl
end (C-terminus) and amino end (N-terminus)
*amino acid (peptide bond) > peptide > polypeptide
‘chain’ > protein*
Primary Structure – unique sequence of amino
acids, determines the shape of a protein
Secondary Structure – coils and folds in the
polypeptide chain
Tertiary Structure – interactions among various side
chains (R-groups)
Quaternary Structure – when a protein consists of
multiple polypeptide chains
Sickle-cell Disease – inherited blood disorder,
single amino acid substitution, abnormal/deformed
RBC, substitution of Valine to the normal Glutamic
Acid at the 6th position
Denaturation – will make the protein biologically
inactive, loss of protein’s structure because of pH
level, salt concentration, temperature
Whey Protein – concentrated amino acids that the
body does not need to break down anymore
Proteins: Functions
Jan Pauline B. Babina, 11 – STEM 01
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General Biology 1
BIOMOLECULES
Week 2 / August 23-27, 2021 / Lecture Notes
 Enzymatic Proteins – accelerates chemical
reactions [digestive enzyme]
 Defensive Proteins – protection against
disease [antibodies]
 Storage Proteins – stores amino acids
[casein, ovalbumin]
 Transport Proteins – transport substances
[hemoglobin]
 Hormonal Proteins – coordination of
organism activities [insulin]
 Receptor Proteins – response to chemical
stimuli [receptors of a nerve cell]
 Contractile and Motor Proteins – movement
[cilia, flagella]
 Structural Proteins – support [keratin,
collagen]
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic Acids (building block: nucleotide) – a.k.a.
polynucleotide, long thread-like water soluble
macromolecules in all living cells, found in high
concentrated nuclei [DNA, RNA]
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – mainly found in
nucleus; nitrogenous bases: A, T, G, C; controls
hereditary transmission; antiparallel double
stranded/helix (sugar-phosphate backbones outside,
nitrogenous bases pairs inside)
RNA (ribonucleic acid) – produced in nucleus but
mainly found in cytoplasm; nitrogenous bases: A,
U, G, C; controls protein synthesis; single stranded
*the basic components of DNA and RNA are
pentose sugar (5-carbon), nitrogenous bases, 1-3
phosphate groups*
*DNA starts with 5’ (five prime) and ends with 3’*
Nucleotide/Nucleoside Monophosphate – monomer
of nucleic acid, composed of a phosphate group,
sugar/pentose, and nitrogenous base/nucleoside
Nitrogenous Bases/Nucleosides – the portion of
nucleotide without any phosphate groups (basically,
base + sugar) [A, T, G, C, U]
Pyrimidines – composed of 6-membered
ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms [cytosine,
thymine, uracil]
Purines – composed of 2 fused rings (6-
membered ring fused to 5-membered ring)
[adenine, guanine]
Sugars/Pentose – component of DNA and RNA
together with nucleoside and phosphate group
Deoxyribose – sugar in DNA, carbon 2 has
H attachment, lacks oxygen on the second
carbon (deoxy)
Ribose – sugar in RNA, carbon 2 has OH
attachment
*slight changes in the amino acid sequencing leads
to a different organism*
Gene Expression – information from a gene that is
extracted/converted to be used in synthesis to
produce end products
Nucleic Acids: Functions
 Responsible for the transmission of inherent
characters from parent to offspring
 Responsible for the synthesis of protein in
our body and direct its own replication,
collectively known as gene expression
 DNA fingerprinting is used to determine
paternity/maternity
 Used for the identification of criminals
through secretion
 Played a major role in biological evolution
and genetics
Jan Pauline B. Babina, 11 – STEM 01
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General Biology 1
BIOMOLECULES
Week 2 / August 23-27, 2021 / Lecture Notes
Biomolecules: Comparison

Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids

C, H, O in rings C, H, O in linear chain C, H, O, N, S C, H, O, N, P
Nucleotide/
Sugar Fatty Acid Amino Acid Nucleoside
Monophosphate
Monosaccharides,
Disaccharide, Peptide, Polypeptide
Fat Molecule
Oligosaccharide, Chain
Polysaccharide
Pentose Sugar,
Amino Group,
Carbonyl Group, Hydroxyl Fatty Acid, Glycerol Nitrogenous
Carboxyl Group, R-
Group (Hydroxyl + Carboxyl) Base/Nucleoside,
group
Phosphate Group
Triose, Pentose, Hexose Saturated, Unsaturated Fat Primary, Secondary, Pyrimidine, Purine
Monounsaturated, Tertiary, Quaternary -
Aldose, Ketose Structure Deoxyribose, Ribose
Polyunsaturated
Glucose, Fructose, Galactose
Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose Oil, Wax, Phospholipid,
Enzyme DNA, RNA
Steroid
Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen,
Chitin
Glycosidic Linkage Ester Linkage Peptide Bond
Amylose, Amylopectin Cis, Trans Fat Denaturation
Alpha, Beta Linkage Sickle-Cell Disease Gene Expression
Pasta Loading Keto Diet Whey Protein
Heredity, Protein
Synthesis, DNA
Enzymatic, Defensive,
Energy Source, Protect Replication, DNA
Quick Energy, Lower Blood Storage, Transport,
and Structure Organs, fingerprinting,
Cholesterol, Spares Protein, Hormonal, Receptor,
Insulation, Generate Heat, Criminal
Stores Energy Contractile and Motor,
Cell Membrane Structure Identification,
Structural
Biological
Evolution, Genetics

Biomolecules: Structures
1. Carbohydrates – C, H, O (mostly in rings)

Jan Pauline B. Babina, 11 – STEM 01

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General Biology 1
BIOMOLECULES
Week 2 / August 23-27, 2021 / Lecture Notes

2. Lipids – C, H, O (mostly in hydrocarbon chains) (carbon double bond)

3. Proteins – C, H, O, N, S (with amino NH2)

4. Nucleic Acid – C, H, O, N, P (with 4 oxygen around phosphorus)

Jan Pauline B. Babina, 11 – STEM 01

6
General Biology 1
BIOMOLECULES
Week 2 / August 23-27, 2021 / Lecture Notes

Jan Pauline B. Babina, 11 – STEM 01

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