42

Chapter - 2

Every dawn of the day brings with it new ingredients to add taste in our life

stories. The story as we all know is the sequential events take place in our lives and a

narrative text is the one which has a subject to be conveyed by an agent to the implied

reader either by being present inside or outside the text and a story is part this text. So,

a story is narrated within a narrative as we can consider a narrative as a entire form

and story as its content also known as plot it means the story should have a plot which

is edited, ordered, packaged and presented to make the reader to read or know about

whatever happened. Thus, a narrative should have a story narrator who can be a

performer too, a listener and a reader/a viewer. Any story, in a narrative text, is made

up of a ‘fabula’ and a ‘sjuzhet’ introduced by Russian theorist Viktor Shklovsky.

According to him ‘a fabula’ means the sequential events that combine to create a story

and ‘sjuzhet’is the manner or style through which a story is presented. For eg. The

novel Forrest Gump written by Winston Groom, is a fabula sequencing the events of

the main character, Forrest Gump’s life starting from his childhood in Alabama to his

adulthood coming back to the place where he started his life from. On the other

hand, Sjuzhet is the way by which a story is presented i.e. the order, manner or style

as in the novel Forrest Gump, Gump’s description of his relationship with his mother,

Jenny and other characters in the influence of his unique and naïve behavior allows

the reader to understand the narrative and give it his/her meaning. A narrative resides

under the world of Diegesis which is all about telling a story by a narrator. This

narrator can be the author of the literary text or the character within the text and so the

narrative study focuses on who is telling the story, what is his/her intention behind

this narration and what does he/she want to communicate to the reader. The flow of

narrative process can be understood in this way as any piece of narrative come into

 
 
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existence with the help of an Author who is a reality but the story crosses the levels of

Implied Author, Narrator, Narratee, and Implied Reader who are fictitious and finally

it reaches to the reality again i.e. the Reader. Hence, the study of different aspects of

narration will be done by focusing on Narratology and the Narrative Techniques. We

have also targeted the Cinema that adapts the Literary piece of narration into movie

and gives it a new form and shape in order to reach to the hearts of its audience, so,

the techniques of cinematography and process of reading a movie will also be

analyzed.

Narratology, in its simple term, is the study of or a systematic and thorough

approach to the mechanics of narrative. It is not reading or interpreting a particular

story, infact, it studies the nature of it. It investigates the basic mechanism or

procedure which is common in all acts of story-telling. Narratology has its roots in

Structuralism and Russian Formalism. The foundation of narratology was led by

Aristotle in his Poetics which marks the beginning of Literary Criticism. He came up

with the fact that a plot doesn’t include every incident that might happen to us in our

daily life. A plot is “unity of action’ having a beginning, middle and an end. He

identified Character and Action as the essential elements in the Story where the

Character must be revealed through the aspects of the plot. Then came Russian

formalist critic and folklorist Vladimir Yacovlevich Propp (1895-1970) who analyzed

the narrative structure of Russian fairytales and realized that inspite of different

storyline, locations, themes and characters the structure of each story is same. He

worked on 100 tales (Morphology of the Fairy Tale: 1928) and established character

types and events associated with them by naming the events as ‘Functions’ and

divided them into 31 sections for instance ‘one of the members of the family absents

himself from home’, the villain receives information about his victim’, ‘the hero

 
 
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leaves home and goes on a quest’, ‘the hero suffers, struggles and fights and prepares

himself to get a magical helper’, ‘the hero and the villain face each other and battle

begins’, ‘villain losses’, ‘Hero wins’, ‘Hero returns’, ‘the False hero claims to be the

real hero’, ‘Hero gets his recognition and marries the Princess and ascends the throne’

etc. He also developed a character theory and came out with 7 broad character types

which can be applied to other media works. These character types are

The Villain also known as antagonist who stands against the Hero.

The Donor who inspires or helps the Hero by giving some magical object.

The Helper who helps the hero in his quest.

The Princess is sought by the hero and finally gets married to him.

The Dispatcher helps the hero by giving him a purpose.

The Hero, the central character who struggles, seeks, wins and finally weds

the princess.

False Hero is the character that falsely assumes the role of the ‘hero’ but later

on emerges as an evil.

Claude Levi-Strauss (1908-2009), a French anthropologist and the founder of

structural anthropology, led Propp’s theory one step ahead and suggested that the

narratives get motivations for moving from one place to another through the help of

conflicts and connection between the elements. On the basis of his rigorous study of

hundreds of myths and legends all around the world he realized that people make

sense of the world, humans and events by seeing or using binary opposites. He opines

that narratives subconsciously reflects cultural values, beliefs and myth and are

expressed through Binary opposites like ‘earth v/s space’, ‘Christian v/s Pagan’,

‘weak v/s strong’, ‘past v/s present’, ‘known v/s unknown’, ‘light v/s dark’, ‘good v/s

 
 
 45
 

evil’, ‘inside society v/s outside society’, ‘black v/s white’, ‘civilized v/s savage’,

‘peace v/s war’, ‘democracy v/s dictatorship’, ‘domestic v/s foreign-alien’, ‘young v/s

old’, ‘man v/s nature’, ‘protagonist v/s antagonist’, ‘man v/s woman’, ‘humanity v/s

technology’, ‘ignorance v/s wisdom’ etc.

A Bulgarian Structuralist Tzvetan Todorov during 1960s came up with the theory

of ‘Equilibrium and Disequilibrium’. It is categorized into five stages i.e.

¾ A state of Equilibrium: everything is in stable form and the events are taking

place smoothly.

¾ Disequilibrium: a sudden disturbance or disruption takes place by after a

particular event.

¾ Recognition: then a realization takes place that something wrong is going on.

¾ Repair: attempts are made to re correct the wrong.

¾ New Equilibrium: Finally everything comes to its right place and equilibrium

is renewed.

For e.g. In any Horror or Suspense movie the story starts with normal day to day life

of the central characters. They appear to be happy and enjoying their life up to the

brim. Suddenly something unexpected happens like murder, kidnapping, sensing

some paranormal activities, possession of the body etc. Then characters become the

victims of this disruption and struggle hard to find the root cause of that problem.

Finally they rectify the wrong happened to them and come back to their normal and

happy life but may be this equilibrium is not similar to the earlier equilibrium.

Roland Gerard Barthes (1915-1980), a French Literary theorist, pointed out

that inspite of being different from each other all the narratives share same structural

traits. He described text as:

 
 
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A galaxy of signifiers, not a structure of signifieds; it has no beginning ; it is

reversible; we gain access to it by several entrances, none of which can be

authoritatively declared to be the main one; the codes it mobilizes extend as

far as the eye can read, they are indeterminable… the systems of meaning can

take over this absolutely plural text, but their number is never closed, based as

it is on the infinity of language… (S/Z- 1947 translation)

He focused on multi-leveled meanings in a single text which should be unraveled

by reading it more than one time from different angle to create entirely a different

meaning. When reader re- reads the book, his vision and understanding level slightly

differs from the previous ones and thus a new glimpse of the unnoticed appears. All

the narratives except few incorporate different codes which allure the readers to

decode them and find the meaning hidden inside layer by layer. Barthes wanted the

readers or audience to have ‘writerly’ approach rather than ‘readerly’ approach. He

proposed the theory of 5 codes which depict the meaning of a text. These codes are

¾ The Hermeneutic Code (HER): This code refers to that element of the story

which is not fully explained creating a mysterious ambience for the

reader/audience to grab their attention completely. The main intention of the

author behind this code is to keep the reader/ audience engrossed into the

narrative and arresting his/her enigma to solve the puzzle with the help of the

unexplained cues. The reader/audience is not allowed to be satisfied until all

‘loose ends’ are tied hence he is provided with the ‘snares’ (intentionally

hiding of truth), ‘equivocations’ (combination of truth and snare) and

‘jammings’ (openly accepting that this problem has no solution). Finally at the

end all the links get connected and satisfaction is achieved. As Barthes

explains
 
 
 47
 

The variety of these terms (their inventive range) attests to the considerable

labor the discourse must accomplish if it hopes to arrest the enigma, to keep it

open. (76)

The genre of detective or suspense thriller can be taken as example as the entire plot

chiefly works on the hermeneutic code.

¾ The Proairetic Code (ACT): This code hands in hands with the Hermeneutic

Code as it also helps in creating tension and suspense among the readers/

audience in order to know what will happen next. Barthes says:

...dependent on…two sequential codes: the revelation of truth and the

coordination of the actions represented: there is the same constraint in the

gradual order of melody and in the equally gradual order of the narrative

sequence.”

¾ The Semantic Code: This code refers to the connotative meaning hidden

within the story that works as an additional effect over the denotative meaning

of the work.

¾ The Symbolic Code: Very close to Semantic Code but works at very wider

level. It arranges semantic meaning into broader and deeper sets of meaning.

For instance it works very well in the case of antithesis where new meaning

arises out of conflicting ideas.

¾ The Cultural Code: This code in a narrative refers to the science or a body of

knowledge. It tends to point out the readers’ or audiences’ shared knowledge

about the ways of the world related to culture, morality and ideology. It is

present in the works that cannot be challenged and is assumed to be the base

of the truth. For instance: social issues like gender and racial stereotypes etc.

 
 
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Jonathan Culler (1944), a Professor of English at Cornell University, has his work

published in the fields of Structuralism, Literary Theory and Criticism, comes up with

an attempt to assimilate French Structuralism to an Anglo-American critical

perspective in Structuralist Poetics (1975). His theory is basically based on the idea of

Noam Chomsky i.e. giving importance to the distinction between ‘competence’ and

‘performance’ rather than ‘langue’ and ‘parole’. According Noam Chomsky, a proper

understanding of a language relies on the native speaker’s capability to understand

well created sentences on the basis of an instinctively gathered knowledge of the

language system . Culler bases this observation on the literary theory on the basis of

which the genuine entity of poetics is not in the work but its precision. One must

make efforts to describe how it is that works can be understood; the contained

knowledge, the conventions that allow readers to make sense of them, must be

devised. Culler’s major endeavour is to shift the spotlight from the text to the reader.

He believes that we can decide the rules that oversees the understanding of texts, but

not those rules that administer the writing of texts. If we start by establishing a variety

of interpretations which seem suitable to expert readers, we can then institute what

norms and actions leads to the analysis. In other words, it can be said that a skilled

reader knows how to analyse the text and reach to its proper interpretations. Hence,

Culler gives importance to the reader’s act of analysing and interpreting a text not the

structure of the text.

As it is known that a narrative can be verbal (novels and conversational narrative),

visual (ballet) and verbal-visual (drama, film), so the narration of a narrative can be

very obvious and simple to analyze with the author sharing his meaning openly

(overt) or may be very difficult to decode or understand with author who remain

hidden (covert). The narrator may present a story from the view point of a particular

 
 
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character or several other characters or maybe he himself approaches the story and

holds the strings of control like a God (omniscience). One of most quoted authorities

on Narratology, French Literary theorist Gerard Genette in his Narrative Discourse:

An Essay in Method focuses on some important points like ‘method of telling a story’

or ‘how the tale is told?’ The narration of a story is required to answer this question

first as ‘is the basic narrative Mimetic or Diegetic’? Mimesis means imitation,

representation and enactment and it has to be in a direct speech or we can also say that

mimesis is the way or manner in which the story is presented i.e. the discourse. In its

case, the method of telling is slow and the narrative appears to be staged for the

readers to make them realize or imagine that they are actually ‘seeing’ and ‘hearing’

things for themselves. While Diegesis is all about telling, recounting which is quite

different from ‘showing’. This act of telling paves way for five important concepts of

narratology that are Mode, Voice, Order, Frequency and Duration. The Mode

refers to the medium or perspective through which the narrative is presented and it

can be studied through two aspects i.e. the Focalization and the Point of View. The

term Focalization, coined by Genette, depicts from which point of view or angle the

story has been told or shown and Miller defines it “the term ‘focalization’ is drawn

from optics. Its figurative base doesn’t differ from ‘point of view’ except that it

defines ‘point of view’ not as the matter of looking from a certain position, but as the

matter of getting things in focus…(2006:60). In addition to it, Abbott defines

focalization as ‘the lens through which we see characters and events of the narrative’

(2002: 66) and then on moving ahead, we find that focalization has two parts i.e.

‘Focalizer’ and the ‘Focalized’ and according Jahn ‘a focalizer is the agent whose

point of view orients the narrative text’ or in other words ‘focalizer’ is the central

consciousness in a narrative and every event, situation and action done by other

 
 
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characters are sieved through this focalizer but it is not necessary that there will be

only one focalizer in a narrative as pertaining to different situations, the focalizer

changes leading to the emergence of multiple focalizers in a single narrative and the

character and situation which is being discussed or narrated in a narrative is known as

the focalized. So, Mieke Bal has tried to clear the picture related to the focalizer and

the focalized by:

Narrator Focalizer Actor

Narrating Focalizing Acting

Narrated The Focalized The Object of Acting

Bal states that the focalizer focuses on the actions done by the actor and presents them

through his/ her angle; the narrator with the help of these actions creates a story and

pen down it into narrative words. Coming back to Genette, he put forward three

degrees of Focalization- Zero, Internal and External.

• Zero Focalization: This term refers to the ‘omniscient narrator’ for which

Todorov applied this formula Narrator > Character indicating that the narrator

knows more than any of the characters and can enter freely into their minds

and read their feelings and emotions. This style was very much followed by

‘traditional’ or ‘classical’ narration.

• Internal Focalization: The formula applied to this term is Narrator = Character

which makes it very clear to understand that the narrator says what the

character knows. This is the narrative with ‘point of view’ after Lubbock, or

 
 
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with restricted field after Blin; Pouillon calls it ‘vision with’. In simple terms,

it focuses on what the character feels or thinks.

• External Focalization: The formula applies to this term is Narrator <

Character which means the readers are informed on the basis of whatever is

observed from the outside or what the characters think or feel. The narrator

says less than what the character knows. This is considered to be ‘objective’

or ‘behaviorist’ narrative and Pouillon calls it ‘vision from without’.

(1980:188-89)

The next aspect is ‘Point of View’ defined as an essential mode of narration designed

specifically for the reader/ audience so that he/she can see or feel what exactly is

going on in the story. There are six view points on the basis narrative:

First-Person Narration depicts that the narrator is the central character or the

protagonist of the story narrating the story from ‘I, Me, My, Mine, Myself, We, Us,

Our, Ourselves’ perspectives. In some cases, the narrator is not the protagonist but

he/she does have direct involvement in the important events of the story.

Second- Person Narrative takes place very rarely in a narrative piece as it has the

agent ‘You’ and it becomes very difficult narrate a story in this mode.

Third-Person Narration means that the narrator describes the events related to

another character or group of characters. The narrator may present in the story as one

of the characters or he may remain invisible throughout the story. There are basically

three different modes of Third-Person narration known as Objective, Limited and

Omniscient. In the case of Third-Person Objective Narration, the narrator tells the

story of a character using ‘He, She, His, Her’ but he doesn’t discloses the inner

thoughts and feelings of them. So, the characters are described through their actions

 
 
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and dialogues and readers to will try to analyze their characters on the basis of the

same. The narrator’s point of view gets ‘limited’ in Third-Person Limited

Narration as he can reveal the thoughts and feelings of only one character not the

others. The last mode is Third-Person Omniscient Narration in which the reader

comes to know about the thoughts and feelings of the characters as the narrator has

the direct access to read characters’ minds as when we observe the term, the base

word ‘Omni’ means ‘all’ and ‘Scient’ means ‘knowing’, it becomes quite obvious that

the omniscient narrator knows everything.

The Voice indicates ‘who is narrating the story?’ and ‘from where he/she is

narrating the story?’. Till now, it has become very clear that it is the narrator who

narrates the story either as the visible participant or invisible participant. Genette has

categorized this narrative voice into:

Homodiegetic narrator is one of the characters in a story and remains

actively involved in it. The character can be the protagonist or someone else but he/

she surely affects or gets affected with the advancement of the narrative. The decision

of giving this responsibility to a character is taken by the author whose homodiegetic

narrator influences the readers/ audience and makes them see, hear and understand the

plot from his own perspective. It has a drawback too. If the character who is narrating

the story is not so important then the understanding and vision of the plot will get

restricted. Reader /audience will see and analyze within the limited horizon. That

narrator will present the story from his/her point of view and thus won’t be able to

judge other characters’ intentions and feelings correctly. Generally the homodiegetic

narrator narrates a story which has his/her past experiences.

 
 
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Heterodiegetic Narrator is positioned outside the story and act as a bridge

between the characters and events in the story and the reader who is in the process of

reading.

Extradiegetic Narrator is the one who doesn’t take part in the narrated action

means they can be a part of the story but they don’t perform in the events taking place

in the story.

Intradiegetic Narrator participates in the story by being a character within the

main narrative.

Order in a literary text or visual narrative refers to the relation between the events

organized in a story but it is not necessary that the order of the sequences or events

will be always in chronological order as there can flashbacks or flash forwards along

with other techniques to develop interest in the story even if it is a simple one. Hence,

it is the presentation of events with no relation to time.

Duration refers to the time taken by an even in a narrative as according to

Genette the relative duration of events can be defined on the basis of number of pages

used to describe that particular event i.e. the duration of the story and the duration of

the reading process are interconnected. Hence, duration can be categorized on

different levels as if we are dealing with a dramatic scene then the narrative time will

be equal to the historical time; if it is a statis (depiction of events happening in

everyday life) then the narrative time will be greater than the historical time ;if is

about ellipses (romping over time periods reaching from one generation to another the

other) then the narrative time would be extremely greater than the historical time and

if the story is in summarized form then obviously the narrative duration would be

lesser than the historical time.

 
 
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The Frequency in a piece of narrative alludes to the number of times an event or

scene is presented in a story. Sometimes, the narrative never repeats any event again

and hence is known as the ‘singulative narrative’ but in other cases it may happen that

an event happened once mentioned several times in a story and an event happened

several times are mentioned in a narrative for several times. The main objective

behind observing frequency in a narrative is to know whether any event has been

repeated or not and if yes then what is the motive behind this repetition or the

message that the narrator is trying to give.

The world of cinema too has Narrative Technique that enhance the quality of

narration a lot and these techniques can be The Narrative point of view that shows

the position of the narrator and this position is basically observed from the character’s

over the shoulder view because the audience are expected to see or weigh the situation

from the chosen character’s perspective. The Narrative Voice suggests who is telling

the story and in movies the makers generally want character to carry the narrative on

their own shoulders and deliver it to the audience through their dialogues and actions.

In a movie, Sound, Voice and Music play vital roles in presenting a narrative

effectively. They are categorized, in broad terms, into sections i.e. Diegetic and Non-

Diegetic. Diegetic Voice or Sound is the one whose source is visible on the screen for

e.g. dialogues, musical instruments in the scene and sound coming from the objects

apart from the characters. Non-Diegetic sound is the one whose source is not visible

and it is designed especially for the audience not the characters as for e.g. narrator’s

commentary from behind the screen, sound effects etc. Again, these Sound, Voice and

Music can be further divided into other sub-categories say for example,

• Non-Simultaneous Sound that indicates the sound that has already

taken place but being played in the current scene. The audience assume
 
 
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the past events which they haven’t seen yet on the basis of the sound

going on parallel with the current scene.

• Direct Sound is recorded live during the shooting and is not required to

be dubbed again.

• Synchronous Sound goes parallel to the scene being viewed by the

audience.

• Post synchronization Dubbing is the sound that is recorded or dubbed

after the scene has been shot.

• Sound Perspective is related to the volume and pitch being adjusted on

basis of requirement of the scene and camera shots.

• Sound Bridge acts as a medium with the help of which one can remain

in the scene or go out of it as a particular sound occurs during the

dialogue deliver and fades away with the completion of the dialogue.

• Voice Over is that sound which is designed specifically for the

audience and the character don’t have any connection with it.

• Sonic Flashback is a sort of combination of different pieces of sounds

and dialogues heard by a single character who is trying to recollect his

memories.

• Film Music also play a very important role in a movie as sometimes

songs are used to depict the action of the characters which helps the

audience to decode the hidden intention behind it.

 
 
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There are numerous terms and techniques which play very vital roles in the field

of narratology and with the help of them one can understand the structure of a

narrative to a large extent. Some of the important narrative terms and techniques are:

1) Backstory: It refers to the characters’ history and other story elements that

underlie the situation at the start of the book. Backstory helps to establish the

setting and makes the reader care about what happens to the characters. But as

Backstory by definition takes the story backward, the author has to take care

of one point that the flashbacks, character musings and recollections, or

passages of exposition to reveal what came before, every instance of backstory

stops novel’s forward momentum, and thus too much involvement in the

backstory will create a disinterest among the readers and the essence of the

narrative will be vanished.

2) Actant : The person, object (living or non-living) and any other thing playing

an active role in a narrative is known as an actant coined by Algirdas Julien

Greimas very much similar to the different roles with different names at the

narrative level propounded by renowned narrativists for e.g. Propp calls it

‘Dramatic Persona’, Souriau names it ‘Function’ and Lotman introduces it as

‘Archipersona’.

3) Actantial Model: It is proposed by Greimas according to which any action

can be divided into six components that are the Subject, the Object, the

Sender, the Receiver, the Helper and the Opponent. These six components are

distributed among three axes i.e. the Axis of Desire which includes the Subject

and the Object as it is the Subject who goes out in search of the Object for e.g.

a prince in search of his princess and the relation between the two is known as

‘junction’ that can be further categorized into ‘Conjunction’ means desiring

 
 
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for someone to be with you like the lover wants his beloved and ‘Disjunction’

means getting rid of something one dislikes or hates like a cruel and hard-

hearted politician kills the person who is the eyewitness of his crime. The

second axis is the Axis of Power containing the Helper and the Opponent as

the Helper accompanies or provide some useful aids to the Subject to be

successful in his quest for example Fairy/Sage/Animals and things (horse/

bird/ sword/ flying carpet etc) and the Opponent creates barrier in the path of

the Subject so that he couldn’t reach to his destination for e.g. old

Witch/Dragon/evil Magician etc. The last but not the least is the axis of

Transmission which has the Sender and the Receiver. The Sender is an

important element which gives a motive to the Subject and wants a

conjunction between it and the object as for instance the King sends the Prince

in search of the Princess and gladly participates in the ceremony of their

union. The Receiver is the element for which this whole action is taking place

or who is going to be benefitted on the successful completion of the quest. For

e.g. the union of the Prince and the Princess will enlighten the King and the

Queen leading to the happiness to be scattered in the entire kingdom.

4) Advance-mention: A narrative event referred as the narrative ‘seed’ whose

importance is not recognized by the reader when it is mentioned at the

beginning in a light mood but later on it becomes the most important

ingredient of the story.

5) Alteration: It is a momentary change in the focalization code that is heading

the narrative and it can be divided into two parts i.e. imparting knowledge or

information about an event more than it is required (Paralepsis) and giving

 
 
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minimum information either to sustain the curiosity or to give space to the

reader for creating the meaning himself (Paralipsis).

6) Autodiegetic Narration: It is a part of Homodiegetic narrative in which the

narrator is also the protagonist and is narrating his own experiences in the

form of a story.

7) Casuality: It deals with relationship between the Cause and Effect present in a

narrative and is divided into two part i.e. Implicit and Explicit that help to

analyze the reason for particular action performed by a character and its

resulting effect.

8) Coda: It is defines as the statement which announces the completion of a

story and hence makes the reader to know that the narrative is over.

9) Consonance: It refers to the amalgamation between the narrator and the

character’s consciousness.

10) Covert Narration: The covert narration refers to the narrator who prefers to

fade away into the background and don’t want to be noticed by the reader.

Thus covert narrators generally avoid influencing or striking voice and focus

on the main characters of the narrative text so that the reader couldn’t reach to

him/her in any possible way.

11) Descriptive Pause: The pause which is followed by a description is called a

descriptive pause.

12) Duplication: The repetition of a sequence and an event in the narration is

called Duplication.

13) Ellipsis: also known as Omission or Falling short, refers to the use of dots to

erase a particular word, sentence or the whole section without hindering the

originality and interesting elements present in a narrative.

 
 
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14) Frame/ Embedded story or Story within a story: The device refers to the

main story which organizes a series of shorter stories is known as Frame story.

The stories of Arabian Nights, Panchatantra are the best example of this

device.

15) Flashback or Analeptic Reference: According to Merriam Webster

Flashback is ‘an interruption of the chronological sequence (as of a film or

literary work) of an event of earlier occurrence.’ It is a device used to insert

some events taken place in the past in order to provide a background or

support the story going on in the present. It also clears the angle from which

we judge any character by giving information about whatever happened to that

character (protagonist/ antagonist) in the past because of which he/she is like

this at present. It creates a tension among the readers/ audience as mere

mention of some past events enhances the curiosity to know about it

completely. Dream sequences and memories are used as its forms. For eg:

Wuthering Heights, The Notebook, Forrest Gump, The Twilight, Lords of the

Ring etc.

16) Flashforward or Prolepsis: Just opposite of Flashback, this device helps in

imbedding imagined scenes of the future which haven’t taken place in

between the current time of the narrative. One of the most important examples

is Charles Dickens’ The Christmas Carol in which Scrooge, the protagonist,

visits his future and witnesses a very unexpected moment. Other examples are

Back to the Future, Final Destination, Books like Terry Brook’s Word and

Void, Muriel Spark’s The Prime Of Miss Jean Brodie etc.

17) Erzahlendes and Erlebendes Ich: These two terms are the parts of

Homodiegetic narration in which Erzahlendes refers to the narrator who

 
 
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narrates or tell the story and Erlebendes means the narrator who is

experiencing the events also. For example, Robinson Crusoe is Erzahlendes as

in narrates his adventurous story on a desolated island and he is also

Erlebendes because he experiences all the events.

18) External action: The action performed by the characters contradictory to their

inner thoughts and feeling is known as external action.

19) Fixed Internal Focalizer and Focal character: A particular type of internal

focalization in which the narrative has one and only focalizer with only his/her

point of view is known as fixed internal focalizer and the character that

focalizes is the focal character.

20) Foreshadowing: The device or techniques used in a narrative to give an

indication of the future event as for instance a child is shown extremely

inclined towards cars and later on he becomes a car-racer. So, the earlier event

(liking the car) foreshadows the present event (becoming a car-racer)

21) Inter Action: Opposite to the External Action, it refers to the inner feelings

and thoughts of the characters quite different from what they exactly do.

22) Isotopy: Prince has defined this term as the repetition of semiotic features that

indicates the coherence of the text for e.g. everyone present in that party was

nicely dressed and looking gorgeous. Alicia and Rob sophistically moved

towards the magnificently decorated table in the middle of the huge hall and

everybody toasted for their happy married life with a glass of champagne in

their hands. The terms like ‘nicely dressed’, ‘gorgeous’, ‘magnificent’,

‘decorated table’, ‘champagne’ etc indicate ‘luxury’ isotopy.

23) Narrative Audience: The audience for which the narrator is narrating is

known as narrative audience and it is different from the actual audience. The

 
 
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narrative audience believes in the reality of the world described by the

narrator.

24) Predictive Narration: also known as Anterior narration refers to the narrative

in which the narration comes before the event which is going to happen.

25) Chekov’s Gun: also known as Foreshadowing/ Repetitive Designation is

considered to be a very important device in a plot as in an item is introduced in

the first part of the novel which doesn’t seem relevant to the story at that

moment of time but later on establishes a greater significance. The principle of

this device was presented by prolific Russian playrwright, Anton Chekhov

according to whom if you put gun in the first act of the play, it should be fired

in the second act and the result will be more effective. Here ‘gun’ symbolizes

that thing which grabs everybody’s attention. But it has some limitations too.

If the writer introduces something at the beginning but doesn’t intend to link it

with the rest of the story then it will end with reader’s disappointment.

26) Cliffhanger: This is the device in which the end is unexpected and inquisitive

as the main characters are left entangled in difficult situations without any

solution to come out of that battle. It is well known fact that we all are curious

by nature and Cliffhanger in any form of Literature may it be novel, movie,

serials, advertisement etc. appeals to our curiosity. Its main purpose is to

maintain the suspense and interest among the readers/audience as it acts as a

bait which forces the reader/audience to go for second part the narrative with

more enthusiasm and interest simple to know ‘what will happen next’. For eg:

Harry Potter Series, Twilight Series, Detective series etc. This device has

some limitations too. If the writer fails to maintain the suspense in the second

part then the readers will lose their interests and as a result won’t go for the

 
 
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third part. Secondly, some people are very impatient and thus they don’t show

any effort in continuing their reading or watching as pondering over the

upcoming story and sequences and waiting for the next part to come is not

exactly their cup o tea.

27) Macguffin: It is a device coined by the director Alfred Hitchcock that works

as a motivator or a goal being chased or pursued by the characters. It can act

as one of the themes in a narrative because desire for something is one of the

most important traits of human beings. This Macguffin technique is very

common in action thrillers like characters striving for money, success, glory,

power, love etc. There are so many examples like The Indiana Jones movie

series in which Macguffins are ‘ark of the convenant’, ‘the Holy Grail’;

‘Green Destiny sword’ in Crouching Tiger, hidden Dragon. In the Harry

Potter Part VI and VII of the series, the horcuxes can be taken as macguffins

etc.

28) Red Herring: The intervention of some irrelevant topics in between the

smooth flow of a narrative in order to mislead the characters and the

readers/audience so that they can’t come to the right conclusion easily is called

Red Herring. This device is specially designed for suspense or mystery

thrillers. The makers (author/director) don’t want their readers/audience to

solve the mystery by themselves very easily. The function of this genre

(suspense thriller) has always been to arouse curiosity, excitement and

amusement in the spectator. By the use of Red Herring they get success in

distracting the reader/audience from the real path. For eg. A character is

introduced in a novel or a movie and all the evidence show that he is the

culprit but at the end that character comes out as the positive one. So the target

 
 
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of sustaining reader’s/audience’s interest till the end is achieved. An example

from the movie adapted from a novel can be the character of “Bishop

Aringarosa” in Dan Brown’s novel Da Vinci Code serves as an example of a

red herring throughout the novel. The character is presented in such a way that

the readers suspect him to be the mastermind of the whole conspiracy in the

church. Later it was revealed that he was innocent. This example of a red

herring in the novel distracts the readers from who the real bad person is and

thus, adds to the mystery of the story.

29) Ticking clock Scenario: This device is generally used in action based movies

which limits the boundaries of a narrative. It is all about giving the protagonist

a set amount of time to achieve his goal or target otherwise he/ she will face

the adverse situations. Basically, this device is used to create tension, anxiety

and urgency among the reader/ audience and thus very tightly knitted script is

required to sustain the importance of this device. Some of the commonly used

ideas based on Ticking Clock scenario are: the protagonist is given certain

number of days to complete his task or reach his goal like to find his love

interest, become rich, catch the killer; a time bomb is set by the villain and

protagonist has to save lives by defusing it; any natural disaster like flood,

volcano eruption, earth quack etc are drawing near and the central characters

have to save the mankind from them; hijacking of a bus, plane by the villains

and giving certain time to the protagonist to pay the ransom in place of

hostages lives and hence the hero tries to save those hostages in that particular

limit of time etc.

30) Defamiliarization: This term was proposed by Russian literary critic Victor

Shklovsky in his essay ‘Art as Technique’. It refers to the act of converting a

 
 
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thing which is quite known to us into something completely strange. In other

words, it is all about a major shift in the perspective that amuses the

reader/audience when he sees a familiar object in a completely new and

strange form and he believes it too. For e.g. In the Harry Potter Series ‘the

monstrous book’, ‘the mandrake roots looking like babies’ etc. The Animal

Farm and Gulliver’s Travel can be cited as the best examples of

Defamiliarisation as in the first narrative, all the characters are animals still

they compel the reader/audience to be a part of their story and see the real face

of so called ‘civilized society’. In the latter, the Gulliver’s travel to the land of

Lilliputs, island of sorcerers Glubbdubdrib, and the land of Yahoos and

Houyhnhnms. But sometimes excess of defamiliarisation may lead to the

failure of the narrative too.

31) Mooreeffoc: The term Mooreefoc is ‘coffeeroom’ spelled backwards and

coined by Charles Dickens when he was coming out of a coffee shop and saw

noticed from inside glass of the shop this ‘mooreeeffoc’. It refers to an

inanimate object behaving like humans means even an inanimate object can

play the role of a character.

32) Allegory: It is a figure of speech or it can be called a complete narrative in

which the characters represent an abstract idea or principle. Its objective has

always been to impart some moral values to the reader/ audience. Allegory

plays a vital role in giving different layers and meanings to the narrative. By

making the characters multidimensional allegory also allows the author to put

forward his moral point of views without any hesitation because only a careful

and genuine reading can find out the real intention behind writing a particular

 
 
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novel. H.G.Well’s Animal Farm, Edmund Spenser’s Faerie Queen etc are best

examples of an allegory.

33) Symbolism: Symbolism is what an author uses an object or any reference to

add deeper meaning to the story. For e.g. Storms represent conflict or high

emotion, Flower symbolizes beauty, purity, youth etc. Sometimes symbols do

change their meaning according to the context and narrative as for instance red

colour is the symbol of love and passion but it also symbolizes danger or

threat. Similarly a chain may symbolize ‘union’ or ‘imprisonment’. The use of

symbolism in a narrative excites interest in the readers/ audience as they see

common things from different perspectives and broaden their vision of

analysis. Earnest Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea can be taken as the

best example where each character, situation and all symbolize something.

The old man’s struggle to catch a fish symbolizes human’s strive for the

survival, the fish is the symbol of opportunity and sharks who attack it are the

hurdles which come in everybody’s life to drag him to the dungeon of failure

etc.

34) Irony: This term is defined as a contrast between what is expected and what

actually happens. It is used in Literature to express the idea that meaning

implied by a sentence or word is actually different from the actual meaning. It

can be Situational where something happens which we don’t expect to happen

e.g. a fire station burns down, a marriage counselor files for divorce etc;

Verbal irony refers to something said but its meaning is completely different

from the words e.g. The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne holds an

example for Verbal irony. Dimmesdale confesses that he is the "worst of

sinners", but his congregation "did but rever him the more". He says that if "a

 
 
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saint on earth" could find sin committed by in himself, then they must truly be

terrible. By doing this, Dimmesdale wants the people to shun him as they did

Hester, but they did the exact opposite ; and Dramatic means the readers know

the situation but the characters are unaware of it. For e.g. in a horror story, we

know that the dead body is inside the closet but the character opens it

unknowingly. In Romeo and Juliet Romeo thinks that Juliet is dead audience

knows she is not. In Macbeth, the audience knows Macbeth is pretending to be

loyal to the King while planning his murder.

35) Paradox: In simple words paradox is a seeming contradiction. Originated

from a Greek word ‘paradoxon’ which means contrary to expectations. In spite

of using concepts or ideas that are antithetical to each other, they hold

significant values in deeper level of meaning. The purpose of using paradox in

a piece of literature is to sustain reader’s interest into it. Readers relish the

story more when they scoop out hidden meaning from the sea of the words

present in a novel rather than reading a story with straight storyline and direct

message. For example: In George Orwell’s Animal Farm , paradox used in the

line ‘All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others’ to show how

the asserted beliefs on equality is contrary to the real meaning of equality.

36) Oxymoron: It is a witty device comprised of two words together with

contradictory or contrasting meaning. This unusual blend of words creates a

kind of curiosity and amazement among the readers as they start wondering

about the exact meaning or intention behind using such words. For e.g.

‘murderous innocence’, ‘living dead’ etc. some well known quotations having

oxymoron are:

 
 
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I like smuggler. He is the only honest thief. (Charles Lamb)

A joke is actually an extremely really serious issue. (Winston Churchill)

I can resist anything, except temptation. (Oscar Wilde)

37) Bildungsroman: One of the most important forms of storytelling,

Bildungsroman records the overall growth of the central character throughout

the story. The character shows his physical, psychological, social, moral and

spiritual growth on the basis of his experiences with the progress in the story.

Just like writing a novel is an art that needs lots of research works related to the

techniques and structural knowledge, film making too requires narrative acumen

drenched with skillful cinematographic techniques so that a memorable spectacle can

be introduced in front of the people. The creative heads of the Cinema realized that

the novels already received popularity can be transformed into a film with some

cinematographic improvisations and thus ‘film adaptation’ came into existence. Few

filmmakers did full justice to the film adapted from a novel and both the modes of

entertainment became landmark in the history of Literature and Cinema while some

failed to maintain the grip in the movie as it was in the novel. On the other hand, few

daring creative heads and film productions chose to adapt either unknown or not so

popular narratives and transform them into a huge visual success. Infact, the victory

turned the table around and hence increased the purchasing of books to read the

scenes which have already been seen.

According to a film critic Christian Metz, ‘a film is difficult to explain because

it is easy to understand.’ As viewers, we enjoy sitting on a chair in a dark room

watching a movie on a large screen and so we never think about how the visual, aural

 
 
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and linguistic components combine together in order to produce an interesting movie.

That is why it is considered as a challenge for the art lovers and critics to give priority

to the cause of experience in place of enjoying that experience. A movie can be

analyzed on various levels like Meaning which deals with the theme and symbolism

used for the story projected on the screen and these components help the viewer to

interpret the visual narrative differently according to their own perception. The title of

the movie is selected very carefully and hover over the main theme of the story as for

e.g. She is the Man is the movie depicting a girl’s diligent effort to establish her

importance and identity in the world of men. A movie does have a plot that

establishes the cause and effect relationship in order to create suspense, surprise and

excitement among the viewers. Motivation is also one of the important elements

present in the plot of a movie that can be defined as a justification given in the film

for the presence of an element. For example, in the movie Unforgiven, a close-up

shot showing the painful and heart-shattering scar marks on the character Ned’s

(Morgan Freeman’s) body motivates the character William Money’s (Clint

Eastwood’s) killing of Hackman and other town people. This shot also points out

viewer’s inner desire to take revenge through violence and so even if the theme of this

movie is anti-violence, the blotched black-body symbolizes the need for awakening of

justice and humanity through a tough action. As far as style and design of the cinema

is concerned, it is handled mainly by three persons i.e. the director, the

cinematographer and the production designer. They together take decision related to

the selection of locations for shooting, setting of cameras, choice of lenses, filters and

gels etc. This research works focuses on the cinematography and the techniques used

during the making of a movie and so it should be studied carefully.

 
 
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Cinematography is an art of presenting a narrative into an audio-visual form.

Frankly speaking, recording a video with the help of a camera seems very easy but

Cinematography takes control over audience’s mind and brings forth the images how

they ought to be presented. The movies with best and sound film techniques are ones

where the audience can understand the meaning without hearing any of the dialogues.

Film techniques help in creating meaning. Specifically, the movies adapted from the

novels have to be very careful regarding the use of these techniques as it is very well

said that ‘with great power comes great responsibilities’. Thus, the main purpose of

the filmmaker should be to satisfy the reader/audience’s aesthetic intellect so that the

readers who have already read the novel shall see its adapted version with a fresh

mind and unfold new meaning out of it while those who haven’t read the narrative yet

feel forced to read it to experience the written images from the perspective of already

seen audio-visual images of the film. The Rule of Thirds is considered as the basic

step of cinematography and ‘is a technique of dividing the frame up into a 3x3 grid,

splitting the frame into nine boxes. Our natural impulse is to put our subject in the

dead center, but a centered subject will look like they’re caught in a spotlight, and by

dropping them in the center of the frame, it gives them nowhere to go. Instead, by

positioning your action in any of the four vertices where those nine boxes meet, you

create a balance in your composition that feels more natural. For example, a side view

of a person driving a car: on the top left vertex is the driver’s head and shoulder,

which follows their arm down to the lower right vertex to the steering wheel. This

creates a nicely balanced frame of the driver on the top left and the wheel on the

lower right.’(2) In short this theory is based on the tendency of human eyes which

gravitates to intersection points that takes place when an image is split into thirds.

 
 
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The Rule of Thirds is comprised of Head Room and Lead Room/Look Room.

The Head Room refers to the amount of space between the top the person’s head and

the top of one’s frame. Excess of head room shows the portrait to be sinking and on

the other hand less amount of head room focuses more on the person’s face specially

chin and neck. According to exact Rule of Thirds the subject’s eyes should be on the

upper third line. The Lead Room means leaving extra space in front of the image, the

direction where the subject is looking at.

The filming of a story goes through various processes before the real film

direction. It starts with Story Boarding where all the graphics are organized in order to

illustrate all the scenes in a sequential manner for pre-visualizing the film. It

importance lies in the fact that with the help of StoryBoard, the film maker

understands how will he shoot even before going on the location. The Story Board

can be called the blue print of a movie. Then the Pre-Production comes where all the

works like raising money, finding locations, finding actors, getting permissions,

transportation arrangements, shooting schedules, stock purchasing, staying

arrangements for the crew members, insurance etc. have to be done before starting the

film shooting. After completing these tasks Production Shot takes place which means

the film shooting. When the entire shooting is done, the work comes under Post

Production where development of the film, colour correction, editing, digital

manipulation, correction of sound and visual effects are done.

Cinematography sometimes appears as a magic which takes certain actors

and location and turn them into something amazing, cinematic and iconic. But this

magic too needs a wand to enchant its audience and thus Cinematographic techniques

 
 
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play their vital roles in creating such magic. These techniques can be divided into

three main categories: Camera Shots, Camera Angle and Camera Movement.

In the process of making a movie, a variety of camera shots are used in order to

create a proper mood for the story. A Camera Shot is the amount of space taken for

the audience to see one shot or frame. In a way, different Camera shots help to

develop meaning in the movie. The most important Camera Shots are:

• Extreme Long Shot: (aka) Establishing Shot used to show the landscape of the

film or blurred visual of the character in the background. It is generally used in

the beginning of the film to inform the audience about the place or setting

where the story is going to take place.

• Long Shot: It also visualize a landscape but this time with a clear view of the

environment or setting showing main character or other characters but the

background still dominates the scene. This shot helps the viewers to

understand the relationship between the characters and their environment. The

audience shall know how all are linked with each other.

 
 
 72
 

• Medium Long Shot: It reflects the clear image of the character as well as some

of the background. In other words, this shot places the character in the context.

• The Medium Shot or Mid Shot: The Medium Shot shows the character more

clearly, focusing from the head to the waist, in relation to his/her immediate

surroundings. This shot is also known as Social Shot which helps the audience

to know more about the character by viewing his/her facial expressions and

body language.

 
 
 73
 

• Medium Close Up Shot: This shot is taken from above the head to the lower part

of the chest. This shot is apt for showing conversation between two or more

characters.

• Close Up: This shot is taken from closer angle covering the area from persons

head to the top of the upper chest of only one character at a time. It hardly

contains any background and helps the viewers to see character’s emotions

clearly thus arises empathy for him/her and also heightens the tension.

 
 
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• Extreme Close-up Shot: It is a very close shot showing the detailed features of

the character or an object. This technique is quite common in horror movies as

it creates an intense mood among the audience.

• Aerial Shot: As the name suggests this shot is basically taken from a

helicopter or a crane to show a location from high overhead. Such shots give a

magnanimous image if the location is really beautiful.

 
 
 75
 

• Arc Shot: The shot which is taken by moving or covering a semi circle around

the character or an object is called an Arc shot. In simple terms, it is a sort of

camera movement from side to side and in and out. This shot helps to bring

out more information about the background the character is standing in front

of. An arc shot of a moving object is rather more complicated than others and

it creates lots of curiosity among the audience.

• Bridging Shot: The shot which indicates the passage of time within one scene

to another or change in the location is called the Bridging shot. It can also be

defined as the shot acting as a connector between two scenes by showing a

change in time or location.

 
 
 76
 

• American Shot: This shot encompasses a group of characters arranged in such

a manner that all can be seen very easily within a single frame. This shot is

generally used in the complex dialogue scenes where the main intention is

carrying out the whole scene without any change in the positions of the

cameras.

• Reaction Shot: This shot is taken to show some sort of emotions on the face of

the actor being shown on the screen. It may be possible that the Reaction shot

is without any dialogue though there is no hard and fast rule for that. The main

purpose behind this shot is to touch the emotional senses of the viewers as

sometimes expressions speak louder than words.

 
 
 77
 

• Over the Shoulder Shot: The shot of someone or something taken over the

shoulder of another person is known as Over the Shoulder shot. Generally, this

type of shot is taken when two persons are conversing and helps in place the

characters in their own setting.

• Silhouette Shot: This shot keeps the background bright and the character appears

in a dark image and forms an outline of its presence. It helps in giving a very

mysterious impression in a film story.

 
 
 78
 

Camera Shot is all about Who and What we see or it guides the audience to form an

opinion about the character and so Camera Angle is all about how we see or perceive

them. The more extreme the angle would be the more symbolic and iconic the shot

will be taken. Is the character going to appear dominant or weak? From whose point

of view are we going to visualize the narrative? etc are some questions to be answered

by the brief study of Camera Angles which are the most important factor in producing

illusion of scenic depth. There are three components that make up a camera angle:

• Subject Size

• Subject Angle

• Camera Height

The Subject Size like Long Shot, Medium Shot, Close- Up Shot, Over the Shoulder

Shot etc relate to the overall picture area and they have already been discussed. The

Subject angles are:

• 3/4th Angle: The forty-five degree angle (aka) Three- quarter angle gives a

scene of depth. It visualizes the clear and round image of the character or

an object. Generally, where special effects are not required, director’s first

choice is always ¾ Angle.

 
 
 79
 

• Frront Angle/S
Straight Anngle: The Front angle pllaces the caamera directtly in

front of thee Subject. Thhough it giv

ves a very flat
fl image buut still a clo
ose or

direct contaact with the camera leaads to involvve the audieence with acction.

• Side Angle: This

T angle gives
g de look of thhe characterr and creates a new
the sid

profile but it shouldn’tt be used mu

uch as the audience
a feeel quite detaached at

such cinem
matographic moments.

 
 
 80
 

The variatioon in the Heeights of thee camera crreates an ouutstanding efffect on the

psychologiccal, artistic and dramattic backgrou

und of the film.
fi It is beecause of diffferent

heights the characters or the objeccts of the movie becom

me alive. Theeir greatnesss or

meekness is decided by the camerra’s angle seet on speciffic position. Some of th

he most

important Camera
C heigghts are:

• Thhe Bird’s Eyye View: It is an elevatted view off an object fr

from the oveerhead

and puts the audience in a god lik

ke position, looking
l dow
wn on an acction. It

can also bee said that thhis shot is do

one with a perspective
p as if the vieewer is

a bird and observing

o thhe happenin
ng from aboove. It can m
make characcters to

look insignnificant by showing them ant-like, part of a wiider schemee of

things .Birdd’s eye view

ws as a genrre have exissted since cllassical timees its

prints weree very popullar in the Un

nited Statess and Europee.

 
 
 81
 

• High Angle: The camera is above the subject and is aimed down means it

shoots downwards. This angle helps in reducing the apparent height of the

character in comparison to whom he/she is standing and hence gives an

impression of a weak, small and less powerful person.

• Low Angle: In this angel the camera is set below the character and is aimed

upwards. It is used to show grandeur and power of the character by the effect

of his height and dominating personality.

• Eye level: This is commonly known as Neutral shot where the camera is placed

approximately five to six feet above from the ground and pictures the

character as it is as if he/she is directly in contact with the viewers.

 
 
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• Dutch Tilt Shot: It is a camera shot in which the angle of the camera gets

slanted to one side. Usually this shot is taken to create more drama and

suspense in the movie.

• POV (Point of View) Shot: This shot is taken from the view of Subject’s or

particular Character’s perspective. In this shot, it appears as if the viewers are

looking through the eyes of the selected character.

• Worm’s Eye View: This is an extreme low camera angle where the camera is

placed on the floor and shoots upwards.

 
 
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It is already known that a camera works in a three-dimensional world and can

be moved anywhere along the XYZ axis. Thus, in order to embellish the shot

the director instructs the camera operator to move camera so that a beautiful

shot can be captured and the move can be upwards, downwards, left, right,

forward and backward. The basic camera movements which are very essential

for a film direction are :

1) Tilt: This is the technique in which camera can be moved up and down just

like nodding of head. The Tilt move can show something falling and

rising. The tilting, in a way, expresses emotional responses. Upward tilt

generates feeling of rising interest, hope, happiness etc while downward

tilt conveys the idea of sadness, disappointment and failure.

2) Pan: In Panning technique, the camera moves horizontally side to side i.e.

from left to right and right to left. This movement helps in scanning so that

the viewers can be provided with those scenic elements which are not

possible in a wide angle shot. It generally captures or follows a moving

object.

3) Zoom: With the advancement in technology, the hi-tech designed lenses

have made their advent and thus a camera can have a Zoom lens which can

take a shot of a subject from the farthest distance without moving by just

 
 
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switching a button on. By Zooming in a lens can become a telephoto lens

and Zooming out makes it a wide angle lens. The variation in the speed of

the zooms has different impact on the audience. As fast zooms creates

excitement and fun, slow zooms gives a calm and quiet impression, and

very slow zoom in and zoom out can make a long and boring shot

interesting. But it should be taken care of that excess of zoom ins and outs

can annoy the audience and they may lose interest in the movie.

4) Dolly or Dollying: The camera is placed on a tripod with wheels and

follows the action while maintaining a steady and firm movement without

any jerks and shakings. The Dolly directions affect the audience in

different ways. For instance, when the camera moves towards the subject,

an interest is created among the viewers as in its use in Horror or Crime

thrillers. The girl is sleeping and suddenly an unknown figure arrives and

slowly moves towards her, one more scene can be taken as example like

the girl has heard some strange sound from the cabinet and she is moving

towards it to see inside, such scenes bring lots of tension and curiosity to

know what will happen next. In the same way, if the camera dollied away

from the subject then the audience feel relaxed.

5) Truck: To Truck is to take shot of a moving subject by going parallel with

it. The specialty of this camera movement is that the subject which is being

captured will look or appear static but the background will be in

movement. It helps in creating a moment of observation and inspection.

6) Pedestal: It is the shot in which camera moves vertically in relation to the

subject. It can also be taken as ‘pedding’ the camera up and down.

Pedestals are often used in the studios as they are very flexible and provide

 
 
 85
 

great deal of smooth shots without any disturbance. It shouldn’t be

confused with camera Tilt because tilting means tilting of camera angle up

and down while pedding means the movement of whole camera not just

the angle.

7) Rack Focus: This is one of the most interesting camera movements as it

results in very impactful shots. This technique focuses the camera on one

object in a close- up shot and the background gets blurred then in the next

term it makes the subject out of focus and brings the background in the

highlight. This is all about change in the focal lengths and tripods are

necessary for such shots.

In the field of Animation too, there are certain techniques used by the makers to

visualize a story in a colourful way so that the targeted audience/implied audience i.e.

children get attracted towards it. These techniques are:

 
 
 86
 

1. Hand Drawn Animation: It is the oldest and most popular techniques used

in animation where each and every frame is drawn by hands. Walt Disney is

famous for creating hand-drawn cartoon characters.

2. Stop- Motion Animation: A type of animation which is created with the help

of physically manipulating real objects and photographing them for each

frame so that illusion of movement can be created. It is divided into:

• Clay Animation: In this type of animation, the characters and background are

made up of clay are used and set for different angles and positions for a single

shot. Using clay for Stop Motion animation is a herculean task as for a full

length movie (91mins) it is assumed that approx 64,900 stops used if parts are

shot with singles. Moreover, the maintenance of the delicate items is also

required.

• Sand animation: In sand animation, the images are created with help of sand

and the story advances with the change in the images.

• Cut-out Animation: The use of papers, fabrics, card boards in creating the

characters, background and things present in the movie is known as Cut-out

animation.

3. Computer Generated Images (CGI) : After working for decades the rapid

development in the field of computer programming leads to the invention of

CGI i.e. creation of hi-tech visual effects. The first stage of CGI is 2D

animation that advances with the growth in the technologies and reaches to

3D,5D and 7D animation. CGI is the digital descendant of Stop-Motion

animation of 3D models but it is more famous and contributed a lot towards

the success of Animated movies because it is controllable in comparison to

 
 
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the other physically based procedures like making miniatures for effect shots,

hiring extras for crowd shots, their maintenance etc while in Computer

animation only a single computer- graphic artist or visual effect specialist is

enough to produce the desired effect without using actors, set pieces or prop

items.

In a nutshell, it can be said that although there are numerous theories and

techniques to study a narrative and a film adapted from it but for this research work

only selected theories and techniques shall be applied in order to bring conciseness

and factual brevity in the thesis which aims at the scrutiny of selected novels and their

adapted movies from narratological and cinematographical perspective.